SCB 204 Lecture 9 Notes

Neural Integration in the CNS

I. Sensory Stimuli
A. Human function (interact) due to the ability to perceive stimuli
B. (they cause our sense to respond)
C. Things have to be assembled into a single mental picture
1. See the snake moving through leaves
2. Hear the snake moving
3. Perceive the color of the snake
4. Smell the musk
5. Feel the bite
D. These are all processed in different parts of the brain
1. Detect the stimulus by neurons in the PNS
2. Interpret the information in the CNS (Cortex)
E. Sensory input from different regions of brain pulled together (integrated) into a ​Single​ mental picture
1. A single ​perception​ (conscious awareness of sensation)
F. Two Types of Sensations
1. Special senses​: detected by ​special sense organs
a) Vision
b) Hearing
c) Equilibrium
d) Smell
e) Taste
2. General senses:​ ​detected by sensory neurons in
a) Skin (general somatic senses)
b) Muscles (general somatic senses)
c) Walls of organ (general visceral senses)
II. General Somatic Senses
A. Senses
1. Touch
2. Stretch
3. Joint position
4. Pain
5. Temperature
B. Neurons that detect them respond to mechanical deformation (temperature is the exception)
C. Discriminative touch
1. Discriminate between shapes/textures
2. Light touch
a) Whether coin in pocket is nickel or dime using fingers
D. Nondiscriminative touch
1. Lacks spatial resolution
2. Crude touch
a) During anesthesia, pressure can still be detected despite numbness
E. Two major ascending tracts in spinal cord
1. Posterior column/medial lemniscal system
a) Anterolateral system
F. Basic principles are the same
1. Detects initial stimulus in PNS
G. Synapses on second-order neuron
 1. Posterior horn spinal cord/brainstem
2. Relays stimulus to third-order neuron
H. Interneuron in the thalamus delivers impulse to cerebral cortex
III. Posterior Columns/Medial Lemniscal System
A. Ascends through posterior columns
B. Fasciculus gracilis
1. Lower limbs
C. Fasciculus cuneatus
1. Upper limbs, trunk and neck
D. Tactile information about ​discriminative touch​ and ​proprioception
E. First Order Neurons
1. First-order neurons enter posterior horn of spinal cord
2. First-order neurons travel in the posterior columns:
a) Fasciculus gracilis tract
b) Fasciculus cuneatus tract
F. Second Order Neurons
1. Synapse with second-order neurons in the medulla
a) Nucleus gracilis
b) Nucleus cuneatus
c) Axons decussate
2. Second-order neurons travel through medial lemniscus tract in pons and midbrain
3. Second-order neuron synapses on third-order neuron in the thalamus
G. Third Order Neurons
1. Third-order neurons synapse on interneurons in the primary somatosensory cortex
IV. Anterolateral System
A. Spinothalamic tract
V. Primary Somatosensory Cortex
A. Thalamus sends most incoming information to ​primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
1. Postcentral gyrus
VI. Somatotopy
A. Each body part represented by a ​specific​ region of S1
B. Different parts of body are ​unequally​ represented
C. More​ S1 space dedicated to ​hands and face
1. Manual dexterity
2. Facial expression
3. Speech
VII. Sensory Homunculus
A. Unequal representation of body parts in S1 exemplified by ​Sensory homunculus
VIII. Processing of Touch Stimuli
A. Thalamic nuclei relay information primarily to ​S1​ Conscious perception
1. From ​S1​, information reaches the somatosensory association cortex ​S2
2. Somatosensory association cortex (S2)​ ​sends the information to several destinations
a) Example: memory centers, learn to distinguish an apple from an orange based on texture
b) Eventually information reaches motor areas
IX. Perception of Pain
A. Nociception
1. Information from thalamus reaches S1, S2
a) Also sent to basal nuclei, hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex
b) Cortex has a great influence on how pain is perceived
c) Placebo effect: 30-75% in some studies
d) Reflects the ability of the brain to modulate the perception of pain
 B. Periaqueductal gray matter
1. Endorphins
X. Phantom Limb Pain
A. Illustrates the role of CNS in pain perception
1. Phantom pain
a) After amputation of limb, finger, breast
b) In the absence of sensory input, patients perceive body part still present and functional
B. Small percentage develop ​phantom pain​ in missing part (burning, tingling or severe pain)
C. Difficult to treat due to complex way CNS processes pain
1. Supports that S1 “map” exists independently of PNS
2. No stimuli from limb sent, but S1 perceives it as present
D. Over time, map generally rearranges itself so body is represented accurately
1. Phantom sensations ​decrease
XI. Vilayanur Ramachandran’s Work
A. Visual feedback
B. Alleviate phantom limb pain
C. Also used in stroke
D. Seven Sins of Memory
XII. Voluntary Movement
A. Planning and coordination of ​voluntary movement​ are carried out within CNS
B. Process involves motor areas of
1. Cerebral cortex
2. Basal nuclei
3. Cerebellum
4. Spinal cord
5. [All required]
a) Disrupting ​any​ of them will affect movement
C. Three types of neurons*********
1. Directly involved in ​muscle contraction
a) Upper motor neurons​***********
(1) Cell bodies
(2) Motor cortex (most)
(3) Brainstem (some)
(4) Axons
(5) White matter
b) Local interneurons (spinal cord/brainstem)​***********
c) Lower motor Neurons​***********
(1) Cell bodies: anterior horn of the gray matter
(2) Axons: skeletal muscles
XIII. Motor Pathways from Brain through Spinal Cord
A. Axons from cortical motor areas unite to form several ​white matter tracts
1. Largest
a) Corticospinal tracts​**************
(1) Cortex to spine
(2) Originates from cell bodies of upper motor neurons (motor/premotor cortex)
(3) Muscles below head and neck
(4) Neurons on right side of brain
(a) Left side of body
(b) Damage on specific part of brain = loss of function on other side of body
(5) Upper motor neuron synapses on the interneurons of the anterior horn
(a) Interneuron synapses on lower motor neuron
 (6) >50% terminate at cervical levels
(a) Upper limbs
(7) Shows the importance of precise control of arm and hand movement
XIV. Corticospinal tract Pathway**************
A. 10-15% do not decussate
1. Anterior funiculi
2. Right and left anterior corticospinal tracts fine control of the limbs
XV. Corticonuclear tracts​***************
A. Originate from cell bodies of upper motor neurons
B. Travel with corticospinal tracts to brainstem
1. But do not enter the spinal cord
2. Synapse on interneurons that communicate with ​cranial nerve nuclei
3. Lower motor neurons innervate muscles of head and neck
C. Fibers do ​not​ decussate
D. Most cranial nerve nuclei communicate with upper motor neurons from ​both​ cerebral hemispheres
E. Damage to upper motor neurons on one side of cerebrum
1. Does not lead to noticeable deficits from many cranial nerves
XVI. Role of brain in Voluntary Movement
A. Simple movements require simultaneous firing of ​countless neurons​ as part of a selected group of actions
1. Motor program
a) For opening a door
(1) Recognize door
(2) Which muscles are needed
(3) How much force is needed
(4) How to maintain balance when opening
2. Roles​**************
a) Neurons in motor association areas
b) Upper motor neurons
(1) Leads to lower motor neurons
(2) Most UMN
(a) Primary motor cortex
(i) Organized somatotopically
(ii) Some parts much more
(a) Cortical area devoted to them
(b) Premotor cortex
(c) Motor association areas
c) Input from basal nuclei, cerebellum, spinal cord
d) Input from prefrontal cortex
e) Input from sensory areas
f) Lower motor neurons in PNS to complete task
g) Map of upper motor neurons in primary motor cortex
(1) Motor homunculus​*************
(2) Resembles a sensory map and homunculus
h) Body regions with ​disproportionately more cortical area ​devoted to them
(1) Lips
(2) Tongue
(3) Hands
(4) Importance of ​vocalization​ and ​manual dexterity ​to human survival
i) Upper motor neurons do ​not​ act alone when controlling lower motor neurons
j) Smooth, fluid motion requires input from
(1) Basal nuclei: Three collections of cell bodies
 (a) Caudate nucleus
(b) Putamen
(c) Globus pallidus
(d) Substantia nigra (midbrain)
(2) Cerebellum
k) Basal nuclei
(1) Upper motor neurons
(a) Produce voluntary movement
(b) Inhibit involuntary movement
(2) Damage to ​any​ component of basal nuclei system
(a) Movement disorders
(i) Inability to initiate​ voluntary movement​************
(a) Simple activities (walking or talking) become difficult
(ii) Inability to inhibit​ involuntary movement​***********
(a) Mild → Severe
(b) Throat clearing, blinking → Parkinson’s disease
XVII. Role of the Cerebellum
A. Cerebellum integrates information and determines ​THE MOTOR ERROR
1. Which is the difference between intended and actual movement
B. Also influences other parts of brain to minimize this error​************
1. Motor learning
C. More an action is performed, more corrections are added and more fluid it becomes
D. 3 Sources of input
1. Motor cortex
a) Intended movement
2. Vestibular nuclei in pons
a) Actual movement
3. Spinal Cord
a) Actual movement
XVIII. Role of Brain in Voluntary Movement (continued)
A. Cerebellum modifies activity of upper motor neurons
B. Cerebellum does ​not​ have direct connections with lower motor neurons
C. Damage to cerebellum
1. Fluid, well-coordinated movements nearly impossible
a) Movements become ​jerky ​and ​inaccurate
(1) Cerebellar ataxia
(a) Staggering gait
(b) Difficulty alternating motions
(c) underreaching /overreaching for an object
(d) Intention tremor

General versus special senses

Somatosensory areas
 Somatotopy
Sensory homunculus
Phantom limb pain

Upper motor neurons, interneurons, lower motor neurons

Corticospinal and corticonuclear tracts

Motor homunculus

Initiate voluntary movement

Inhibit involuntary movement

What is motor learning?