Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Indigenous Students and Diverse Backgrounds
Introduction
Many beginning teachers find that catering for the particular characteristics and
learning needs of students from diverse backgrounds, including Indigenous students
(that is, those from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds), to be a real
challenge. An understanding of these students’ contexts and experience of school is
critical to providing effective teaching and achieving positive educational outcomes
for these students. This essay will focus mainly on the learning experiences of
Indigenous students, making links with key development and learning theories,
however students from other diverse backgrounds are also touched upon.
As Duchesne & McMaugh (2013) note, it is critical to acknowledge that Indigenous
communities in Australia are not a homogenous group and there exist significant
differences in cultural, social and economic contexts. However, there is some
commonality in the expression of Indigenous Australian culture, the disadvantage
experienced by Indigenous communities and consequently the educational
experiences and outcomes of Indigenous students.
Unfortunately, research indicates that on average, Indigenous students experience
poorer educational outcomes that their non-Indigenous peers. For example, the
Australian Government’s Closing the Gap report documents the disparity in Year 12
attainment rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian school
students (Closing the Gap, 2017). Over the period of 2014-15, 61.5 per cent of
Indigenous students completed Year 12, compared with 86.4 per cent of non-
Indigenous students. Although these statistics depict only part of a picture, they do
point to a stark difference in educational outcomes linked to cultural difference.
Relevant Theories of Learning and Development
This issue can be understood through the lens of Bronfrenbrenner’s Bioecological
Systems Theory which describes the ways in which individuals are impacted by
various social and cultural systems as they interact with, influence and contribute
towards human development (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013). Bronfrenbrenner’s
model notes five systems impacting upon an individual’s development; microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem.
Bioecological systems theory is underpinned by the assumption that students are
significantly impacted by their contexts, including their immediate and extended
family, cultural groups, economic class and wider social environment (Duchesne &
McMaugh, 2013). This closely relates to the experiences of Indigenous students. For
example, many Indigenous students are part of families “whose traditions are
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
handed down orally, and where there may be relatively little parent-child reading in
the home.” (Rose, 2015) Thus the impact of Indigenous students’ microsystem
(family and home environment) closely relates to their development of literacy skills,
with literacy rates of Indigenous students consistently found to be lower than their
non-Indigenous peers (Closing the Gap, 2017).
Many other aspects of Indigenous students’ cultural contexts similarly impact upon
their learning and development. For example, Duchesne & McMaugh (2013) note
that within Indigenous cultures, children are given a far greater amount of
independence, and may therefore respond better to a more egalitarian teaching
style whereby students and teachers are treated as equals. This may also mean
parents are less inclined to enforce school attendance upon their children, one
possible reason (among many) for lower levels of school attendance among
Indigenous students.
Teachers should also take into consideration the impact of the Stolen Generation
upon students from Indigenous communities. This major chapter of Australian
history is a significant part Indigenous students’ chronosystem as discussed in
Bioecological Systems Theory, whereby sociohistorical events influence an
individual’s development. Indigenous students may have family members who were
part of the Stolen Generation themselves and thus grow up in families dealing with
“intergenerational trauma” (Korff, 2017), but even those without direct links may
experience its impact on Indigenous cultural identity and shared history.
Social-Cognitive Theories of development can also be used to understand how
teachers can best cater for the needs of students from diverse backgrounds,
particularly Indigenous students. Social-cognitive theories assert that learning is not
merely an individual, cognitive process, but is impacted by and reliant upon positive
relationships between students, teachers and peers (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Ockenden (2014) suggests that poor educational outcomes of Indigenous students
can be linked to poor teacher-student relationships, leading to student
disengagement, reduced motivation for learning, and lower attendance. These poor
relationships may result from teachers holding negative perceptions of Indigenous
students, poor communication between home and school and a lack of
understanding by teachers of students’ cultural backgrounds (Partington, 2006).
Classroom Implications
There are many strategies teachers can employ to address the needs of Indigenous
students and those from other cultural backgrounds, drawing on both Bioecological
Systems and Social-Cultural theories of learning.
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Taking into account the various social and cultural contexts as described by
Bronfrenbrenner allows teachers to gain a better understanding of students’ needs
and strengths, allowing them to contextualise learning and bridge the divide
between home culture and school (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
The ‘8-ways’ pedagogical framework provides examples of how this may be done,
incorporating Indigenous culture and ways of learning through techniques such as
using Indigenous symbols and images, making links to land and emphasising sharing
of stories (8ways, 2017).
Understanding values of students’ culture enables teachers to embrace cultural
differences rather than have to battle against them. Teachers can then build their
lessons around these values and strengths. For example, Indigenous and many other
non-Western cultures place a high value on communality, and as such teachers may
focus on collaborative learning strategies rather than motivating students through
competition (Ladson-Billings, 1995 in Woodfolk, 2004).
Teachers should also focus on building strong relationships with students from
diverse cultural backgrounds, as well as a strong sense of school and class
community. This may include getting to know students outside of the classroom,
connecting with families, and setting class goals to be achieved as a group. This
emphasis on social connections, closely linked with social-cognitive theory, can
encourage group accountability and raise student motivation.
Teaching strategies such as providing scaffolding and modelling, and facilitating
cognitive apprenticeships by arranging local Indigenous speakers to visit and connect
with students, similarly raises students’ confidence in their own learning abilities.
Conclusion
All students are impacted by the contexts in which they develop. Key to recognising
and addressing particular challenges and needs of students is an understanding of
their cultural background and the ways in which this impacts upon their learning.
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Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
References
Closing the Gap. (2017). Education | Closing the Gap. Retrieved 1 May 2017, from
[Link]
Duchesne, D., & McMaugh, D. (2013). Educational Psychology for Learning and
Teaching (4th ed., Ch 10). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia.
Korff, J. (2017). Stolen Generations—effects and consequences. Creative Spirits.
Retrieved 20 April 2017, from
[Link]
effects-and-consequences
Ockenden, L. (2017). Positive learning environments for Indigenous children and
young people. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Retrieved from
[Link]
Partington, Gary. (2006). Building relationships with Indigenous students.
Department of education and training, western Australia. Retrieved from
[Link]
service/download/asset/?asset_id=11925132
Rose, D. (2015). Teaching reading and writing with Aboriginal children. In N.
Harrison, Teaching and Learning in Aboriginal Education (1st ed.). Sydney: Oxford
University Press.
Woodfolk, A. (2004). Educational Psychology (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education,
Inc.
8ways - 8 Aboriginal Ways of Learning. (2017). [Link]. Retrieved 1
May 2017, from [Link]
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Students displaying lack of motivation to learn
Introduction
Student motivation, and particularly cases in which students display a lack of
motivation, is a key issue that all pre-teachers must understand in order to
develop effective strategies to enhance engagement in learning and educational
outcomes for all students.
Although motivation can be defined in a number of ways according to various
theoretical approaches, Middle and Perks (2016) provide a succinct definition of
motivation as “the energy that can lead to activity or engagement”. Motivation
refers to a student’s internal process or state that “energises, directs and
maintains behaviour” (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Motivation may be intrinsic, arising from a student’s internal sources; their own
desire to explore, learn and be challenged. Alternatively motivation may be
extrinsic, based on external sources of feedback such as words of praise or
tangible rewards (Woodfolk, 2004).
Whilst there are students who may regularly show high levels of motivation in
learning, others present as unmotivated and unwilling to engage in learning.
Students may feel as though they are ‘hopeless’ in a particular subject area, that
there is no use in trying, or that the content being learnt has little or no relevance
to their lives.
Relevant Theories of Learning and Development
From a Behaviourist perspective, motivation is understood extrinsically,
relating exclusively to the external incentives, rewards and feedback a student
receives for particular behaviour (Woodfolk, 2004 pp. 352). High levels of
motivation are therefore seen as a result of the effective reinforcement of
desired behaviour, while low motivation results from a lack of positive
conditioning (Schunk, 2014).
The Behaviourist Theory of motivation has received substantial criticism for
addressing only the extrinsic nature of motivation and effectively discounting
any intrinsic causes. Research has also suggested that while providing students
with extrinsic rewards may increase initial motivation, this can in fact have a
detrimental effect on their intrinsic motivation and lose any impact once the
reward is removed (Kamil, et al., 2008).
Motivation can also be viewed through a Social-Cognitive lens of human
development theory. In particular, the concept of self-efficacy, a student’s belief
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
about their personal competence in a certain area, is closely linked to their
intrinsic motivation (Middleton & Perks, 2016).
If a student feels as though they are not strong in a subject area or particular skill
set, they will define themselves as ‘hopeless’, believing they are incapable of
success and thus lose any motivation to engage in learning (Woodfolk, 2004).
This may also lead to anxiety and stress within the classroom, lowering their
ability to take in new information and thus further hampering their learning.
Conversely, if a student has high self-efficacy, believing they are capable and
experiencing success in learning, they will be much more receptive to new
information and keen to build on their knowledge and skills (Middleton & Perks,
2016).
Motivation and self-efficacy can also be closely linked with Vygotsky’s Zone of
Proximal Development; the distance between what is already known by students
and what can be achieved with support (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013). If students
are stretched too far and unable to experience any learning success, their self-
efficacy will be lowered and motivation decreased. Thus learning occurring
within the Zone of Proximal Development, which challenges them to think in
new ways and take in new information but does so with support and operates
within their comfort level, will lead to higher self-efficacy, higher motivation and
better learning outcomes (Woodfolk, 2004).
Classroom Implications
There are many ways in which student motivation can be increased, according to
the above behaviourist and socio-cognitive theories.
A behaviourist approach towards increasing students’ motivation would include
providing positive feedback to students when they display competence in a
particular area. This positive reinforcement may be in the form of verbal or
tangible rewards, but must always be closely linked with the specific skill
displayed.
Examples of positive reinforcement include verbal praise for mastering a specific
task, for example, “the way you answered this question shows you are thinking
critically about sources and building your understanding of key historical concepts,
well done!” Tangible rewards may include stickers, merit awards or prizes
relevant to the desired behaviour. However, as noted above, extrinsic awards can
have the effect of lowering intrinsic motivation and therefore must be used
thoughtfully according to each student’s situation.
Building student motivation through a social-cognitive approach aims to raise
self-efficacy and foster students’ intrinsic sources of confidence and curiosity.
Setting realistic, short-term goals for students and thus enabling to experience
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
success builds their self-efficacy; students begin to see that they are capable of
learning, they will be less concerned about failure and feel safe to be challenged
in their understanding (Kamil, et al., 2008).
Similarly, providing scaffolding gives students ‘stepping stones’ to complete
tasks, enabling them to display mastery of a particular skill or learning area,
further building their self-efficacy.
Another strategy for building self-efficacy is through peer demonstration and
teaching (Woodfolk, 2004). If students can see that a task is achievable by their
peers, they are more likely to consider it within their own ability as well.
Finally, following a humanistic approach, teachers can create a positive learning
environment that promotes students’ autonomy in learning, building their
confidence and curiosity and thus increasing intrinsic motivation to learn. This
may include teachers explicitly stating that their classroom is one in which
mistakes are treated as learning opportunities, incorporate discovery learning
and allow students to complete tasks according to their learning specific styles
(NSW Centre for Effective Reading, 2017). As students’ interest in content is
piqued, their intrinsic motivation and thus engagement in content will be
boosted.
Other teaching strategies such as making use of collaborative learning and
effective ICT tools can also build students’ connections with peers and foster a
sense of community within the classroom, building group accountability and
interdependence which may also raise student levels of motivation in learning
(Schunk, 2014).
Conclusion
Increasing motivation in students who display very little inclination to engage in
learning can be a difficult challenge for teachers. However, understanding the
underlying causes of low motivation, such as low self-efficacy and lack of positive
reinforcement, can assist teachers as they seek to build students’ engagement
and educational outcomes.
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Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
References
Duchesne, D., & McMaugh, D. (2013). Educational Psychology for Learning and
Teaching (4th ed., Ch 10). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia.
Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., and Torgesen, J. (2008).
Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A
Practice Guide. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and
Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of
Education. Retrieved from [Link]
Middleton, M., & Perks, K. (2016). Motivation to learn (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks,
California: Corwin.
NSW Centre for Effective Reading. (2017). Motivation and Engagement –
Background Information. NSW Government. Retrieved from
[Link]
pdf
Woodfolk, A. (2004). Educational Psychology (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Students from low SES backgrounds
Introduction
In New South Wales alone, 395,000 students across more than 2,185 public schools
are currently identified as coming from “low socio-economic backgrounds” (NSW
Education, 2017). It is therefore critical for pre-service teachers to understand the
learning challenges that may be faced by these students and develop strategies for
engaging students in meaningful learning.
It has been well documented that students from low socio-economic status (SES)
backgrounds generally experience lower levels of educational outcomes than
students from high SES families (Woodfolk, 2004, pp. 158), though as with any
generalisation there will always be outliers from this trend. The reasons for this
disparity are manifold, including availability of resources, health factors, parental
support, and expectations from teachers, peers and students themselves.
The challenges faced by low SES students and subsequent impacts upon learning can
be understood through various theoretical lenses. This essay will focus on both
Humanist and Bioecological Systems Theories of development and the teaching
implications and strategies following from each.
Relevant Theories of Learning and Development
Humanist Theory of development argues that learning is deeply integrated within
the holistic development of a student, rather than being an isolating the process
distinct from other aspects of development and wellbeing (Duchesne & McMaugh,
2013). Within this theory, the realisation of each level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs leads to deeper and more effective student learning. These needs are
categorised as: physoiological, safety, belonging, esteem and self-actualisation
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Students within low SES families and communities may struggle to meet the most
basic of human needs: physiological wellbeing. These students may have limited
access to sufficient nutrition and therefore cannot engage in learning to their fullest
potential (Woodfolk, 2004). Poor or inadequate nutrition has a significant impact
upon cognitive development, including limited brain and physical growth, protection
against disease, levels of motivation and ability to focus attention Likewise, low SES
students may lack access to adequate healthcare, leading to physiological limitations
or extended periods away from school due to illness (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Feeling safe is another basic need outlined by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The
Australian Bureau of Statistics notes that although domestic violence occurs at all
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
levels of socioeconomic status, “there is a correlation between low SES households
and increased risk of interpersonal violence” (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013).
Therefore low SES students may also experience anxiety due to feeling unsafe at
home or school, again limiting their learning and development potential (Woodfolk,
2004).
Self-esteem is another critical aspect of Humanist Theory and fulfilling this need an
important part of the development process. Low SES students may experience low
self-esteem and self-efficacy, identifying themselves as low-achieving or part of a
group incapable of high educational outcomes Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013. As
Woodfolk (2014) notes, this may even be reinforced by teachers by not calling on
them in the classroom for fear of causing embarrassment or unwanted attention.
Bronfrenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory provides another useful
perspective in understanding challenges faced by low SES students throughout
learning. Ecological Systems Theory explores the ways in which different levels of
environmental contexts interact with and impact upon learning and development
(Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
The very categorisation of students by socioeconomic status links closely with their
parents’ level or type of employment, an element of their exosystem. Parents may
work multiple jobs, meaning they are unable to assist students with homework, and
students in single-parent households may have to care for younger siblings, reducing
the time they are able to dedicate to study (Woodfolk, 2004).
Microsystems of low SES students also play a critical role in their process of learning,
often in detrimental ways. Families identified as low SES are, by definition, lacking in
financial resources and therefore have a reduced ability to provide resources to
assist student learning. For example, students from families with a low level of
income may not have access to a home computer, reducing their ability to engage
with online learning, build ICT skills outside of school and explore the Internet for
research tasks. Similarly, families may not be able to afford high quality preschool
education during students’ early developmental years.
Woodfolk (2014) suggests that students from low SES communities can be impacted
by their mesosystem by creating or becoming part of ‘resistance cultures’; social
networks in which doing well in school is looked down upon and seen as ‘selling out’.
In order to maintain their identity and status within the group, students learn to
reject behaviours that would make them successful learners, such as studying,
building relationships with teachers and attending school regularly.
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Classroom Implications
The above theories of learning and analyses of the challenges faced by low SES
students point a range of classroom implications and strategies to boost student
engagement in learning.
According to Humanistic Theory, the first step to facilitate effective learning for low
SES students is to ensure their basic needs are met. Physical needs may be
addressed by establishing a breakfast program for students to ensure they begin the
day with a nutritious meal. In this case it would also be important to ensure the meal
is open to all students, reducing the potential for stigmatisation of students in
particular need.
The need for safety may be addressed by ensuring students have access to a
qualified school counsellor, that a robust, school-wide anti-bullying policy is in place
and the school provides safe spaces for students to utilise after school hours.
Likewise students’ sense of belonging can be built by creating a strong sense of
community within the school and classroom, where expectations are established,
successes celebrated and collaboration fostered.
Strategies for building student self-esteem and self-efficacy may include setting
realistic and achievable goals, providing scaffolding for difficult tasks and providing
positive reinforcement (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Classroom implications of Bioeological Systems Theory involve teachers building a
clear understanding of a students’ context, getting to know students individually and
how different contexts may impact upon their learning (Schunk, 2014). For example,
a teacher may find out that a student works every evening after school and adapt
homework tasks to be completed in class or open the classroom for morning work.
Conclusion
Students from low SES backgrounds are by no means fated to low educational
outcomes. However, these students do face certain challenges as a result of their
socioeconomic circumstances. Humanist and Bioeclogical Systems Theories can
assist teachers in understanding these challenges and create classrooms in which
students’ needs are met at a holistic level and personal circumstances taken into
account.
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References
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). 4529.0 - Defining the Data Challenge for
Family, Domestic and Sexual Violence, 2013. [Link]. Retrieved 4 May 2017,
from
[Link]
2013
Duchesne, D., & McMaugh, D. (2013). Educational Psychology for Learning and
Teaching (4th ed., Ch 10). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia.
NSW Department of Education and Training (2017). Socio-economic
background. [Link]. Retrieved 3 May 2017, from
[Link]
local-decisions/reform-agenda/resource-allocation-model/socio-economic-
background
Schunk, D. (2014). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective (6th ed.). Essex:
Pearson Education Ltd.
Woodfolk, A. (2004). Educational Psychology (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson
Education, Inc.
