FABRICATION OF ACRYLIC SHEET BENDING MACHINE
SYNOPSIS:
The paper deals with manufacturing or bending of acrylic sheet by using
power operated sheet bending machine. Especially discussion made the
productivity analysis of manually or power operated sheet bending machine.
Considering manual operation is replaced by power operated devices .It also gives
information about limitation of manually operated sheet bending machine and
power operated sheet bending machine.
Fixing screw is connected in to the scale and the screw is connected into the
adjustable screw and pneumatic cylinder. The solenoid valve is connected with the
pneumatic cylinder and the compressor is connected to the solenoid valve. When
the compressor turns ON then the solenoid valve is activated when the solenoid
received a pressurized air and then the pneumatic cylinder moves either or forward
that helps to bend the acrylic sheet. 90 degree to rotate the sheet was bended. In
this project the angular was important. The angle is denoted into the sheet.
This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of
manual effort by mechanical power in all degree of automation. The operation
remains an essential part of the system although with changing demands on
physical input as the degree of mechanization is increased.
Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.
Full automation
Semi automation
In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is
required whereas in full automation human participation of very negligible.
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1. PRESS OPERATIONS
SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESSES
The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of the
rolling process. Typically, sheets of metal are sold as flat, rectangular sheets of
standard size. If the sheets are thin and very long, they may be in the form of rolls.
Therefore the first step in any sheet metal process is to cut the correct shape and
sized ‘blank’ from larger sheet.Sheet metal processing is an important process for
many HK industries, which are one of the largest manufacturers of products such
as home appliances (fridge, washer, dryer, vacuum cleaners etc.), electronics
(DVD- and CD-players, stereos, radios, amplifiers etc.), toys and PC’s. Most of
these products have metal casings that are made by cutting and bending sheet
metal. We look at some the basic sheet metal cutting and forming processes.
The sheet metal operations done on a press may be grouped into two
categories, cutting operations and forming operations. In cutting operations, the
workpiece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength. The stresses caused in the metal
by the applied forces will be shearing stresses. In forming operations the stresses
are below the ultimate strength of the metal. In this operation, there is no cutting of
the metal but only the contour of the work piece is changed to get the desired
product. The cutting operations include: blanking, punching, notching, perforating,
trimming, shaving, slitting and lancing etc. the stresses induced in the metal during
bending and drawing operations are tensile and compressive and during the
squeezing operation these are compressive.
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Blanking: - blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape from sheet metal. The
article punched out is called the blank and is the required product of the operation.
The hole and metal left behind is discarded as waste.
Punching [Piercing]: - it is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are
made in sheet metal. Punching is similar to blanking except that in punching, the
hole is the desired produce, the material punched out to from the hole being waste.
Bending: The bending operation is the act of bending blanks at a predetermined
angle. An example would be an "L" bracket which is a straight piece of metal bent
at a 90° angle. The main difference between a forming operation and a bending
operation is the bending operation creates a straight line bend (such as a corner in a
box) as where a form operation may create a curved bend (such as the bottom of a
drink can).
Types of dies:
The dies may be classified according to the type of press operation and
according to the method of operation.
Type of press operation:
According to this criterion, the dies may classify as; cutting dies and
forming dies.
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Cutting dies: These dies are used to cut the metal. They utilize the cutting or
shearing action. The common cutting dies are:
A] Blanking dies
B] Piercing dies
C] Perforating dues
D] Notching dies
E] Trimming dies
F] Shaving dies
G] and nibbling dies
Forming dies: These dies change the appearance of the blank without removing
any stock. These dies include:
A] Bending dies
B] Drawing dies
C] Squeezing dies
Bending Die
In order to bend metals to various forms, dies are made for use in punching
presses, drop hammers, and various other machines. A simple form of bending die
is shown in Fig. 352. The shape of the upper and lower parts of the die is such that
when the upper part is brought down on the blank B (shown by the dotted lines)
that will be bent to the required shape. The shoulder A forms a locating stop,
against which the blank rests before bending.
Bending Die For Right Angles
Under certain conditions a bending die which has a horizontal surface for the work
to rest on and a vertical-sided punch does not work in a satisfactory manner-this is
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especially true when the stock is stiff. In that case, a die of the design shown in Fig.
353 works well, as the angle may be made other than 90 degrees to allow for the
spring of the metal.
This design of die may be used for angles other than right angles. It is especially
satisfactory for bending springs and other pieces made from a stiff stock that is
liable to spring back somewhat after bending, as the lower block may be made with
an angle greater than 90 degrees to allow for this factor.
Bending Die for Light Work
For comparatively light work, the form of bending die shown in Fig. 354 is very
satisfactory, and may be used for a variety of shapes and angles. The die block a is
drilled and reamed to receive the shouldered portion b. The rectangular groove, to
receive the pad, is milled or planed, and the pad is fitted and forced in. The proper
angle or shape is then milled in the block a and pad b. The surfaces are carefully
finished and the pad forced out and drawfiled until it slides nicely in the groove.
The spring c forces the pad against the washer d. Gage plates are provided to locate
accurately the pieces to be bent.
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Simple Bending Die.
Bending Die for Right Angles.
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Fig. 355 shows a die, the upper part of which has the portion a so constructed that
it engages the stock first and forces it down into the impression in the lower
portion. The resistance of the coil spring is then overcome, and a is forced up into
the opening provided for it. The arms cc bend the ends of the piece. After bending,
the article is of the form shown at the above figure.
Compound Bending Die
In Fig. 356 is shown a form of die used in bending bow spring and looped wire for
armature connections or other looped wire-work. The work is placed in the die, and
the punch, as it descends, bends the wire to the shape of the die. The spring just
back of the punch is compressed; this allows the punch holder to descend and force
the side benders BB toward the punch by means of the wedge pins AA, and thus
forms the piece into a circle. Fig. 357 shows the punch when down. It is obvious
that it is necessary to make the shape of the punch and die different. The lower die
must have its bending surface a curve of a radius equal to the radius of the punch
plus the thickness of the material.In this project we have been used hydraulic
arrangement. The hydraulic system described elaborately.
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2. ANALYSIS OF BENDING
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3. FLUID POWER
Fluid power technology is a means to convert, transmit, convert and apply fluid
energy to perform useful work. Since a fluid can be either a liquid or a gas, fluid
power in general includes and pneumatics and hydraulics. Oil hydraulics employs
pressurized liquid and pneumatics employs compressed air.
GENERAL APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER
Agriculture : Farm equipment
Construction : Earth moving equipment, concrete mixing equipment
Ships : Controllable pitch propellers
Aviation : Hydraulic retractable landing wheels
Defense : Missile launches system
Transportation : Hydraulic elevators
Fabrication : Hydraulic presses for metal forming pneumatic hand
tools, Injection moulding machine Fabrication
Material handling: Hydraulic jacks’ hydraulic ram, conveyor system,
pneumatically operated packing warping and bottling equipments
Automation : Hydraulically operated machine tools, robots’, pneumatically
Operated indexing holding gripping and feeding devices.
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4. BASIC PRINCIPLES&INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS AND
PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose
applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other
applications.
The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by
pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are
used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty
and heavy duty but according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub
divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on
single acting cylinder we shall see deep about it.
In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston
is affected by a built–in spring or by application of an external force the spring is
designed to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.
Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one place to
another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed (or) held by
applying a great force.
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Such activities are performed by using prime movers.
The prime movers are operated by
(i) electrical system
(ii) Hydraulic system
(iii) Pneumatic system.
In electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors. The linear
motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of screw jack
(or) Rack and pinion.
In ‘Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy from
one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.
In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to transfer
energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic means wind.
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5. CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSOR
5.1 INTRODUCTION OF THE COMPRESSOR
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume.
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Compressors are similar to pumps, both increase the pressure on a fluid and both
can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor
also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the
main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport
5.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Centrifugal compressors
Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors
Axial-flow compressors
Reciprocating compressors
Rotary screw compressors
Rotary vane compressors
Scroll compressors
The main types of gas compressors are
5.3 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing
to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A
diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy.
They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil
refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Their application can be from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of
horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output
pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
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Many large snow-making operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor.
They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and
turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as
the final compression stage of medium sized gas turbines.
5.4 MIXED FLOW COMPRESSOR
Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but
have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser
is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor
has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.
Axial-flow compressors
Main article: Axial-flow compressor
5.5 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-
like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where
there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.
The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one
stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid.
The stationary airfoils, also known as a stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect the
flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage.
Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area of
the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial
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Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable
geometry is normally used to improve operation.Axial compressors can have high
efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their design conditions. However, they are
relatively expensive, requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and
high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large
gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within certain chemical
plants.
5.6 RECIPROCATING COMPRSSOR
A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can operate with two,
four or six cylinders.
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either
stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric
motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to
30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are
typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000
hp (750 kW) are still commonly found in large industrial and petroleum
applications. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high
pressure (>6000 psi or 41.4 MPa).
In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting
compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are
typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units.[6] Another
type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which uses pistons
which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft.
5.7 ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSOR
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Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical
screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous
operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or
portable. Their application can be from 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200
horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or
8.3 MPa).
5.8 ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR
Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in
radial slots in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing which can
be circular or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of
the slots keeping contact with the outer wall of the housing.
Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane
compressors are, with piston compressors one of the oldest of compressor
technologies.With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a
compressor or a vacuum pump. They can be either stationary or portable, can be
single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion
engines.
Dry vane machines are used at relatively low pressures (e.g., 2 bar) for bulk
material movement whilst oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric
efficiency to achieve pressures up to about 13 bar in a single stage. A rotary vane
compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in
operation than the equivalent piston compressor.
5.9 SCROLL COMPRESSOR
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Mechanism of a scroll pump
A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two
interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases.
The vane geometry may be involutes, Archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They
operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors in the
lower volume range Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits
eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing
pockets of fluid or gas between the scrolls.
This type of compressor was used as the supercharger on Volkswagen G60 and
G40 engines in the early 1990's.
6. INTRODUCTION OF PEUMATIC CYLINDER
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Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear
mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose
applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other
applications.
The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by
pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are
used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty
and heavy duty but according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub
divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on
single acting cylinder we shall see deep about it.
In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston
is affected by a built–in spring or by application of an external force the spring is
designed to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.
7. PNEUMATIC COMPONENTS
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SELECTION OF PNEUMATICS
Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by
mechanical power. Pneumatics is an attractive medium for low cost mechanization
particularly for sequential or repetitive operation. Many factories and plants
already have a compressed air system, which is capable of providing both the
power or energy requirements and the control system (although equally pneumatic
control system may be economic and can be advantageously applied to other forms
of power).
The main advantages of an all- pneumatic system are usually economy and
simplicity, the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have out
standing advantages in terms of safety.
The single acting pneumatic cylinder consists of the following components
to the requirements of complete operation of the machine.
piston
cylinder
Ram
End plate
Return spring
Nipple
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
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Cylinder
An air cylinder is an operating device in which the state input energy
of compressed air i.e., pneumatic power is converted into mechanical output power
by reducing the pressure of air to that of atmosphere
Ram
It is an output device when the pressure inside the cylinder exceeds
the limit the ram actuates. This actuation is used for the operation.
End plate
End plates are connected to both the ends of the cylinder. Pressure acts
mainly on both the end plates. It is made up of ms plate.
Nipple
Air from the compressor is passed through the nipple in to the cylinder
it is made up of mild steel
Stud and nut
It is used to connect two plates or some members of the setup. Here
stud and nut are used to connect the plates
Spring
Open coil spring is used in this system.
Piston
It is the main component which is placed inside the cylinder. It is used
to force the ram in and out by the action of compressed air.
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CYLINDER:
The cylinder is a single acting cylinder one, which means that the air
pressure operates alternatively (forward and backward). The air from the
compressor is passed through the regulator which control the pressure to
required amount by adjusting its knob. A pressure gauge is attached to the
regulator for showing the line pressure.
Then the compressed air is passed though the directional control valve for
supplying the air alternatively to either sides of the cylinder. Two hoses take the
output of the directional control valve and they are attached to two ends of the
cylinder by means of connectors. One of the output from the directional control
valve is taken to the flow control valve from taken to the cylinder.
Pneumatic cylinder
An air cylinder is an operative device in which the state input energy of
compressed air i.e. pneumatic power is converted in to mechanical output power,
by reducing the pressure of the air to that of the atmosphere.
WORKING OF 5/2 SINGLE ACTING SOLENOID (OR) CUT OFF VALVE:
Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic
machinery as well and pneumatic machinery. They allow fluid flow into different
paths from one or more sources. They usually consist of a spool inside a cylinder
which is mechanically or electrically controlled. The movement of the spool
restricts or permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow. Nomenclature:- The
spool (sliding type) consists of lands and grooves.The lands block oil flow through
the valve body. The grooves allow oil or gas to flow around the spool and through
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the valve body. There are two fundamental positions of directional control valve
namely normal positionwhere valve returns on removal of actuating force and
other is working position which is position of a valve when actuating force is
applied. There is another class of valves with 3 or more position that can be spring
centered with 2 working position and a normal position.
Classification:- Directional control valves can be classified according to-
• number of ports
• number of positions
• actuating methods
• Type of spool.
Example: A 5/2 directional control valve would have five ports and two spool
positions.
Number of Ports:-
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According to total number of entries or exits connected to the valve through which
fluid can enter the valve or leave the valve there are types like two
way,threeway,four way valves.
Number of Positions:-
Including the normal and working positions which a valve spool can take there are
types like two position, three position and proportional valves.
Manually Operated:-
Manually operated valves work with simple levers or paddles where the operator
applies force to operate the valve. Spring force is sometimes used to recover the
position of valve. Some manual valves utilize either a lever or an external
pneumatic or hydraulic signal to return the spool.
Mechanically Operated:-
Mechanically operated valves apply forces by using cams, wheels, rollers, etc.,
hence these valves are subjected to wear.
Hydraulically Operated:-
A hydraulically operated DCV works at much higher pressures than its pneumatic
equivalent. They must therefore be far more robust in nature so are precision
machined from higher quality and strength materials.
TYPES OF CYLINDERS
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1. SINGLE ACTING
Air pushes the piston in one direction and the piston is returned by means of an
external means.
2. DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
The force exerted by the compression spring moves the piston in both the
direction.
3. CUSHION END CYLINDER
Cushion is used in the end position to prevent sudden damaging impacts.
4. TANDEM CYLINDER
Here two cylinders are arranged in series so that the force obtained from the
cylinder is almost double.
5. DUAL LINER CYLINDER (3-POSITION)
Similar to the tandem cylinder, but the piston and the rod assemblies of a dual
actuator are not fastened together like tandem cylinder.
6. DOUBLE -ROD CYLINDER (THROUGH ROD CYLINDRE)
It has piston rod extending from both the ends of the cylinders. It produces
equal force and speed on both sides of the cylinder.
7. TELESCOPIC CYLINDER
It is a two stage double acting telescopic cylinder.
8. TURN CYLINDER (ROTARY CYLINDER)
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It has a piston rod having rack and pinion arrangement in such a manner that
liner movement of the piston rod ,the worm wheel rotates at 45°,90°,180°.
8. CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF PNEUMATIC
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CONSTRUCTION
Generally a single acting cylinder mainly consists of
following parts such as end plate, piston, cylinder, return spring, ram and nipple.
The spring is placed inside the cylinder and it covers the ram. The piston is placed
upon the spring. The end plates are fitted on both sides of the cylinder by four
cover screws or tie rods. Ram is fixed to the piston and it moves along the piston.
The nipple is found outside the cylinder.
WORKING
In pneumatic cylinder air is being compressed by the compressor and it is fed
into the cylinder through the nipple using dc valve. This compressed air moves the
piston in one direction against the spring force. The maximum pressure applied
inside the cylinder is 10-12bar.The piston is connected by a ram, the ram moves
along with the piston when the compressed air moves the piston. This makes a
linear movement of the ram. In single acting cylinder the stroke is limited to the
compressed length of the spring. When the compressed air entering the cylinder is
less the piston comes to its original position by the action of spring force. The
moving ram performs many operations such as slotting, punching etc.
9. BORING OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CYLINDER FORMING
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Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole. The single point cutting tool is used for
a boring operation. Generally a single point tool bit is mounted in the boring bar of
suitable diameter commensurate with the diameter to be bored. The over hang of
the tool is to be made as small as possible to reduce the chatter which is very
common in boring. The work piece were a hole is already existing is mounted on
the table of a horizontal boring machine. The table of a horizontal boring machine
has accurate guide ways to move the table into perpendicular direction.
HONING
Honing is a low abrading process whish uses bonded abrasive Sticks for removing
stock from metallic surfaces. However, it can also be Used for external cylindrical
surfaces as well as flat surfaces. It is most Commonly used for internal surface.
Those is an operation performed as The final operation to correct the errors that
have occurred from the previous Machining operation. The advantages of honing
are.
Correction of geometrical accuracy
Out of roundness
Taper
Axial distortion
Dimensional accuracy
10. INTRODUCTION OF THE STRUCTURE
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Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific
shape or cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and strength.
Structural steel shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc, is regulated in most
industrialized countries.Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high
second moments of area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-
sectional area.
A steel I-beam, in this case used to support wood beams in a house.Structural steel
in construction: A primed steel beam is holding up the floor above, which consists
of a metal deck (Q-Deck), upon which a concrete slab has been poured.Steel beam
through-penetration with incomplete fireproofing.
Metal deck and OWSJ (Open Web Steel Joist), receiving first coat of spray
fireproofing plaster, made of polystyrene leavened gypsum. Contents
1 Common structural shapes
2 Standards
2.1 Standard structural steels
2.2 Standard structural steels
2.2.1 Carbon steels
2.2.2 High strength low alloy steels
2.2.3 Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels
2.2.4 Quenched and tempered alloy steels
3 Steel vs. concrete
4 Thermal properties
5 Fireproofing of structural steel
COMMON STRUCTURAL SHAPES
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In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published
standards, although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also
available.
I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB)
and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and other
sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF) and H sections)
Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow
section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross
sections)
Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
Channel ( [-shaped cross-section)
Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
Railway rail
Vignoles rail
Flanged T rail
Grooved rail
Bar a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide so
as to be called a sheet.Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see
also rebar and dowel.Plate, sheet metal thicker than 6 mm or 1/4 in.Open web steel
joistWhile many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by
welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow
sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded).
Standard structural steels
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Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the European
standard EN 10025. However, many national standards also remain in force.
Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples, 'S'
denotes structural rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the yield
strength in newtons per square millimetre or the equivalent megapascals; J2 or K2
denotes the materials toughness by reference to Charpy impact test values; and the
'W' denotes weathering steel. Further letters can be used to designate normalized
steel ('N' or 'NL'); quenched and tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and thermo
mechanically rolled steel ('M' or 'ML').
The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and 460,
although some grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the UK, almost
all structural steel is grades S275 and S355. Higher grades are available in
quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and 960 - although
grades above 690 receive little if any use in construction at present).Thermal
propertiesThe properties of steel vary widely, depending on its alloying elements.
The austenizing temperature, the temperature where a steel transforms to an
austenite crystal structure, for steel starts at 900°C for pure iron, then, as more
carbon is added, the temperature falls to a minimum 724°C for eutectic steel (steel
with only .83% by weight of carbon in it). As 2.1% carbon (by mass) is
approached, the austenizing temperature climbs back up, to 1130°C. Similarly, the
melting point of steel changes based on the alloy.
The lowest temperature at which a plain carbon steel can begin to melt, its solidus,
is 1130 °C. Steel never turns into a liquid below this temperature. Pure Iron ('Steel'
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with 0% Carbon) starts to melt at 1492 °C (2720 °F), and is completely liquid upon
reaching 1539 °C (2802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon by weight begins melting at
1130 °C (2066 °F), and is completely molten upon reaching 1315 °C (2400 °F).
'Steel' with more than 2.1% Carbon is no longer Steel, but is known as Cast iron.
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/images/FeC.gifFireproofing of structural
steelIn order for a fireproofing product to qualify for a certification listing of
structural steel, through a fire test, the critical temperature is set by the national
standard, which governs the test. In Japan, this is below 400°C. In China, Europe
and North America, it is set at ca. 540°C. The time it takes for the steel element
that is being tested to reach the temperature set by the national standard determines
the duration of the fire-resistance rating.
Care must be taken to ensure that thermal expansion of structural elements does
not damage fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies. Penetrants in a firewalls
and ferrous cable trays in organic firestops should be installed in accordance with
an appropriate certification listing that complies with the local building code.
11.PROCESS CHART
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PART NAME MACHINING OPERATION
Cylinder bore Boring, hack sawing, Reaming.
Pneumatic Cylinder Turning, Grooving, Drilling,
Tapping.
Ram Turning, Facing, Thread forming.
End plate / Gas cutting Grinding, Shaping, grooving, Drilling.
Stud Turning, Threading.
Guide ` Facing, chamfering, welding.
12. DESIGN ASPECTS
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PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL:
Physical property
density-7860kg/m³
melting point-1427ºC
thermal conductivity-63w/mk
CARBON CONTENT
Low corrosion or mild steel-0.15% to 0.45% of carbon
MECHANICAL PROPERTY
elasticity
ductility
toughness
weld ability
In our design screwed spindles have a main part hence the calculations are
concentrated on it.
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13. MATERIALS USED
NAME OF THE COMPONENTS MATERIALS
Cylinder M.S rod
Piston M.S with chromium
Ram M.S rod
Spring M.S
Nipple M.S rod
End plate M.S plate
14. LINE DIAGRAM
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FABRICATION OF ACRYLIC SHEET BENDING MACHINE
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15. COST ESTIMATION
S.NO COMPONENT QUANTITY MATERIAL COST(RS
USED )
1 Pneumatic 1 M.S 2800
cylinder
2 5/2 Direction 1 - 750
control valve
3 Pneumatic 1 - 450
accessories
4 Structure work 1 M.S 1450
Machining cost
TOTAL 5450
Total material cost =5450
Assembly cost =150
Total cost of the project=5600
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16. MERITS AND DEMERITS
Merits:
It reduces the manual work
It reduces the production time
Uniform application of the load gives perfect fitting of the bearing.
Damages to the bearing due to the hammering is prevented
It occupies less floor space
Less skilled operator is sufficient
Demerits:
Initial cost is high
Cylinder stroke length is constant
Need a separate compressor
APPLICATIONS
Bending machine is used to forming operation is well suited for drop forging
work in foundry area. It is also used to shape the desired formation in structural
work.
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17. WORKING PRINCIPLE
The pneumatic acrylic sheet bending machine is used to bending the acrylic
sheet with the help of heaters and pneumatic force. In the pneumatic acrylic sheet
bending machine the main thing being the pressure developed is done with the help
of a compressor.
The air in that compressor is passed to the double acting cylinder through the
direction control valves. There are two control valves used in this press. One is
direction control valve and another one is the flow control valve. When the
compressed air is passed to the pressure control valve, the required pressure is
obtained by adjusting its knob. When the air is passed to the flow control valve,
the speed of movement of piston is controlled by adjusting the knob. The cylinder
piston rod is connected to the top fixture. The heater is fixed to the bottom die and
ram is fixed to the male (upper) die. The acrylic sheet is fixed to the above of the
heater. A bottom fixture is fixed on the bottom plate by using bolts or hexagonal
bolts and nuts.
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CONCLUSION:
This report deals with the design and fabrication of pneumatic
Acrylic sheet bending machine and it is attached with the line diagram with design.
The pneumatic system can be found in almost all industries /fields. However some
of the industrial various pneumatic applications throughout the project period we
gained knowledge on all type of foundry Process and pneumatic system is
controlled. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available
facilities.
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BIBLOGRAPHY
GUPTA J.K and KHURUMI R.S (1981) “Text book of Machine Design”, S.Chand
& comp and.
Parr. ANDREW (2003) ‘Hydraulic & Pneumatics’ Butterworth Heimann Ltd
Dr.D.K.AGGARVAL & Dr.P.C SHARMA(2004) “machine design”, S.K.Kataria
and sons
MAJUMDAR.S.R “Pneumatic systems”, Tata mcgraw-hills company ltd.
SRINIVASAN.R(2004) “Hydraulic & pneumatic controls”, vijay Nicole imprints
private ltd.
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