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DIFFERENT MOTIVATION MODEL & HOW THEY WORK

(IN ORGANIZATION)

BASED ON WEBSITES AND BOOKS OF ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR IN 2011

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Authorization of the Submission

This Term paper on “Different motivation model & how they work” is submitted to Dr.
Anisur Rahman, Professor, on 18 April 2011. The term paper was authorized in March
2011. For this term paper, the research work was conducted by Md. Mohibur Rahman.

1.2 Simulation of us Done Here

As we are university students, we have some limitations to do managerial work. At this

level the purpose of term paper is to simulate ourselves for managerial work, which we
will do in our business career. In the study we researched about Motivational models and
their applications.

1.3 Information’s collected From Different Sources (Methodology)

I did not write the whole part of the term paper from our knowledge. To make the Term
paper perfect from all aspect I collected data from some books of organization behavior. I
also took help of different websites as references.
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1.4 What is Motivation

In simple terms, motivation may be defined as the reason/s for exhibiting a particular kind
of behavior, especially human behavior as dealt with in psychology and neuropsychology.
The reasons are manifold ranging from basic needs like food, any desired object or a
particular goal, an ideal or state of being to less-apparent ones like altruism or morality.

Buchanan defines motivation as follows:

"Motivation is a decision-making process, through which the individual chooses the

desired outcomes and sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to them".

One of the most important functions of management is to create willingness amongst the
employees to perform in the best of their abilities. Therefore the role of a leader is to
arouse interest in performance of employees in their jobs. The process of motivation
consists of three stages:-

1. A felt need or drive

2. A stimulus in which needs have to be aroused

3. When needs are satisfied, the satisfaction or accomplishment of goals.

Therefore, we can say that motivation is a psychological phenomenon which means needs
and wants of the individuals have to be tackled by framing an incentive plan.

Before, we for the research of the Motivational model and their Applications, we have to
know something about Motivation. In work, Motivation is the internal and external forces
that cause an employee to choose a course of action and engage in certain behaviors. There
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are three elements of psychological forces which relates to motivation. Modern manager
follows these tree tools.

 Direction and focus of the behavior

 Level of the effort provided

 Persistence of the behavior.

2.0 HUMAN NEED

Lets Talk about, what are the human needs? Why do most of us human beings go to work
each day, why do we live with a partner, why do we have children? What are we trying to
achieve in all of this? What indeed are we striving for? Is it merely to obtain food, to
procreate, or do we want to purchase as many objects as possible, possess company shares,
make careers for ourselves, go down in history, exercise power over others?
There are so many thoughts and writings on the objectives and origins of human actions,
we want here therefore to extract what we believe to be the most important of the different
models and to tell my thought also.

Generally it is assumed that all human beings have comparable needs. According to which
of these needs have already been satisfied, according to age, the experiences of life and the
culture, each person sets his own taste and priorities. In organization if manager wants
productive work team he should treat each employee as expensive work force and he
should satisfy them, to bring out the effective work effort.
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2.1 Types of Needs

There are many classifications of needs but the simple classification is

1. Basic physical needs or Primary needs and

2. Social and psychological need or Secondary needs.

Primary needs are needs which are intrinsic to human beings and are necessary for
life. Secondary needs are needs that society teaches us we need as necessary for life.
Primary needs mostly are common to all. Such needs are, food, clothing, shelter etc.
However the primary needs intensity differs person to person. Such as, all people don’t
want tree meals a day. And secondary needs are self-esteem, sense of duty,
competitiveness, self assertion, belonging etc. This comes after covering primary needs.
The Secondary needs are more vaogue for managers. Therefore managerial planning
should consider the effect of any proposal action on the secondary needs of employees.
Here are seven key conclusions about secondary needs. They :

 Are strongly conditioned by experience

 Vary in type and intensity among people

 Are subject to change across time within any individual

 Can not usually be isolated, but rather work in combination and influence one
another

 Are often hidden from Conscious recognition

 Are vogue feelings as opposed to sacrifice physical needs

 Influence behavior in powerful ways.

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Now there is different Human Need Model and they are described below.

2.2.0 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow studied the human behavior, published a theory in 1943 known as
Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He was an American psychologist According to this theory,
our needs, being everything from essential physical requirements to the need of love and
appreciation, are ranked in a specific order. A "lower" need does not apply until all
previous needs are fulfilled. In practice, what this means is that, in order to require for
example intellectual needs, such as the need of understanding, the need of sleep must first
be fulfilled. If we don’t Sleep we will not be able to concentrate on work else the most
important needs are ranked over least needs. The hierarchy is described in Figure 1.0.

Figoure 1.0: Model of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

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2.2.1 Interpretation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow Said, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs is
significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped the
five needs into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order needs. The
physiological and the safety needs constituted the lower-order needs. These lower-order
needs are mainly satisfied externally. The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
constituted the higher-order needs. These higher-order needs are generally satisfied
internally, i.e., within an individual. Thus, we can conclude that during very active period,
the employee’s lower orders are met.

Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we
concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely,
if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned
about the maintenance of our higher order needs.

2.2.2 Applications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Organization

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According to Maslow’s theory managers must cover the needs of employee in hierarchy
style. Now a days Managers have to do these things to bring out efficient work from
employee.

 Identify and accept employee needs

 As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give
employees appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and
eating opportunities should be given to employees.

 Recognize that needs which can be different, employee to employee.

 As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the
employees job security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement
benefits so as to retain them.

 Offer to meet up that needs which are not met yet.

 As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork
and organize social events.

 As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward
employees on accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can
give the deserved employee higher job rank / position in the organization

 As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the
employees challenging jobs in which the employees’ skills and competencies are
fully utilized. Moreover, growth opportunities can be given to them so that they
can reach the peak.

 Giving same reward, especially which are met earlier can affect negatively.

2.2.3 Limitations of Maslow’s Hierarchy Need Model

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Maslow’s model of human need has quite number of limitations and they are strongly
criticized. They are:

o It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by same set of needs.
Different individuals may be driven by different needs at same point of time. It is
always the most powerful unsatisfied need that motivates an individual.

o Some cultures appear to place social needs before any others.

o The theory is not empirically supported.

o There is little evidence to suggest that people are motivated to satisfy only one
need level at a time, except in situations where there is a conflict between needs.

o The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist as even if the artist’s basic
needs are not satisfied, he will still strive for recognition and achievement.
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2.3.0 Herzberg’s Two Factor Model

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist tested good situation and bad situation
of working conditions and proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory.
According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while there are
other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. The Herzberg’s two factor model is shown
below.

Figure 2.0: Herzberg’s Two- Factor Model

Herzberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were
different from those causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation-hygiene
theory to explain these results. He called the satisfiers motivators and the dissatisfies
hygiene factors, using the term "hygiene" in the sense that they are considered
maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction but that by themselves do
not provide satisfaction. Herzberg reasoned that because the factors causing satisfaction
are different from those causing dissatisfaction, the two feelings cannot simply be treated
as opposites of one another. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather,
no satisfaction. Similarly, the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.
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Figure 3.0: Hygiene or Maintenance and Motivation Factor

Figure 3.0 shows us how Maintenance or hygiene factor & Motivation Factors goes from
dissatisfaction to satisfaction.

2.3.1 Maintenance or Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are those factors which are very important for presence of motivation in
working condition. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these
factors are absent / if these factors are non-existant at workplace, then they lead to
dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when adequate /
reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors
are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance
factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job
environment / scenario. The hygiene factors show us physiological need which are wanted
by employee and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors are:
 Pay- The wage or salary structure must be accurate and reasonable. It has to be
competitive in same industry area.
 Company Policies and administrative policies- The company policies should be
flexible. They should be clear and fair. It should include flexible working hours,
dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
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 Fringe benefits- The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim),
benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.

 Physical Working conditions- The working conditions should be safe, clean and
hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.

 Status- The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and
retained.

 Interpersonal relations-The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors

and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict
or humiliation element present.

 Job Security- job security must be provided by managers to employee.

2.3.2 Motivation Factor

According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors don’t work as motivators. The motivational
factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work. These factors
motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers.
These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors
intrinsically rewarding. Motivators show us the physiological needs is extra to the
employee. Motivational factors are:
 Recognition- Managers should appreciate employee for good work.
 Sense of achievement- sense of achievement should be kept in employee mind.
This depends on the job.

 Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and advancement

opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.

 Meaningfulness of the work- The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and
challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.
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 Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The
managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control
but retain accountability.

2.3.3 Applications of Herzberg’s Human Need Model In Organization

If the motivation-hygiene theory exists, management not only must provide hygiene
factors for don’t having dissatisfied employee , but also must provide factors intrinsic to
the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs. Herzberg argued that
job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that it is a continuous management
process. According to Herzberg:

 The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee.
 Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing
levels of responsibility.
 If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm should
consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower
level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation
problem.
 The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum.
Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work-quality.
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2.3.4 Limitations of Herzberg’s Two- Factor Model

Like Maslow’ Model Herzberg’s model was also criticized. It has some limitations too.
Below they are.

o The two-factor theory is not consistent with situational variables.

o There was a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.

o The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The
raters may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.

o No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his

job acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.

o The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at
work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary
structure, company policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will give
credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.

o The theory doesn’t think about blue-collar workers.

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2.4.0 Alderfer’s E –R – G Model

To bring Maslow’s need hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronization with empirical

research, Clayton Alderfer redefined it in his own terms. His rework is called as ERG
theory of motivation. He re - categorized Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three simpler
and broader classes of needs:
 Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it
includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.
 Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individual’s have for maintaining
significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors),
getting public fame and recognition. Maslow’s social needs and external
component of esteem needs fall under this class of need.

 Growth needs- These include need for self-development and personal growth and
advancement. Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem
needs fall under this category of need.
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Figure 4.0 the E-R-G Model

Here in Figure 4.0 shows the model with examples.

2.4.1 Comparison of the Maslow, Herzberg, & Alderfer’s Models

There are many important contrasts among these tree models we discussed.

 Maslow’s and Alderfer Model concentrate on individual internal mind but

Herzberg’s Model also talks about working conditions and lot many things which
are external to Individual mind.
 Maslow and Herzberg say in modern world lower order needs are met. Workers
work to meet up higher order need. But Alderfer says that if relatedness need are
not met then human may return on existence needs.
 ERG Theory states that at a given point of time, more than one need may be
operational.
 According to Maslow, an individual remains at a particular need level until that
need is satisfied. While according to ERG theory, if a higher- level need
aggravates, an individual may revert to increase the satisfaction of a lower- level
need. This is called frustration- regression aspect of ERG theory. For instance-
when growth need aggravates, then an individual might be motivated to
accomplish the relatedness need and if there are issues in accomplishing
relatedness needs, then he might be motivated by the existence needs. Thus,
frustration/aggravation can result in regression to a lower-level need.
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2.4.2 Applications of Alderfer’s Model in Organization

 It should be understood by managers that an employee has various needs that must
be satisfied at the same time. According to the ERG theory, if the manager
concentrates solely on one need at a time, this will not effectively motivate the
employee.

 Also, the frustration- regression aspect of ERG Theory has an added effect on
workplace motivation. For instance- if an employee is not provided with growth
and advancement opportunities in an organization, he might revert to the
relatedness need such as socializing needs and to meet those socializing needs, if
the environment or circumstances do not permit, he might revert to the need for
money to fulfill those socializing needs.

 The sooner the manager realizes and discovers this, the more immediate steps they
will take to fulfill those needs which are frustrated until such time that the
employee can again pursue growth.
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3.0 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION (OB Mod)

Before, we discussed about the content theories of Motivation. Because, they discuss
about, inner self of a person mind. Now we will discuss about, how employee behavior
can be modified to give the motivation. It is Behavior Motivation in Organization.
Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change
techniques to improve behavior, such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to
stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the
reduction of maladaptive through its extinction, punishment and/or therapy.

3.1.0 Law of Effect

The view formulated by the psychologist E. L. Thorndike (1874-1949) that actions that
lead immediately to pleasure are remembered and repeated, eventually fossilizing into
habits, whereas actions leading to pain are suppressed or avoided. It is notable that the law
explains actions in terms of the past, not in terms of expected pleasure or pain. Although it
formed a major tenet of the theory that learning is essentially a matter of conditioning, and
hence suffered with the eclipse of behaviorism, the law is commonly held to encapsulate
something essential to the nature of pain and pleasure, which is their function in
controlling learning.

OB Mod states that external consequences tend to determine behavior. Here Greater
degree or control and responsibility relies on the hands of manager. Observational learning
(also known as: vicarious learning or social learning or modeling) is learning that occurs
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as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others. It is most

associated with the work of psychologist Albert Bandura, who implemented some of the
seminal studies in the area and initiated social learning theory. It involves the process of
learning to copy or model the action of another through observing another doing it.

3.1.1 Application of Law of Effect in Organization

We can apply Law of Effect thus,

 Managers must be able to identify some powerful consequences

 Then they should be able to control and administer them such a way that the
employee will see connection between the behavior to be affected and the
consequences.

3.2.0 Alternative Consequences

Many organizations have been using various forms of behavior modification which
emphasizes more on the use of rewards and other alternative consequences to sustain job
behavior. Before using it, the supervisors/managers must decide whether they wish to
increase the probability of an individual’s continued behavior or decrease it. Once it is
decided, then s/he has two choices to make which determines the type of consequences to
be applied.

First, should s/he use a positive or a negative consequence? Second, should s/he apply it
or withhold it? The answers to these questions result in four ways. It means there are
basically four ways in which to shape/mold employee behavior on the job. Those four
ways are unique alternative consequences as discussed below.
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Figure 5.0 the Four Alternative Consequences of OB Mod

Positive reinforcement is a reward following desirable behavior. The effect of positive

reinforcement is to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors. It is the the presentation
of some event which causes the behavior to increase. Strengthens and increases the
likelihood of particular behavior being repeated because desirable consequence is
presented.

Managers attempt to shape behavior through positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Positive reinforcement is a reward for a job
well done, while negative reinforcement is the termination of something unpleasant in
response to the desired behavior. Punishment is the application of a negative stimulus in
response to an undesirable act and extinction is the elimination of any reinforcement
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whatsoever, or ignoring a given behavior. Both positive and negative strengthen a response
and increase the probability of its repetition and, thus, result in learning.

Negative reinforcement is less straightforward, with two types occurring:

 Escape is when something unpleasant is currently going on, and the organism does
something to terminate or lessen it, for example when a parent picks up a crying baby
– the baby stops crying and the parent’s behavior of picking the baby is negatively
reinforced;
 Avoidance is when behavior has prevented the onset of something unpleasant
occurring. As an example, someone with hey-fever will take anti-histamine a couple of
hours before going outside when there is a high pollen count.

Punishment also has two subsets, where something nice is taken away or something nasty
is given. An example of the former is when you get fined money for breaking the law (e.g.
not wearing a seatbelt). Getting a shock by touching an electric fence is an (extreme!)
example of the latter. In both cases, the probability of the same behavior occurring will
decrease, as the outcomes are highly undesirable.

Extinction is another alternative consequence of OB Mod. Extinctions is The withdrawal

of the reinforcing. It is Consequences for a given behavior. The behavior is not
“unlearned”; it simply is not exhibited. The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced again.

3.3.0 Schedule of Reinforcement.

n operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the

learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact
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on the strength and rate of the response. Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more
effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous Reinforcement In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is

reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during
the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the
behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is
usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part

of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial
reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction. There are four
schedules of partial reinforcement

3.4.0 Application of Behavior Modification

There are some ways to apply the behavior modification in an organization. They are :

1. Communicate With Both the Child and the Parent

Behavior modification techniques need to address the root source of the concern, either by
encouraging the child to adopt positive behavior or discouraging him from engaging in
negative behavior. There is a tendency to lump all bad behavior into simple explanations,
such as pandering for attention, but it may be more complex than that. Children can't
always express how they feel, so it is important to talk with them and watch for signs of
deeper problems. If you're a teacher, then you should speak to the child's parents, who
have a much better idea about what's going on in his life. Continue communication while
you're engaging in behavior modification, and look for feedback about the effectiveness of
your techniques.

2. Be Clear About the Specific Behavior

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You should always describe the behavior you are attempting to discourage or reinforce.
Even if the child is unaware of it or doesn't realize she is engaging in it, it still stresses the
behavior in her mind. It also emphasizes what you expect of her and how she is meeting or
failing to meet those expectations. The more specific you can be, the better. For instance,
you can point out how the child carried out each step of a math problem, rather than just
saying "good job on your math." Always make eye contact when you speak to a child and
ensure that she is looking at you when you talk.

3. Focus on Attribution Rather Than Coercion

Attribution means pointing out the child's actual behavior instead of trying to persuade
him to enact or refrain from such behavior in the future. For example, you can say "you're
working very hard on those math problems," instead of "you should work harder when you
do your math assignments." Attribution draws a direct connection between the child's
behavior and a reward or punishment, while also reminding the child that he has the ability
to alter or change his behavior.

4. Show Enthusiasm for Positive Behavior

When you're enthusiastic about a child's behavior or the rewards he is expected to receive,
you help get the child excited, too. It implies that positive behavior is important to you and
that you're interested in the child doing well. With rewards, it helps to build up
anticipation and to make the child realize that she has a say in whether or not she earns
them. Anticipation can generate further excitement, which makes the child more willing to
engage in the positive behavior and less apt to treat it as an unpleasant chore.

5. Apply Timing, Consistency and Intensity to Negative Reinforcement

Punishments for bad behavior need to focus on three specific aspects: the timing of the
punishment, the consistency with which it is applied, and its intensity in relation to the
negative behavior. For the first, you should always apply negative reinforcement as
quickly as possible after the child exhibits bad behavior. It draws a clear line between the
behavior and its consequences and allows the child to better understand the link. A trickier
job comes in determining the intensity of the punishment. If it is too mild, the child will
likely just shrug it off, which defeats the purpose. If it is too extreme, however, it may fall
under the realm of abuse and can cause larger problems in the child. Finally, punishments
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need to be firmly and consistently applied. The child should understand exactly what he
has done wrong and know exactly what he can expect when he does Read.

4.0 GOAL SETTING

Goals are the source of motivation because they indicate what has to be done and how
much effort should be exerted. Just as people are motivated to satisfy needs on the job,
they are also motivated to strive for and attain goals. Attainment of goals satisfies the
individual’s achievement drive, boosts the self-esteem. Thus, we can say that specific
goals increase the performance than general goals. Similarly difficult goals result in higher
performance provided they are acceptable to the individual.

Figure 6.0: Goal Setting Theory

Feedback also plays an important role may it be external or self-generated. It helps the
people to perform better every time from the received feedback. The following factors
influence the Goal-Performance relationship:

4.1Adequate Self-Efficacy
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Self-efficiency is the individual’s self-confidence and faith that he has potential of

performing the task. Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts put in by
the individual when they face challenging tasks. While, lower the level of self-efficiency,
less will be the efforts put in by the individual or he might even quit while meeting
challenges. It is the key factor in determining goal setting. It refers to an individual’s belief
that he or she is capable of performing a task successfully. Self-Efficacy has a direct
relationship with person’s confidence and thus with goal setting.

4.2 Challenging Goals:

Researches have proved that only challenging job content motivates the employees. In
such case everyone is anxious to prove that he or she is capable of attaining the task.
However even though the task are challenging they should be attainable. A goal that is
difficult but attainable increases the challenge of the job. To be effective in motivating
performance, goals much be challenging. Consider a data entry clerk who types 100 wpm,
but the goal for hourly performance represents a speed of about 70 wpm. That data entry
clerk is unlikely to be challenged or motivated in the job. However, a goal of 110 wpm
would represent a challenge that is not insurmountable but will require the employee to
expend additional effort to achieve success.

4.3 Specific Goals:

Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance. Unambiguous,
measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids
misunderstanding. Researchers have established that the goals must be specified in
quantitative terms. They should be accompanied by concrete actions, plans, target etc.

4.4 Owned Goals:

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Owned or Acceptable goals are preferable to impose goals. Goals must not only be
specific and challenging but it must be made acceptable to the employees. In order to
make the goals acceptable to employees following conditions must be fulfilled.

4.5 Performance monitoring and Feedback

Feedback helps employees work with greater involvement and lead to greater job
satisfaction. Feedback gives rise to achievement motivation. Performance monitoring
involves observing and inspecting employees work. This helps to indicate to the
employees that their work is important and their contributions to the organization are
valuable. "How am I doing?" It's a question that employees always have but don't always
receive the answer to. Once armed with a goal, employees need feedback on how they are
doing relative to accomplishing that goal. Feedback can be part of the job itself; for
instance, a call center employee may be expected to answer calls within three rings and
have access to reports on performance. Most often, though, feedback is provided by
managers and supervisors who take the time to provide employees with information about
how they're doing, along with both constructive and positive comments for the future.

4.6 Advantages of Goal Setting Theory

 Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to

complete work quickly and effectively.
 Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but
also through increasing and improving the feedback quality.
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4.7 Limitations of Goal Setting Theory

 At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal
conflict has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible
action drift.
 Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behavior.

 If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal,
then the goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.

 There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

4.8 Implications of the Goal Setting Theory

• A goal-setting process in which a manager meets with his or her supervisor to set
goals and evaluate the extent to which previously set goals have been achieved.
• Although less common, MBO can also be used as a motivational tool for no
managers.

• Necessary characteristics for MBO success:

o Set goals should contribute to organizational effectiveness.

o Goals should be specific and difficult.

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• Be sure that a worker’s goals are specific and difficult, whether set by you, by the
worker, or by both of you.

• Express confidence in your subordinates’ abilities to attain their goals and give
subordinates regular feedback on the extent of goal attainment.

• When workers are performing difficult and complex tasks that involve learning do
not set goals until the workers gain some mastery over the task.

5.0 THE EXPECTANCY MODEL

The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of how much an
individual wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will
lead to expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to
reward (Instrumentality). In short, Valence is the significance associated by an individual
about the expected outcome. It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an
employee expects to receive after achieving the goals.
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Figure 7.0: The Expectancy Model

Three components of Expectancy theory:

1.Expectancy
2.Instrumentality
3. Valence

5.1 Expectancy

Expectancy is the belief that one's effort will result in attainment of desired performance
goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self confidence, and the perceived
difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated with the individual's
Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self efficacy is the
person’s belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. Goal
difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made
too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy perceptions. Control is one's
perceived control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must
believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome.

5.2 Instrumentality

Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance
expectation is met. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion,
recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is given
for all performances given.
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Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and
policies. If individuals trust their superiors, they are more likely to believe their leaders
promises. When there is a lack of trust on leadership, people often attempt to control the
reward system. When individuals believe they have some kind of control over how, when,
and why rewards are distributed, Instrumentality tends to increase. Formalized written
policies impact the individuals' instrumentality perceptions. Instrumentality is increased
when formalized policies associates rewards to performance.

5.3 Valance

The valance refers the value the individual personally places on the rewards. This is a
function of his or her needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Valence is the value
the individual places on the rewards based on their needs, goals, values and Sources of
Motivation. Factors associated with the individual's valence for outcomes are values,
needs, goals, preferences and Sources of Motivation Strength of an individual’s preference
for a particular outcome.

The valence refers the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 →0→ +1

-1= avoiding the outcome 0= indifferent to the outcome +1=welcomes the outcome

In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not
attaining it.
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Figure 8.0: Range of valence, expectancy, and instrumentality

5.4 Implications of the Expectancy Model

 The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance
levels.
 The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance
levels.
 The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance.
 The reward system must be fair and just in an organization.
 Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs.
 The employee’s motivation level should be continually assessed through various
techniques such as questionnaire, personal interviews, etc.

6.0 EQUITY MODEL

In common sense, equity means being in a state of equality. In finance equity means the
value of ownership interest in property, including shareholders in business. Equity theory
attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair
distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Equity theory is considered as
one of the justice theories. It was first developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams, a
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workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain
equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from
it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief is that people value fair
treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the
relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the
workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made
by the employee for the organization.

Figure 9.0: Factors in Equity Model

6.1 Inputs

Inputs are defined as each participant’s contributions to the relational exchange and are
viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. The inputs that a participant contributes to
a relationship can be either assets – entitling him/her to rewards – or liabilities - entitling
him/her to costs. The entitlement to rewards or costs ascribed to each input varies
depending on the relational setting. In industrial settings, assets such as capital and manual
labor are seen as "relevant inputs" – inputs that legitimately entitle the contributor to
rewards. In social settings, assets such as physical beauty and kindness are generally seen
as assets entitling the possessor to social rewards. Individual traits such as boorishness and
cruelty are seen as liabilities entitling the possessor to costs (Walter, Trumann & Walter,
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1978). Inputs typically include: Job effort, education, seniority, performance, job
difficulty, and other inputs.

6.2 Outcomes

Outputs are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives
a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another.
When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have
much satisfaction with their job. Outputs can be both tangible and intangible
(Walster, Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Typical outcomes include any of the
following: Actual pay and benefit, social reward, psychological reward etc.

6.3 Implications for managers

Equity theory has several implications for business managers:

 People measure the totals of their inputs and outcomes. This means a working
mother may accept lower monetary compensation in return for more flexible
working hours.

 Different employees ascribe personal values to inputs and outcomes. Thus, two
employees of equal experience and qualification performing the same work for the
same pay may have quite different perceptions of the fairness of the deal.

 Employees are able to adjust for purchasing power and local market conditions.
Thus a teacher from Alberta may accept lower compensation than his colleague in
Toronto if his cost of living is different, while a teacher in a remote African village
may accept a totally different pay structure.

 Although it may be acceptable for more senior staff to receive higher

compensation, there are limits to the balance of the scales of equity and employees
can find excessive executive pay demotivating.
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 Staff perceptions of inputs and outcomes of themselves and others may be

incorrect, and perceptions need to be managed effectively.

 An employee who believes he is over-compensated may increase his effort.

However he may also adjust the values that he ascribes to his own personal inputs.
It may be that he or she internalizes a sense of superiority and actually decrease his
efforts.

7.0 CONCLUSION

We gathered knowledge about Motivational models from above report. All the models
have strength, weakness, advocates and critics. No model is perfect; all of them
add something to our understanding of motivation process. Other models are
being developed, and attempts are being made to integrate existing approach.

The cognitive models are likely to continue dominating organizational practice for
sometime. They are most consistent with our supportive and holistic view of people of
thinking individuals who make somewhat conscious decision about their behavior.
However, behavior modification has some usefulness, specially in stable situations with
minimum complexity, where there appears to be direct connection between behavior and
its consequences. In more complex, dynamic situation, cognitive models will be used more
often. In other words, the motivational model used must be adapted to the situation as
well as blended with other models.
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8.0 REFERENCES

1. Keith Davis & John W Newstrom, 2007, Organizational Behavior Human

Behavior at Work, Mc. Graw Hill Publishers.

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3. Psychology URL: http://www.helium.com/items/822882-introduction-to-

abraham-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs (accessed 30 March 2011)

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5. Arab British Academy for Higher Education URL:

http://www.abahe.co.uk/Free-En-Resources/Theories-of-
Management/Maslow-Hierarchy-of-Needs.pdf (accessed 5 April 2011)

6. Management Study Guide URL:

http://www.managementstudyguide.com/herzbergs-theory-motivation.htm
(accessed 7 April 2011)

7. HR Invasion- HR Consultants URL: http://org.hrinvasion.com/.../19-

Herxberg-Two-Factor-Theory.html (accessed 10 April 2011)
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