Overview Nanomaterials by SPD
The Use of Severe Plastic Deformation
Techniques in Grain Refinement
Terry C. Lowe and Ruslan Z. Valiev
Severe plastic deformation (SPD) routes for fabricating UFG metals and the time of the earliest experiments,
has emerged as a promising method alloys with enhanced properties.3–10 processing regimes and routes have
to produce ultrafine-grained materials It is well known that large amounts of been determined for many metallic
with attractive properties. Today, SPD plastic deformation can have consider- materials, including some low-ductility
techniques are rapidly developing able effects on the microstructure and and hard-to-deform materials. High-
and are on the verge of moving from properties of metals and alloys. For pressure torsion and ECAP die sets
lab-scale research into commercial example, intense rolling or drawing have been modernized. In particular,
production. This paper discusses new is accompanied by microstructure the modifications included introduction
trends in the development of SPD refinement and the formation of cells, of movable die components12 and back-
techniques such as high-pressure torsion subgrains, and fragments, which can pressure.13,14 There has been a rapid
and equal-channel angle pressing, as increase strength and enhance other recent development of a number of
well as new alternative techniques properties. However, conventional other severe deformation techniques
for introducing SPD. The paper also deformation processing methods usually (e.g., multiple forging,15 accumulative
contains a comparative analysis of decrease the material ductility. This is roll-bonding,16 repetitive corrugation
SPD techniques in terms of their undesirable or unacceptable for many and straightening,17 and some others).
relative capabilities for grain refine- structural materials applications. This Today, SPD techniques are emerging
ment, enhancement of properties, and limitation has motivated the growing from the domain of laboratory-scale
potential to economically produce interest in the development of SPD research into commercial production of
ultrafine-grained metals and alloys. methods, which enable the formation various ultrafine-grained materials.
of UFG structures that exhibit new This article has three main objectives:
INTRODUCTION
physical and mechanical properties, to review new trends in SPD techniques
More than ten years ago severe plastic including enhanced ductility. of HPT and ECAP used in the earlier
deformation (SPD) was demonstrated High-pressure torsion (HPT) and works focused on fabrication of UFG
as an effective approach to produce equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) materials; to analyze new and alternative
ultrafine-grained (UFG) metals.1,2 Since are the SPD techniques that were first techniques for introducing SPD; and
then, extensive research has been carried used to produce nanostructured metals to compare SPD techniques in terms
out to develop SPD techniques and to and alloys possessing submicrometer of grain refinement, enhancement of
establish processing parameters and or even nano-sized grains.1,11 Since properties, and potential for commer-
cialization.
PRINCIPLES AND
CAPABILITIES OF
SPD TECHNIQUES
Severe plastic deformation methods
should meet a number of requirements if
they are to be developed to produce
desirable UFG nanostructures in bulk
samples and billets.5 First, it is important
that UFG structures possess predomi-
nately high-angle grain boundaries, since
Figure 1. Severe plas- only in this case can there be a qualitative
tic deformation tech- change in material properties. Second,
nique principles: (a) the formation of such nanostructures
a b high-pressure torsion
(b) ECAP. must be homogeneous to ensure the
stability of the properties of processed
materials. Third, though samples are
64 JOM • October 2004
semiconductors.5 One important advan-
tage of the HPT technique is the ability
to independently control the cumulative
strain, applied pressure, and strain rate.
This ability makes HPT convenient
for investigating the influence of dif-
ferent parameters on structure and
properties evolution during SPD.
However, samples processed by HPT
are invariably small in size. Thus,
this technique is effective for grain
refinement, but so far only for laboratory
experimentation.
a 200 nm b 200 nm ECA Pressing
Figure 2. Transmission-electron microscopy images of UFG copper nanostructures formed at
room temperature by (a) HPT (P = 6 GPa, five turns) and (b) by ECAP (12 passes). The origin of the ECAP technique to
produce severe deformations dates back
to the 1980s to work by Segal and
colleagues.12,19 However, the applicabil-
exposed to large plastic deformations, while the other rotates. Friction between ity of ECAP to UFG metal and alloy
they must not contain significant the anvil and the sample surfaces allows production was demonstrated only in
mechanical damage or cracks. Therefore, monotonically increasing shear strains the early 1990s when Valiev with his co-
to ensure formation of desirable nano- to be imparted in the sample with workers1,11 developed and applied ECAP
structures in bulk samples it is important increasing rotation of the anvil. The as an SPD technique for processing of
to identify optimum processing param- superimposed compressive stress during nanostructures. In these experiments,
eters and routes. shearing appears to prevent the sample large-grained ingots with a square or
from breaking despite the very high round cross section were cut from rods
High-Pressure Torsion
strains imposed.5 The importance of of 70 mm to 100 mm in length. The
Early investigations have demon- applied high pressure during the forma- diameter of their cross section or their
strated that it is possible to produce tion of nanostructures in the HPT process diagonal did not exceed 20 mm.
homogeneous nanoscale structures by is shown in the recent work on nickel.18 Equal-channel angular pressing is
HPT,1,5 including grains with sizes of Substantial structure refinement implemented by repeatedly pressing an
about 100 nm or smaller, possessing during HPT is observed after a half or ingot through a special die with two
high-angle grain boundaries. complete (360°) turn of the anvil. channels of equal cross section, intersect-
Samples processed under HPT defor- However, to create homogeneous ing usually at an angle of 90° (Figure
mation are disk-shaped (Figure 1a), nanostructures, deformation by several 1b). Each pass through the die imparts
typically with a diameter of 10 mm to 20 complete turns is necessary (Figure 2). an additional effective strain of approxi-
mm and a thickness of 0.2 mm to 0.5 High-pressure torsion has been mately 1 for the most commonly used
mm. In HPT, the sample is compressed successfully applied to refine microstruc- channel intersection angle of 90°. In the
between anvils under applied pressure tures in metals, alloys, and most case of hard-to-deform materials, the
(P) of several GPa. One anvil is fixed recently in composites and even in deformation is imposed at elevated
Figure 3. The
distribution of
plastic deforma-
tions intensity in
the case of differ-
ent values of the
friction coef-
ficient k: (a) k =
0.2 and (b) k =
a b 0.21
2004 October • JOM 65
