Leonhard Euler, The King of Mathematicians

Born April 15, 1707, Basel, Switz. Died Sept. 18, 1783, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Euler was a Swiss mathematician and physicist, one of the founders of pure mathematics. He not only made decisive
and formative contributions to the subjects of geometry, calculus, mechanics, and number theory but also developed
methods for solving problems in observational astronomy and demonstrated useful applications of mathematics in
technology and public affairs.
Euler's mathematical ability earned him the esteem of Johann Bernoulli, one of the first mathematicians in Europe at
that time, and of his sons Daniel and Nicolas. In 1727 he moved to St. Petersburg, where he became an associate of
the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and in 1733 succeeded Daniel Bernoulli to the chair of mathematics.
By means of his numerous books and memoirs that he submitted to the academy, Euler carried integral calculus to a
higher degree of perfection, developed the theory of trigonometric and logarithmic functions, reduced analytical
operations to a greater simplicity, and threw new light on nearly all parts of pure mathematics. Overtaxing himself,
Euler in 1735 lost the sight of one eye. Then, invited by Frederick the Great in 1741, he became a member of the
Berlin Academy, where for 25 years he produced a steady stream of publications, many of which he contributed to
the St. Petersburg Academy, which granted him a pension. In 1748, In his “Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum”
(1748; Introduction to the Analysis of Infinities ) he made the notion of function the central organizing concept of
analysis:
‘A function of a variable quantity is an analytical expression composed in any way from the variable and from
numbers or constant quantities.’
Euler's analytic approach is illustrated by his introduction of the sine and cosine functions. Trigonometric tables had
existed since antiquity, and the relations between sines and cosines were commonly used in mathematical
astronomy. In the early calculus mathematicians had derived in their study of periodic mechanical phenomena the
differential equation

dy 1
=
dx √1−x 2

and they were able to interpret its solution geometrically in terms of lines and angles in the circle. Euler was the first
to introduce the sine and cosine functions as quantities whose relation to other quantities could be studied
independently of any geometric diagram.
He did for modern analytic geometry and trigonometry what the Elements of Euclid had done for ancient geometry,
and the resulting tendency to render mathematics and physics in arithmetical terms has continued ever since. He is
known for familiar results in elementary geometry; for example, the Euler line through the orthocentre (the
intersection of the altitudes in a triangle), the circumcentre (the centre of the circumscribed circle of a triangle), and
the barycentre (the “centre of gravity,” or centroid) of a triangle. He was responsible for treating trigonometric
functions—i.e., the relationship of an angle to two sides of a triangle—as numerical ratios rather than as lengths of
geometric lines and for relating them, through the so-called Euler identity (eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ), with complex
numbers (e.g., 3 + 2Ö-1).He discovered the imaginary logarithms of negative numbers and showed that each
complex number has an infinite number of logarithms.
Euler's textbooks in calculus, Institutiones calculi differentialis in 1755 and Institutiones calculiintegralis in 1768–
70, have served as prototypes to the present because they contain formulas of differentiation and numerous methods
of indefinite integration, many of which he invented himself, for determining the work done by a force and for
solving geometric problems; and he made advances in the theory of linear differential equations, which are useful in
solving problems in physics. Thus, he enriched mathematics with substantial new concepts and techniques. He
introduced many current notations, such as Σ for the sum; ∫n for the sum of divisors of n; the symbol e for the base
of natural logarithms; a, b, and c for the sides of a triangle and A, B, and C for the opposite angles; the letter “f ” and
parentheses for a function; the use of the symbol π for the ratio of circumference to diameter in a circle; and i forÖ1.
After Frederick the Great became less cordial toward him, Euler in 1766 accepted the invitation of Catherine II to
return to Russia. Soon after his arrival at St. Petersburg, a cataract formed in his remaining good eye, and he spent
the last years of his life in total blindness. Despite this tragedy, his productivity continued undiminished, sustained
by an uncommon memory and a remarkable facility in mental computations. His interests were broad, and his
Lettres à une princesse d'Allemagne in 1768–72 were an admirably clear exposition of the basic principles of
mechanics, optics, acoustics, and physical astronomy. Not a classroom teacher, Euler nevertheless had a more
pervasive pedagogical influence than any modern mathematician. He had few disciples, but he helped to establish
mathematical education in Russia.
In 1772 he discovered a trinomial f ( x )=x 2 + x +41 which provides prime number for each of the eighty
consecutive integers i.e. for x=−40 ,−39 , … ,−1,0,1 , … , 38,39. besides this trinomial has many interesting
properties, such as f ( x ) is never a square except for x=40 ,−41. f ( x ) is never divisible by any integer between 1
and 41 etc.
An example of a topological invariant is provided by Euler's classic theorem on polyhedrons. A three-dimensional
polyhedron without holes or handles may be considered (it is topologically a ball). If the numbers of faces, edges,
and vertices on its surface are F, E, and V, respectively, then F - E + V = 2. Thus a cube, with six faces, 12 edges,
and eight vertices, satisfies the property, as do all polyhedral balls, however complicated and irregular. Furthermore,
if a point is removed from a face of the surface of the polyhedral ball and the remainder is suitably mapped onto a
planar figure, the property still holds, being topologically invariant; in fact the theorem is most readily proved with
the aid of such a mapping. Though topology deals with some much generalized sets in abstract spaces that do not
resemble point sets of the “real world,” there are applications of topology to physics and the other sciences. He
∞
1 π2
discovered that ∑ n2 ═ 6 .He also gave a serious problem that ‘In how many different ways can a convex n-gon
1
be divided into triangles by non-intersecting diagonals?’
Euler devoted considerable attention to developing a more perfect theory of lunar motion, which was particularly
troublesome, since it involved the so-called three-body problem(in astronomy, the problem of determining the
motion of three celestial bodies moving under no influence other than that of their mutual gravitation. No general
solution of this problem (or the more general problem involving more than three bodies) is [Link] practically
attacked, it consists of the problem of determining the perturbations (disturbances) in the motion of one of the
bodies around the principal, or central, body that are produced by the attraction of the third. Examples are the
motion of the Moon around the Earth, as disturbed by the action of the Sun, and of one planet around the Sun, as
disturbed by the action of another planet. The problem can be solved for some special cases; for example, those in
which the mass of one body, as a spacecraft, can be considered infinitely small, and in the Lagrangian and Eulerian
cases.)—the interactions of Sun, Moon, and Earth. (The problem is still unsolved.) His partial solution, published in
1753, assisted the British Admiralty in calculating lunar tables, of importance then in attempting to determine
longitude at sea. One of the feats of his blind years was to perform all the elaborate calculations in his head for his
second theory of lunar motion in 1772. Throughout his life Euler was much absorbed by problems dealing with the
theory of numbers, which treats of the properties and relationships of integers, or whole numbers (0, ±1, ±2, etc.); in
this, his greatest discovery, in 1783, was the law of quadratic reciprocity, which has become an essential part of
modern number theory.
In his effort to replace synthetic methods by analytic ones, Euler was succeeded by J.-L. Lagrange. But, where Euler
had delighted in special concrete cases, Lagrange sought for abstract generality; and, while Euler incautiously
manipulated divergent series, Lagrange attempted to establish infinite processes upon a sound basis. Thus it is that
Euler and Lagrange together are regarded as the greatest mathematicians of the 18th century; but Euler has never
been excelled either in productivity or in the skillful and imaginative use of algorithmic devices (i.e., computational
procedures) for solving problems.

Debankur Mukherjee.
Class- XII