'I PROJECT ENGINEERING

of Process Plants
RASE, H. F. AKD B.<RROW, Y.H .
Project Engineering of Process Plants
RASE, 11. F.

Pipi~igDesign for Process Plants

PROJECT ENGINEERING
of Process Plants

HOWARD F. RASE
Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering
The University of Texas
and

M. H. BARROW
Project Engineer
Foster Ti7heeler Corporation

Original Illustrations
by

Assistant Professor of Drawing

The University of Texas

NEW YORK . JOHN WlLEY 8 SONS, INC.

london . Sydney
PREFACE
I n the early days oi the chemical industry, new plants were des~gned
by a chemist and a mechanical engineer \ ~ i t hthe assistance of one
or two draftsmen. The design work progressed slowly, but since the
processes were simple, the job could be completed in a reasonable
amount of time.
The simplicity of design methods used in industry's early days con-
trasts sharply with the complexity of modern plant design. The joint
efforts of specialists in engineering, construction, and management and
a close interrelationship between them are necessary ior the design and
construction of a modern plant.
The supervision and coordination of these specialists has become the
job of a specialist. He is called the project engineer.
I n many cases the project cnginccr has a background in chemical
engineering. I n addition to chemical engineering he must understand
mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering problems. He must keep
informed on procurement practices and he well schooled in the ways of
office management. I n the past this vast amount of know-how not
included in a chemical engineering education has been gained by trial
and error or from experienced project engineers.
I t is the purpose of this book to record information and techniques
used in plant design and to discuss ideas that many project engineers
have developed through years of practice. It is written from the point
vii
 ...
vtlo Preface Preface ix

of vier!- of a project engineer, hut is not intended only for him or for 2. Yisualization rif equilment is facilitated hy isonirtric and pictorial
the indiridual aspiring t o becolne a project engineer. It should he v i e m or rross-sections supplemented by other r i e x s .
useful t o any engineer wlro designs process equipment, since he must 3. Design equations, unless con~pletelpeinpirical, should be developed
know the tlicories and techniques of mechanical design, procurement, sn that their l i n ~ i t a t i o nwill
~ he unrlerstond.
and construction, in addition to hasic chelniral engineering principles. 4. Oily ronrlnonly w r d drsign mrthorl. -iio~llrl hf p r ? s m t r d
Project Engineeririg of Process Plnnts is also intended a s a test for ;i. E X R I I I ~01
I ~ achl:d
S c i c i l i i t i ~ i i sspecifications, and con-
chemical engineering plant design courses. Most chemical engineering tracts are a t times prefcmblc to detailed e s l h n a t i o n s .
curricula in the United States h a r e courses in process plant design. The 6. Conipilations of design data arid sources of inforniation sliorrld he
student finds such courses inraluable for three reasons. H e is able to given tliroughout the text.
integrate the compartmentalized k n o d e d g e obtained from bmic courses. 7. Economics sl~oulrlbe discusse<l in relation to each phase of plant
H e has greater opportunity for original thinking. And, third, he gains the design and procurement. rather than isolatcd ill a separate chaptcr.
healthy self-assurance t h a t conles with being able t o apply his kno\dedge 8. T l ~ cyoung engineer vill profit from the definition and usc of terxni-
to n comprehensive practical problen~. nology common to the cor~stsrictiuninilrlstry.
'l'l~e principles of chelnicnl engineering have been nhly rcconled in
T h e authors are grateful to the illany conipanics which furnished illua-
sucli texts as Hougcn and \V:~tson's Chei,iici~l Process principle,^ and
tratiuns. Specific nrknordedgments arc made in the text. Thanks are
Brown's V n i t Operations, and the student s-ill h a r e such hooks i o r
:rko due Professor hl. !-an \\'inklc for his many helpful suggestions.
reference in making process design calculations.
The cwnvcrsion of these process calculations to a workable plant de-
sign is project mgincering. Project Engineering of Process Plants has
hccn planned to acquaint the student ivith the niethods, organization.
and pliilosopliy of project engineering.
The book is rlivided into four sections. T h e major steps in plant design
are outlined in the first section, and the business and 1eg:ll phases of plant
design are discussed in part t w . P:~rt three gives principles of cquip-
mcnt design and selection and design of structure foundations and piping.
E q u i p e n t common to all process plants is considered in detail d l e r r a s
o t l ~ c requipment is treated briefly in a single chapter, althougli refer-
ences t o more conil~lctesources of inforlilation are given. X o attelnpt
has heen made t o providc n handbook or guide t o the selection of all
types of equipment. Technological progress is too rapid t o make such
a n undertaking n-ortlinMe. Instead design principles and reasons for
current practices arc elnpha~izcilso that the reader can derelop a sound
basis for his own decisions.
T h e last part of the book is a clcscription of construction operations,
and any enginecr cngaged in plant dasign is adrised t o accept the first
opportunity t o observe the coi~stroctioll of a plant from start t o finish.
After t h a t experience the engineer 11iua11y becomes a much better
designer.
T o aid in making the book useRrl t o both student and practical engi-
neer, a n effort is made to adhere to the f o l l o ~ i n gprinciples:

1. The rclationahip between each design phase ran be hetter under-

stood if the scrpencc of chapters fo1lon.s the usual steps in plant design.
 CONTENTS
1 The Pro,j~ctEngineer

Part 1 MAJOR STEPS IN PLANT DESIGN

Plant Location
Preliminary Data for Construction Projects
Process Engineering
Flow Diagrams
Plot Plans
Scheduling the Project
Engineering Design and Drafting

Part 2 BUSINESS AND LEGAL PROCEDURES

9 Procurement Operatims
10 Office Procedure
- 11 Contracts and Contractors
!

Part 3 DETAILS OF ENGINEERING DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

SELECTION

12 Vessels
13 Heat Exchangers
 1
Contents
Process Punips
Colllpressurs mil T a r ~ u u ~Pnu n ~ p s CHAPTER
Motors :ind Turl~incs
Other Process Equipment
Piping Design
Thermal Insulation
Process Instrunlents
Plant Ctilitics
Foundatious
Structures and Buildings
Safety in Plant Design

Part 4 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLANT THE

25 Construction
j PROJECT
ENGINEER
I
! The design and erection of a process plant could nerer i ~ ecompleted
solcly by nlelnhers of one branch u f cngineering. Instead such an
undertaking must result from courdiuatcd efforts of chemical, mechani-
cal, electrical, and civil mgincera, chemists, and specialists from man:-
other fields. This combined effort, horvercr, must be directed by a
single individual wlio can guide the engineering, anticipate the routine
problems, and nchcdule the rarious phascs of work. It has, therefore.
hecome the practice in process industries to assign this overall respon-
sibility for thc entire design and erection of a process plant to a singlc!
individual called the project engineer or manager. The duties of thc
project engineer for a process plant, other than requiring a round
chemical engineering background,' demand knowledge of other engi-
neering fields, hueiness administrationl and economics. Although it is
not neressary for him to he an expert in any of these, he must have
sufficient knorvledge to cr~ordinatcthe activities in all of them.
The larger operating companies in the process industries, w c h as
chemical and petroleum, maintain extensive staffs of technologist,^ in
all hranchcs of engineering for research, de~clol)ment,and plant main-
tenance. Such a firm will ordinarily explore any new process under
consirleration both tecllnirally and economically. However, rvhen an
*Sonre practicing projrcl engineers have mechanical engineering training and
additional study in chemistry.
t 1
2 The Project Engineer 3
Project Engineering of Process Plants
~ q ~ e r a t i ncorr~pany
g ~leciclvstu build :I couil~lrteplaut or a binglr process
unit, an engineering and condrnction fir111 sjieriiilizing in such work is
usually retained.
Kumerous variatirmi art> ilo-silllt in I i i i o r of v o r k hetween
the engineering and euu;tructiou fir111 c o ~ t r c t riind the opcrating
company (customer).
1. Prorrsa [Link], pruress ~[Link] and construction
by contractor. Examples: (01 Fort4gu customers desiring plants of
American deaign. it]I Sen-ly i ~ r i i ~0 1 .d young process industry firms.
I c J Established firms uot having the pcrsmnel available for active
participation in any pilase of the iiesign or firnls which prefer to have
contrartor hantllc all phases. id I Contrnctor frmishing patented process
or developing a snitable process.
2. Process developed by customer, pri~rrss design a joint effort,
engineering and ronstrnctiun hy contrnct(~r. This is a common ar-
rangenlent when the customer lins. tlrrol~glii~envlr scale and pilot plant
uwrk, developed a proccss arirl ~[Link] luilcl a full-scale plant. The
contractor use? the customer':: basic (latn.
3. All process design done by customer. When the customer has a
large process design group that has been cli~scly associated mith a
process, it is often advisable for this group to upp ply a complete proc-
ess deaign t o the contractor. I t is not uncmlruon, l i o ~ e v e r ,for the
customer to rcquest the contractor t o check the dcsign.
Other variations of tbe division of responsibility are possible. It is
important to note, however, that the projert enginecr's role is extremely
important in any arrangement. \\-lien both the contractor and cus-
touier are participating, the customer's project ellginerr nud the contrac-
tor's project eugineer havc dutics essentially r a l l l ; and the chart
in Fig. 1-1 depicts the duties of both.
The customer's project engineer niust supply tile contractor's project
engineer with all the information concerning the custnmer's require- Fig. 1-1. Project [Link]
ments and preferences. He must check and approve all designs, and
obtain comments from various design and operating groups in his own and basic research, decided to construct a plant. Firm A sends out
organization. The contractor's project engineer must be responsible inquiries to various contractors xvhich are prepared hy A's process dc-
for transmitting information to the rarious groups in his own organiza- partmcnt and project engineer, These includc a dcscription of the
tion, for guarding both the contractor'y and customer's interest in all proposed location of the plant, tlic scope of the project, the production
engineering decisions, for contractual obligations, and above all for required, and any other inforiuation not available to the contractor.
seeing t'hat the plant is completed on time and that it operates arcord- The contractor assigns a project engineer t o the job, who immediately
ing t o specifications. becomes the liaison b e h e e n the customer and all dcpartments of the con-
Referring again t o Fig. 1-1, the dutics of a project engineer can be tractor. Thc project engineer works with his process design and estimating
briefly traced in a clockwise manner around the chart starting a t the groups in preparing an estimate for thc cost oi designing and construct-
top. Assume that a process plant, Fir111 A, has, after economic studies ing the proposed plant. The estimate is presented to the customer in
4 Project Engineering of Process Plants
hound fornl. It c:ircfuIIy outlin(>>all duties and oblign tionr of cwtom-
cr and contrartor, decrrihee the proreis units an11 equipmrnt, givrs
the design spccifirationi, opera~ion:~land merirnnir:rl gnnrnnters, and
.sets a completion rlatc,.
Aseume that the contract is an-:irdcd to Contwctor B. H'.? project
engineer then immediately starts organizing tlre jol, The project
nlanager of '4 is rr~ntactetl ;rnd tlic p r n r ~ vrequiren~ents are firmly
establislled by agrerlucnt wit11 -1's IIrocess groul~.using the proposal
as a basis. The contr;~vtor'>[Link] group tlrrn proweds Kit11 the final
process dmign. As the rlcign is l~cingdeveloped, n~cclianiral specifi-
cations are !!-rittc~~ an11 :~greerl uptm and :dl pl~niesof tlw projcrt arc
s c l ~ d u l c dso that tlir c ~ ~ ~ n p l c t il;rtt
i r ~ n r:rn bc met. T h r p r o c r ~ sinfor-
ination is transmitted to tlit- various dezign and ~lrnftinggroups by
tire project engineer and his nsist:mts. They interpret and ilcvelol~
this infornrntion and ?e? that t l ~ c1 1 r o c ~ ~requirrn~rnts
s are ronll~letely
satisfied in the layout and ilrsigu and that euston~er specification^ are
met.
-4s -eon as the debiyn begins to talcc forin, purchnsing conrmit~nents
are n ~ n d et o wsurr j~ro~irpt rlrlivery. Purr,lr;~ncsthat require engineering
judgment arc [Link] 11y the projcct engineer an11 specialty enginerrs
MAJOR STEPS
before being purrl~arcd so that the lwrt available crgiipnrmt vill he
obtaincrl a t a m t i ~ f a c t o r yprice.
.Is the design ilevelq~s,rel~rcscntntiwsof the conetrurtion ricpart-
1 1 m t are hiefed by the project engineer Crn the .scope :lnd details of
the prujcct so that construction may be plannctl and lrcparation of
the zitc 11t,gu11. l\Irml)ws uf the 01)ernting d e p r t m r n t s ( ~ f hot11 PLANT DESIGN
custo~nerand contractor are a s k d to revie~vtlrc design and to ~ ~ g g c s t
ilnprorclncnts.
r.
I liruoglrout ;ill this activity thc. cuetonl~r's project engineer m t l tire
c o n t m ~ t o r '1,rvjcct
~ enginecr and tlicir nsiktants 11:ivc been icrir~i-ing
all dra~i-ings:ind n~:~lerinlrquisitionr. Cmrnrent.? arc assemt~lc~l and
r e t u r n d t r ~the design groups so that thc 111~rrisaryclranycs ran 1,c
madr. The oontractrds project engineer nus st see that these c11ange.i
are pro]wrly ext,cutetl and that hoth tlic custon~er'sand contr:~ct~~r't:
interests are gunrrled. Changw niust not alter the original prow?. re-
quircnients, scope of !!-nrk," or specifications. 111 fnct, the prujrrt en-
gineer's responsibilities do not end until the c,pcrating department 113s
si~ownthat the plant meets tlre design specifications and process and
meclranical guarantees.
*If changes in thc scupe of work nw desired by tlre customer, he must ask for
thwe changes in wcordance with t h e h n r s oi tile contract. The contrario~.can
;,+I, fur :~rlditionnlfees for tliesp elumgcs. (See Chapter 11.)
 CHAPTER 2

project engineer coordinates and directs the entire

T HE
design project. His active participation increases after
PLANT
the completion of process engineering, but in many in-
stances he also takes part in the early stages of job
planning. He may assist management in the selection of
LOCATION
a site and will also direct the gathering of preliminary
data. His rnost intensive work, however, comes during The proper location of a plant is as important to its success as the
the period of detailed engineering design and drafting, for selection of a process. Xot only must many tangible factors such as
labor supply and raw material sources be carefully considered, but ulw
it is this work that culminates in the selection of equip- a numbcr of intangible factors which are morc difficult t o evaluate.
ment and production of drawings for use in construction. The selection of a plant site must be based upon a very detailed
study in which all factors are weighed as well as possible. Such a
study often requires a substantial outlay of money, hut false ecmou~ies
a t this p i n t may lead t o great losses in the future.
T l ~ c r e is cmsiderahle literature on t11c subject of plant location
ranging from practical considerations to the theory of plant l o c a t i ~ m
r.
Ll~etheoretical aspects are rxtretncly interesting, and in grnrral s t c ~ n
e d1909 in thc German
from the classical work of \ V e b e r ~ ~ ~ u b l i z hin
and translated in 1928 in English. Many excellent outlines or chcck
lists h a r e bccn puhlishcd which aid in illant location studies by listing
factors that must be considcrcd. 4 n aht~reviated listing of mule of
thc literature in this ficld appears a t the end of this ~ h a p t e r . Tlresr
references will incvitably lead tlre interested reader t o tile entire litera-
ture on plant location.

GENERAL PROCEDURE
Before proceeding with any plant location study, one must have a
complete knowledge of the existing company organization, history,
cost data, and marketing techniques. Just as a family must know its
8 Project Engineering of Procerr Plants Plant Locotion 9
I r i t I [)nr!,l~:i-i!~:: :i II(.\V I I ~ u - 1 %so :I colmpitny 11111-1 region or corninunity as being idedly suited. thcn a specific site in t11:it
:rls(~ knoll- itticlf lhciorc locating :I new plant. r\cquiririg such knor~-- rcgion must be selected. Yasecnl" has emphasized the importance
ledge, l ~ o w r e r ,is not :~ln-ayseasy. I n the fast g r ~ ~ v i nIWJW-s
dustry, many organizntionc have grown i r ~ m i?mall family-orvned con-
g ill- ui ~ l c t e r n ~ i n i nthe -
p specific site after the conilnunity has been sclcctcd.
If d u r ~ n gthe study of sewral comn~unitiesa particular site in one is
cerns iuto lnrge corpurate mterprises in a short span r ~ fye:lrs. ('Iwlr- found that has nnwual appeal. tlir eutire stndy may he influenced by
('ut ,~rg:~nization and lroli,,y ~ F t c nfail to 11,. (lrfinr:il <Iririnx -111.11 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 - it. Such ~nflucnccin effwt y r e s undue ~ v r i y l ~t ot the sitc itself, I~eearrsc
no~ucnalperiods of grun-th. I t is vell w x t h vhile fur a cornlxtny in it is so o f t e ~ ipwsible for ouc or more individuals t o fa\-or thc appear-
this situation t o attempt definition of policy and organiz:~tion Ilciore :tncc u i :I g i x n sitc and 11lace excessive enlplia?is on its iuq~ortancc.
proceeding ni!!l cxpanbion in nrrv areas.
I n devising a TI-\-orkahlellrocednre for a plmt, location study. soulc PLANT LOCATION FACTORS
em~proniisculust he made b e t m c n tlvu extremes. One, a n exlianstiv<,
.statistical study requiring a decade for conipletion and the other, :I
short-cut study heavily weighted wit11 preconceived icleas m ~ dlacking
in ohjectirit?-. A complete study of thousancls of possi!)lc locations ii.
of emme, out of the question. Some rneans of decreasing the n u u i l m
of 1mssibilities nus st hc found. .%ires1 has suggcstcd the niethod of
allparent nss<~cintion. A surrey of existing plants of the type being R o w Materials
co~uidered~villoften indicatc th:it ccrtirin types of locations 11aw h e w r
I>h e selection of the sonrce of r:1~1- nmatcrials, :rlthough i t nlny not
referred in the 11a.t. Questioning of the ~ n a n n g e m m tof tlicsc plants be a t the plant site, is an rxtrrmely ini]~ortantfactor in t l ~ cu l t i ~ n a t c
niay indicatc spccial considerations ~ 1 1 i c l dictxted i such locations. I11
this nianner, it niay bc possible t o rcstrict the *tudy t o several genrral
areas.
i I<]cation of the plant. I n many cases, the stud?- of the r a material
situation m:ly ~ ~ r e c e (tlic
~
l c analysis of t , l ~ eother plant lowtionnl facturr,
sinec pilot plant 7vol.k on a. p ~ c c s srequires a t least n [Link] of t l ~ r
1 I a n y processrs have one or more predominant factors vhich serve ultimate ~ : I K uiilterial supply. Process devclop~nent~ o r kand econ~~niic
to uiinirnize the nunibcr of possibilities for plant location. R a w ~nntcrial studies d l indicate the m i n i n m n ~stantlartl~for rurv ~uatc,rinlselection.
and transportation costs may 11c such t h a t n p1:lnt must be located near Once thcse st:.ntlards arc dcterminctl, then all possible sonrrer of :~cccpt-
a source. This ~villsuto~natici~lly rcducc the sitvs studiecl to those ncnr :ii~ler a x ninterials can be located :md more rlet:lilcd analysis of thc
sources of raw ~naterixl,rrliich nlay be i1nl3- st,vernl in u u ~ n b r r . Labor source; r a n prorccd.
require~nmts may be such that citics k l o ~:u rertain size must l!v T h e extent of each raw riiatcrinl source must be determined in tlic
~~xrlrnlcd, because only n larger city can supply the h r g r 1;ibor rcquirc- I
light of existing and estimated future requiremmts. .In a t t c ~ n p tto
nients, l'l~eseand other f:ictors s ~ r w:IS eKective scrcming i ~ ~ c n~t vs l ~ i c h 1 estimate the life of tllc r a ~ vinaterial source hasctl on fntnre require-
.wve 110th tinic and n ~ m e y . ~ n c n t s niust be made. Alternate sourccs or substitutes in t l ~ carea
H a r i n g derided upon scvcrnl por.;il~lr regions for p l ; ~ n tl ~ ~ c a t i o nthe , sln~uldalso hc located and evaluated. The rost of SCIK matrrial de-
nrxt step is a dct:iilctl -tudy of tlic possiblc locations. This study in- livered to tllc plant site can then he dctermined for a11 tlmsc sources
clndee a survey of all tht: important f:tctors involved, arld n cost stody. mectiug thc quality and quant,ity specifications required by the process.
It is not possihlc to assign dollar value.? to all the factors t h a t uiust bc .Iccuratti frcigl~trates must be used in determining thcse costs. Bc-
considered. Such intangible factor*: however, can often he conlparerl cause o l tlic conlplex freight ratc strncture that exists in tlic United
by assigning each a numerical valne (100, 200. 300. ctc) the size of States, i t is not 1111ssiblcto use soul? sinq~lcdol1:ir 11er mile figurt, iscc
1r.hic11 depends upon t l ~ cimportance attadled to the particular i t c n ~ IJC!IJ\\-I.A ~ r l : ~ ~ srule
i ~ ~s;t~a tl t , ~tlnlt if thv raw 111xtcrix1lo>cs ~ a l > i , l c ~ r -
bciug considered. T h e assigning of the nutnerical values is b a r d 011 ;ibk woigllt during processing tu the fimil product,, it is cheaper t o loetitc
opjniou, hut such opinion can bc agreed upon by the management at t l ~ c the plant a t the source of the raw material. As is true, hon-ever, wit11
outset of the study no ns to insure a n objective nppraacl~to the accumula- all sue11 general rules, there arc a n u n ~ b c r uf notable cxccptions. X
tion and preseutatirln of data. ~lrlivere,l ran- nintcrial cost analysis sliould n l w i y ~IF n1:idr for e;tch
After the dctailecl study of sevewl arras indicates a partirulnr 111nntl w ~ t i u ubeing w n ~ i d < , r c d
10 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 11
lines betn-ccn the shipping point and ultiinatc destination. TVhere pos-
Transportation sihlc it is desirable t o have more than one railrond servicing a com-
.is stated previously, no simple dollar per nlile cost rule can be ap- ~ i ~ u n i because
ty of thc greater flexibility snch service providw.
plied t o freight rates. Railroad freight rates in particular are cx- JInny larger communities served by several railroads have terulinal
trcmcly complex. An example given hy Yaseen'Vllustrates this companies or so-callctl belt-line railroa~lsnhicli are often jointly orwed
complexity most effectively. H e describes a nianufacturer d i n is by the several railroads in the region. Thebe trrminal railroad; provide
~'onsidcringa central Ohio location for a nen. plant and who has dis- service hetveen the tracks of the major railroads entering the com-
tribution in surrounding territory and also in the 1.0s Angeles area. A n ~ u n i t yand all plant sites. Such service is rapid and proiluces cheaper
rnajor imnpetitor is located in Cleveland, Ohio. Considering Jlarysville transfer from road to road and ultin~atelyt o tllc pltrnt. Area< served
as a locatim. it is found tlrat the freight rate per hundred pounds will by terminal companies, therefore, are t o be derirwl.
he $556 to Lns .Angeles. The rate fn)m Cleveland is the same, h loca- If large amounts of LCL ehipmcnk are anticipitfd, the esistmce
tion in Pcnria, Ohio, only scvcn miles furthcr west of hlarysrille ill of a car-loading company in the area is advantagrou.;, These car
enjoy a rate of $4.83 per hundred pounds producing an advantage over loaders offer door-to-duor LCL service. They collrrt a nulnhcr of LCL
tlrc (Ilevelmd ro~npctitur. shipments from an area having the same ( l f h n a t i o n , and are able to
I t is not possible to prcscnt a coniplete discussion of freight rates assemble complete carload shipments for delivery to the r:iiIroad
in this rhaptcr. The engineer in charge of obtaining information re- Some railroads provide similar service in large communities.
latcd to plant location need m l y realize that transpr~rtation experts At first t l ~ m g h tit may seem that a plant should either be located
must bc cousultcd in crtnblishing freight charges and optimum location a t the raw n~aterialsource or a t the market for its ~irocluctr. Consider-
lvith r t q e c t to transportation. Such expert information is available ing t,ranq~ortatioaali~nc,horrever, an intermediate location may he
from the frrigllt agents and traffic cxpcrts of tlrc railroads and othcr just as advantageous. Railroads offer [Link]-in-trw~lsit privileg~.~
transportation facilitic;. In addition, thc traffic manager of one's own for certain commorlities. This privilcgc pcrmits the material to be
rompany can l ~ of e great assistance in obtaining the necessary inforwa- shipped t o a plant. processed, and then sent on its v n y t ( ~tlrc ultilnate
tion and aiding in its interpretation. destination for essentially the same rate that ~ ~ - o u hl da r e been clrargcd
The effect of transportation facilities and ratc.; on plant location for a non-stop trip. It is [Link] t o check the existence of such pririlegcs
van he a rontrolliug factor, Industries such as the plastic industry, for for the comniodities to be produced. Many other rate pcculiarities
instance, 15-hich must dclivcr many small slripnients to various users in lravc cvi~lvedas the railroads d c \ ~ l o p c dand conil1etition became keen.
the miniurum of time, find location near the majority of users inanda-
Trucking
tory. I,t,ss-tl~an-car-Itlad-lot (LCL) rates are very high; and, there-
fore. the distanre that the material must he shipl)ed should be kept t o Interstate truck n~overnents,a s in the case of the interstate railroad
a minimum. transportation, are now regulated by the Interstate Commcrcc Com-
mission. Truck lines are elasscd as schctlulcd or non-scheduled car-
Railroad Freight riers, depending upon xhether the line offers a regularly scheduled
Although truck transportation has increased inarkeitly in tlrc past service b e t w e n t v o points or operates on a contract basis a t timcs
tcn or fifteen ytm" it is safe t o say that fcrv process plants could exist convenient to the shipper. Truck lines have been able to compete
ivitlir~ut awess t o at lcast one milroad. The railri~ads continuc t o vigorously with tlrc milroads on small shipments and in particular on
carr? the hulk of industrial products. Disrnssions 5~1thrailroad freight short hauls. Because of the competitive advantage in this phase of
agents conwrning frcight rates ant1 methods of handling in the various freight shipment, the truck lines have concentrated on the development
ronimunitics under consideration are necessary if a true picture i~ t o of efficient means of handling less-than-truck-load-lots (LTI,). As
hc ihtainrd for comparing the relativc advantages of *everal locations. with railroad freight, excessive transfer should be avoided. Location
A .study of the railroad freight structure n-ill reveal several funda- of a plant on the route of a major carrier providing direct connections
nrental r r c i l . Because of t l ~ crelatively high iwst ( ~ ft,ransferring to various shipping points eliminates the need for transfer and cuts
rlripments fronr m e railroad tu another, it is desirable t r ~locate plants costs.
along major railrmtd ruutes so t l ~ st l ~ i ~ ~ u will
~ ~ nfollo\v
ts the major I n considering truck transportation in a given community. the fran-
12 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 13

W a t e r Transportation
\v;lltT tr:ili,~l~nrtntioni. nnii i t p o l :ll!Y:iy. hc tilt, r ~ l l v l ~ ~ l ~ s t
IIIC:II I t i ~ ~ c ~ r :t t i ~ ,I I I I I of g e t I I ~ It . is
certainly an a,iv;rnt;~gefor n prow-s p h n t to 11c I~uateII: ~ d j i ~ ( , ~ton t
n:iaigal)l~~ a t c,vcn thnugli initial oper:rtions do not require n-atcr
sllipmenrs. \Inn? co~npiinics11:lre becn :ihlr t o ctirnprtc~rlfectivi~lyin
(Iist:~nt111xrkc,t-eren tl~ou!J~these I I I : I ~ ~ I ? Snrcx ~ e r 11y ~ p1~11ts
~ ~ in l tht>
~ilarket n r w .\ (':~lifornia ~ ~ r o ~ t u cill c r a n ~ n ~ m i Ia, : I I ~ slri]) li~lui(l
: I I I I I I I I ) I ~ ~ : Iin ?e:i-g~i~rg 1,arge.s to the P;rrifiv S ~ r t l ~ \ v e si itn ~ l cuuil~t'te
\\-it11 plants 1oc:iterl in tlic J'acifir Sorth\\-cbt rerrit,~ry. :\ h r g e Gulf
C'oa.4 r a w t i c 1 1 r o ~ l n ( w >hips 735 caustic by XI-going t a r r k ~ rto c a d Process W a t e r
roast tcr~iii~i:ilsfro111 ~11en1:cit is S c ~ r w i r i l ~11y ~ ~rtiil
l m d tniuk to east T h e ~ ~ O C Ci ~Si ~~ l u - t r irca~n k : ~ l ) o ~ -:ill
e uthcr. :I- users o i n-a(i,r. 1-11
coast u:ers. Here ~igain lor^ c w t water frc4gllt enables tlic p r o ~ l u i wto process plant cuuld operate \vithout rratcr 3 5 a rooling medium and :IS
c u n q ~ e t r1~it11~ i r ~ d w t in ~ r the
s ~ i i : ~ r k carc^
t ;I direct r:ix material in certain ] ~ l ~ a s icr fs :I process. T h e [Link].r i ~ ~ p l ' l y
In irilditim to occ:i~~ tra11sp~rtiitim1,tllc C n i t ~ dStzit?> is f i ~ v ~ r ewit11 d of an area, ~ I I I W ~ O Y C . IIIII-t 111: stuili~11IJ~EOTCt h a t area 1,:11i eveii IIC?
many ~ n i l e so i navigable s t r e a ~ n sa n d canal.;. Pcrllnps tile most ? p c - runsidered as a pussil~lerite. .id\-icc rhould be sought from competmt
taclllar c:ilial s y s t c n ~is tlic Intercoastal Canal \vl~irhI ~ I I X - i t lpre~tcrte,l ei iv:itcr experts, inrlwling grologists iincl cl~crnir~al rrrgini'rr.~ ;~~r~r~i:iliziirx
shipping I:ine.. for barge traffic iron1 Bra\\-nsrillc, T c m s to S e w Eng- in n-ater prol~lcuis.
land. Tlle Grc;it [Link] am1 large rivers sue11 a s the ~ l i ~ i i ~ s i()trio, p~~i. Prior to the study, a clutaileil estimwtr of water rrquirclncnts 110th
Hu11sti11. am1 'L'rnncrsc~ llrovirle a d i l i t i ~ ~ r ~tlroos;~nds nl of milei 111 navi- for tile i~rescnt an11 the f n t w e luust 11c ~uacle. Thi? ~ I I I U I I I t11c,1i IIV
g a b k n.;it~.n\-:i>-s~nis>iugthrougli t l ~ el>ol~ui:~tiou centrr- ( l f the 1-nit~vl i'ollon-etl by wrcful study of the v-atcr a v a i l a l ~ l rin t h e rt,gion heinlr
Sti~tes. t~unsidcrccl. IS well n-ater is to III, used a. twmplrtc stud? of tlie II;I..(.
I 1 v o r c s ~11lants Irave iound it ;~~l\-auingcwus to ojrerate their Iliatory of the underground \v:iter table is necessary. Because o i their
OII-II .sIrip ;ir~d b:l~jir.<.:1ltlroug11 tllc. .wvicc.- of .Aipping coll~l~;~nit.; art, l o ~ e temperature,
r u n d e r g r i ~ u ~ iwater
d supplies arc prefcrrrd if :i~lcqoatt,.
I Y ~ I I : I I I I . Ti, *tin~lrl:ite I\-iiter tr:~nb]~orti~tion the i w l w i l gover11- Powell and Yon I ~ s s b c r g "Ilave clescril~e~l n ~netliod ior predictilig
~ i i e n tI I : I ~iur :i rrunlber o i years ol~erate(lR large barge linv rallcil T h e tire Suture a ~ a i l a t l i l i t yand rrlial~ilityof utidergror~~ld \I--;ltt.r bupl~ly hy
Fw11,r:iI I h r g t , 1.i1iw tpsting existing ivell.!. IYater lrvrls in obsrrvatiim n-clls are ~rleasurc<l
during tlie pumping of nr:lrl~y active n-rlls. T h e iur~luilx uf T l ~ e i + f J
Other M e a n s of Transportation is thcn ustvl to prcrlict t11c il~~:in-clon-i~ iinticipatui or-er :I long period r ~ f
Tllc, wrvirvs offcwcl 11y t l ~ c:tir linvs, expwss co~npariiw,the I'wt p~~rnpi~ig.
Ofliw Ik.part111e11t~aid pipt,Iincs vnry in illq~ortance (lcpen~lingupon R I ~ ~ : n.;itcrs
I ~ I , f r i m ~S ~ ~ ~ : I I I rlr
I S I;tl<cs also reqriirc r:1wf111t , o ~ ~ s i ~ l e r ; t -
the p s r t i ~ w l a r plant in question. Heenare of t l ~ ei n c r e a ~ ein airlinr t,ion s i ~ ~ etllcy
o arc often :~ffected scvcrcly I irason;d variations.
trnffic and the t r l i ~ j ~of o present d a y industry, i t is a~lvantngcuust o Fresh water streams discharging into the w e a n during tinies of low
he 111rated conveniently t o a n aiqlort if for no ot111~renron t h ~ nfur run-off can becoll~esalty due t o sea lvater 11;leli-up. Under these ~:miditions,
tllc convenience of company prrsontiel trtivrling ou plant hu.;ilicss. it may he necessary f(ir the plant to provide large stor:igc facilities for
Although ieiv process plants n-ill require eontir~uous air freight ship- fresh water t o be collected duriug the period of liigli run-off and useil
nwnt, it is I I O ~ uncommon to call for a n emergency air sliipliient o i during the season \illen the strcilm brco111es salty.
; > u t s for plnni cquipn~ent. Here again tlic eonvenimt location of a n I t i i necm-iuy to clri~rk:Ire 1listw.y of I.~[Link]. ~ I YI i k l<.sel ~ for :I>
alr111)rt is :in adrantagc. i r i t ~ ~ iyears
y 11;1rlc us pwsil~lt:so that :[Link] oi :111 n d c ~ ~ u a t..11111ily e
14 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 15
can :it 1ca.t hc l~redirtrrlirom historical data. Indubtries niuring into A detailed kno~vledgcof tlie quantity of power and steam required
relati\-el? n e x areas oiten fail to consider the posribility of other plants for the operation of thv projrrted pliint must be (htuineil i~rfurctlir
fi~llo\vingsuit. The quantity of ~viltcrs1111ply sliould 110t only be ade- study can proceed. Tlie c o d 01 :dl fuels avail;~hiein the area slii,ulrl
quate for inture riecils of the prol111sed plant in question. hut alsu he carefully analyzcd S:rtural gar: l ~ i p e l i n r .are making ;I rlicap gas
:idequate for supplying the nnticil~aterlneeds i ~ iother industrie~that available in many parts of the country. Industrial rates for natural ga.
uliglit n ~ o r einto the area. I t is also desirable to mnsider alternate appear attractive, h t they mnst 11e ex:~tninrd carefully. Imlltstrics
sonrces of supply that may be required as the preicrred water sources located remotely f r i ~ n tlw l natural g;is snpply will 11e tile first to suffer
become delctcd. slrould a n interruption in pipcline service occur (17 a n unduly c d < l
In addition to having t l ~ cproper quantity of m t e r arailablc. the winter cause a taxing of the facilities. Further, c l ~ t qrates for indus-
quality of xvater must also be stu~licrl. Clletnical and h:~cteriological tries in cities served by pipelines often only apply to sunlmer coniiitii~nz
~xalninationuf the hvater d l indicate the extent of treatntent required ml~enthe demand is lo^. In such cases, alternate iuel supply tiinst be
nnrl aid in the development of n-ater cost figurrs for comparison with available for the winter months.
other 1oc;ltions. Possi1)ility of the (,ontamination of thc water source Evaluation of power costs is greatly aided by the rr:tdy c o o p r a t i m
I)? otlicr industries in the area should be anticipate~i. This c o n t a n - nf local utility companies. Most of these org:inizations maintain staffs
illation may consist o i only raising the temperuture of the water t o that specialize in industrial pmver. Tlic cost of produring power a t
sue11 a lr?-el that its use as a cooling rnediutn rvill be itrq10sbi1)le. the process plant n-liicll will include rriting-off the construction of a
l'lit~ cl~cmicalengineer is usually xell equipped t o tnakc cost c o n - p o w r plant, is prrhaps more diffirult to d~.termine. I t r i l l he l~aseil
parism;. of various water supl~lics,hut he rarely ha': tlic background on t,lie iuel :~vail:il)l~,in t11c arc:^, t l ~ cr m n p ~ n y ' sr x p e ~ i c ~ ~~vitli
c c other
ncccssary to m:lke intclligent conclusions concerning the extent and poxver generating operations, and particu1:rrly tlic eqirrit,rrce of u ~ i ! ~ .
relial~ility ui a particular supply. Such studies ilcscrvc tlic attention plants in the area.
of n competent water consultant trained in geology and meteorology. It is n d r a n t a g e ~ ~ uifs a progressive utility cotrlpany servils tllc region
being considered. Even process plants generating tlieir o x n porver iirlrl
Waste Disposal a n d Noise Abatement it necessary because o i rapid espan9ion to purclinw large anlriunts of
Tlic iorivaril-loo* engineer ~villconsider v a s t e disposal and noise power from time to time. Only a dependable and mpidly g r ~ ~ a i n g
al)ntenicnt just, as i m p ~ ~ r t a nint thinly populate~lareas as in a heavily utility system can supply such demands.
populattd rity having spevial ordinances related to these ~ ~ r o l ~ l c t n s .
Sothing is $11 in~principle~lor injudicious as duniping waste in tllc Labor
atmosphere or in nrarby streariie. I n addition to the moral or ethical
c,insider:~ti~)ns, it is not el-m good economics. Eventually the com- A large portion of the costs of any manufactured item is repreaentr~l
m ~ ~ n i t~vill
y rise in indignation and impose laws which may be so 11y l a l ~ o rcosts. Althuitgl~ 1:tbllr rates nrc inore nnll more 11rro11iinp
burilrnsi,me t h t profitable operation ~ o u l r l bc impossible. It be- similar in n ~ o s tparts o i the country, iactors su(,li as skill. labor [Link]:l-
Iioovt,~tliv engineer. tlit!reiore, t o study tlic miste dispoiial and noise t i m s , and [lie gmcral wcliaw of tlir Inhoring forre affect I d ~ o rp r ~ ~ h , .
lruhlcms and to [Link] the ruethods and costs of a n effective control tivity and efficiency m:~tcri:tlly. Earli region being consid~red ior
program for each region being studied. plant 111eatiun nlust 11e surveyed to rlcterriiinc the nvaili~l~ility and the
skills o i tlie lallor market. Thc skills need not exactly c o n i ~ ) ; ~ wit11
re
those required by the process plant. This fact was tnost effectively
rletnonstrated during the speculator influx of industry on the Guli Coast,
rlf the United States. Chemical plant operating labor a n s recruited
from iormer refinery operating men and oil field workers, both groups
of ~ v l i i c lhad
~ experience which required the same degree of responsibility
as t h a t in the chetniral plant.
Maintenance tncn make u p a large portion of any process p l m t lnlmr
force, and i t is necessary t h a t the crimmunity have availabl,, a t least
16 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 17
11 nucieui uf sue11 forces a> ell a; training facilities for proviilil~gn r n data frotn former years and experiences of existing plants. Air con-
men. ditioning in hot sections of t l ~ ccountry can no longer be ciinsidered a
The wage rates existing in a given conununity are i~nportaiit,but it, u s u . Indeed, companies endeavoring t o opcratc their office: nnil
~vouldhe a tlcfinitc mistake t o plan on the continuation of lorcr rates i control rooms vithout air conditioning \\-ill find it difficult t o obtain or
indefinitely. The t,rend in tlie United States has been toward a gradual I keep employees.
elimination of differences in wage rates betwrcn ~ a r i o u sparts of tile II
country. Perhaps, a Inore important factor is tile stability of such Community Factors
rates in a com~nut~[Link] communitier; have beeu notorious for
xide fluctuations, a condition ~vhicb n~;tkc; c<nnpany planning ex-
I One of the most important aspects of plant location is oitr.11 orer-
looked or only regarded ligl~tly. l'l~is aslicct is the effect of t l ~ cc l ~ i ~ r -
tremely difficult. acter and facilitiw of tlic conmninity Ilcing sturlieil. I t is most diffi-
A further cotisideration is the history of labor unrest in the region. cult to obtain objective infornmtinn on a community bec:iure the u ~ u d
Some cities in tlie United States, particularly the older industrial areas, sources of information, such as Chambers of Commrrce or Inilustrial
have a history of lal~orunrest vhich began back in tlic days of earl? C o ~ n m i s s i o ~tend
~ s t o prcscnt eou~owllatbiauerl i ~ l ~ i n i ohcr:lusc n of t l ~ r i r
union organization and apparently has continued periodically to the natural entl~usiaimfor t h ~ i Or T T - ~home to\\-11.
present tinic. C'onfcrenccs ~ i t hother plant nianagers in the area and h study of the cu~nnlunityshould hcgin \\-it11a I O I into ~ its hibtoricxl
local onion officials n-ill aid in evaluating the general labor picture. A dcvclo]nncnt. Froni such a study! tlrc charnctcr o f a city ill emerge
roufcrcnce >\-it11local union representatires will also serve to begin the
cstahlishn~ent of amiable relations. Talks with the managcmcnt of i including its general :rttitude toward industrial cievelo~iments.
Asswning that the historical study yield- a sati>factory report, tlir
gencral facilitirr offered by the coniuiuniry should bc rrriexr-ed. .i m n -
existing plants \,-ill yield data on the imllortant problem of lahor turn-
over. A stable labor force is valuable in successful plant operation. A tented group of p ~ o p l ertyrriro a ccrtain mini~numuunlbcr of facilities
look a t the liotnes of the laboring force in a c o u n n u ~ ~ i tand
y knowledge for satisfactory living. I f these do not exist, it often becomes a burden
of the percentage of home ownerships slrould give some clue t o the for tlie plant t c ~rubsidize such facilities.
contentment of the laboring group. Bank8 must bc reliable and staffed wit11 competent r~&cialsand of
I n addition to federal labor laws ~ v h i r happly throughout the United surb a size that. t h y \\-ill be r:ilial~le of l~anillingplant :IS n-ell :IS e n -
States, various state? and. rmnmunities h a r e enacted l a w affecting pluycc accounts. Tlre v a l w of ;dcquate sl~oppingfacilities, cqicciai~y
labor relations and ivorkmen'.- cmnpen?ation. minimum age, and otllcr for the fetnale melnl~ersoi fa~nilyunits, cnrmot, I)? ovcrempliasizwl.
la~v-:related t o lahor pmrtices. Tlrrsc l:~\[Link] from rrgiou to region Larger cities iifTcr thc advantage of factory \\-arcl~ousefacilities
nncl competent legal advice is necessary for the porposc of interpreta- that replacement parts for plant equipu~cntcan be tcnilily olilainrcl.
tion. .irlequatc and gracious lrotcl facilities a1.e alvays \wlcome, esl~wially
T V ~ C I Iit beromcs the job of plant iifiicials to entertain [Link] dignitar-
Weather ies. At least one or nlorc hospitals fully accrcditctl by tire hmeric;m
V'eatlier data for a numhcr of years sl~ouldbe assembled for each Hospital Association sl~ouldhe located in tlic area. 111 larger cities,
con~munity heing studied Particular a t t r n t i m ,sI~ould be given t o transjlortntir~~~ brcrnll?~a p r ~ ~ i l ~ c m ~ .I n n y~ ~ - o l k ejlrefcr rr to use public
severe eouditioni of ~vcathcr snch as hurricanes, eartl~quakcs, and transportation becnux (if t l ~ edifficulty oi parking in certain areas.
floo~ls. These catastrophic events. 1vliic11 must be assumed as prob- Such pu11lic tranq1ort3tion must 11c cfficicnt and c:e~~nomical.
able, increase construction cost. Extremely cold \yeather often Iiam- Thc cultural facilities of the community are in~port:int t o sound
per;; lirocess plant operation and requires special construction features growtlr. Churclres, lil~r:~riw, scl~ools,civic t111~[Link]~!t awlcia-
to protect iquiliment frotn freezing. Predominantly warm weather t i n : I I n i i l r g r i p , if nctivc imd I y n m i c , I 11111(:11 to
permits che;lpcr con?truction, but clas~ically it is said to reduce the make a comniunity prwgessivc. Fornmcl-looking plant n1:magern will
dlicieney of a labor force. Suclr a conclusion must bc v i e w d wit11 realize tlmt tlte yuung people in a community will 1w the crnployees oi
r c q ~ t i c i s n~vheu
~ the production rceords of process plants on the hot tomorron.. and a good school ~ ~ P ~ P i1nd I I I advqunlc cultural opportuni-
and h~nnidTexas nnd Louisiana Gulf Coast are con~pnreilwith those ties d l in the fin:tl analysis makr ilettcr rmploycrs. 1lecau.c thv
in o t i w part? of the country. j)r,~cessi~xlu.~tri(y ~ k ] i c n ~011I ~ , T ~ I I I ~ I , : II I~: ~ I I I ] I ~ I K ~ ! I ! ,il 1.2 $lt+ir:~L,lv111;it :i
C0.t. i ~ Ii r r n t i ~ yor air conditioning may be estimated using m a t h e r unirersity of the first rl:ws lie 111carriliu thc st:ite umlrr con~i,l~:ratiun.
18 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 19
I t s engineering and science departments should be accredited by the the data necesbary for t l ~ cinforliintion disrwrst~dalmvt. can he ol~tilineil
appropriate agencies (Engineering Council for Professional Derelop- u-itliont actually visiting tlir are:1.. The final site wlecriim. Iro\\.cver.
uient. hmcrican Chemical Society. etc. !. require- careful x r u t i n y hy a c o ~ p sof mperts. I t is preferable t o
h study of the population trends in a community is often revealing avoid pul~licizing snch risits since real estate vnlnes invnriat~ly rise
sincc it indicates the gron-th and trnor o i a conn~innity. .ihrcakdorm upon rnuior of nexr- pI:rnt construction. This necc~;;nry secretiveness
of population statistics into age groups is liell~ful in l~rcdicting the is often hest accomplislied hy dealing 17-ith only one rcliahle real estate

,.
poesiblc vitality of a region.
llic problem uf recreation deserres special consideration. Recrea-
firm. Topngraphy and soil condition of each site must he evaluated
Foundation c o ~ t sare greatly increased on site* liaring soil of Iorv hear-
tion nil1 inclurlc, of course, the cultural entertainment already men- i t i a i t Good natural dr:iin:~gc is another ~leeir;iblrfeature; a n d
tioned: and. in ailrlition, outdoor activities and otlrer events ranging if tlie iitc is lorated near a streani or other 11ody of \r-ater, f l ~ ~ ohistory
d
from country club dances t o sulall gatherings in homes. The disaiiran- should t ~ e carefully cl~eckcd. O f t r n seemingly excellent sites have
tage of the extremely small communities or company tinms is t h a t the soffercd from pcriodic flouding that nonld never he predicted on in-
couipnny n ~ u s t*ul~si~lize the constructicln of parks, golf courses, and spection of tlrc nrca during noruial conditions. I n :1dditio11 to tlie
cluhs. Furtherl the so-called company torvn is predominantly occupied advice 11i competent soil experts and constructim engineers regarding
I)? e~ilployresand their fanlilies. M a n y people find such a situation the feasibility of the site. officials of the neighboring plants can give
ni~rron-ing sincc most of their friends arp other t,ml~loyeesand their helpful hints concerning the nature of r a r i o w locations in the area.
fn~nilir.san11 all too often a f t e r - l ~ ~ i u rconvcrsatione
s ric~elopinto "shop
t : k Tliis geiicraliaatiou, l ~ ~ ~ n e ri*c rdangerous
, since it depmds so FINDING INFORMATION
uiuclr ion the individuals i n ~ o l r e d . I t ~ u i g l ~bet said. nrvt,rtheless, t,l~at Tile forcgoirig brief sulunxrry of factor;: that ninst lie ~ I ~ t c r m i n cind
it requirc,s people ~ v i t hIxtter than average imagination tn avuid thcsc a. plant lucation study indicates the need for a vast amount of i n f o r n ~ a -
pitfilll~. t i m both quantitative (statistiral) and qualitative. Rerause of thc
Extremely small couiniunit~icsmay fail to offer the opportunities for large nmul~er of agencies, puhlic and private, rvllicli u l l i useful
rrcreatiorr required by yonng prople and discontent often develops. inforn~ationof this type little actual original gathering of data must
Plants located near large rities i ~ a wavoided ew11 situations, rvhile some bc done. All sources of printed information rliould be cxliauded t~eforc
remotely icicatcd plant;? have overcome thcsc difficultica by the est,ab tniiking a private survey on a given phase of the study. T o ;lid in the
lialnuenf oi active recreation ~ i e p a r t n i e ~ ~and t s clubs. These hunian search for printed information, a euggeytcll list of sources tugc,ther ~ v i t h
~ ~

factors :ire all rather netn~luue, t n ~ tnone tile less important. They types of iniorm:ltion offered is giren in outlinc form belun.. The n.i~rkso i
dionld not be overlooked in any analysis of plant sites. ltigglenian and Frisbeelo and Cornan" aided greatly in prcpuiiig
The efficiency, clmracter. an11 history of both state and local govern- this wtlinc.
tuent shonld he evaluated Ilocalitiee 1vhic11 liare snffcred long yrary
nf corrupt 111. inefficient porern~ucnt are pour risks. State and local I. Inriirrs and Aids to Scnrrhing
.[Link]. Gowrnmcnt Pablirntions*
Iarw and repulatii~nsnliicli will affect plant operation and living con-
1. Hi~.slihr~.~. H. S.. and hlelinnt. ?. H.. Suhjrct Guide t o 1'nili.d S l o / ~ sGo,.-
ditions require the interprrtat,ion of a co~npetent attorney. These crnrrrrnt Puhlientior~s,.[Link] [Link] .isuoci;~[Link]. Ill. (19471.-Dr.
include d l tax ordinancesl especially those applying directly t ~ r the [Link] gorrrnlnmt, publirationr and p i r ~ csmmw [or n numhw of s c l e ~ r ~rq)iv-i. d
industrial ~,oniniunit,y. The existcncc of lorv taxes in not in itself a 2. Srlinreckehcir, I,. F., Gu~.r,-ti,iientPublicalions nrid ?'[Link]- 1 s t . The Brook-
favorahlc situation unless the commnnity iy already well devrl~~peil i n g ~Institution, FTashington, D.C. (1936).-Anollicl. [Link] guide to g~vern-
a r ~ dis not in great deht. It is certain t h a t a e ~ r n m u n i t yhaving un- nirnt publications, although sonwwlint imldnted.
3 . . I l o v / h i ~ Cntnlog o / thc [Link] S l o l c a Goswi-nmrnt Pzihlic,i/ions-lliijor
<I?\-eloped srwer systc~ns,roads and other similar facilities iliust soon indrx oi gmwnment publicniions. .A ypal.-pnd issue contains annual suhjert index.
increase taxes. Lists prtietirally all pnl,liiations h t h rongrcsaioniil :md rl~p.i~~t~nml:rl. tinil rtnrtinp
In 1936 has included many proceeaed (mimcogloplird, rtc.) puhlirarioni iirmwd
FINAL SITE SELECTION oi intrwst to the puhlic. Most large universities and puhlic lihl;iries serve as
Alter an area or regio~i ha.; h e m s~,lccted for plant location, the
next i o l ~is the selectiut~of a sl~ecificsite. A c~~,nrirlcrable
mlonnt of
i,rrclt Scxirr,, o j Cortg,i,~.~-C;i~Ulr t o Cong~wsion;tll i t w ~ t m c .
7 . C<,~<gs.c.~,<i<,rt<~lD i r v c / , u ~ - I . i s t ~ ofrici:~l ~ 1 : ~ f fr. ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ ;and
- i l :wl~vitics
~iliti~~s
u i r ; d l dcl~;~clorvni, Inncan, and n g m v of ir,[Link] g o r r ~ ~ n r n m l G . ovi~~.nmml
o~.g:inizittioneli;cnps from 3-r:u to ycm. m111t h D ~ i ~ w l o ~ . (is- l j r I ~ ) h lin tlw I ~ T O P C I
1,uuting of Ipttwa of inquiry.
8. I'.S Gon m m r r i l .lluriiinl-Di~scril~~s oi.y:inizntion and dutirs o i [Link]
n g m r i m Hrlpfrtl in locating sen-iccs formrvly li:mllnl b y :rlmlish~dngrnrics.
9. O!!iriol R r y i s t r , . of t i t c I I (yearly)-1,iit.i pcwuns occupying
:~,lniinist~.:~tivt~. ,inilicial :and Icgiilntiv~pwitiun; in t l F~ P ~ W I( I: o ~ m m i r n I
10. l>,y;,rI,,>?,,l;,l m d B,,W.,,I l,,,liw-.\ ,I,,,,, I r r "ig,>,?rn,,,,~,lt < l c ~ l ~ : ~ ~ t ! l ~ ~ n t ~
:dI,nrc~noslxll,[Link] inlliccr oi tllris u v n ~ n ~ l , l i ~ . : ~ t i o'nl- l. w ~inclwk tlw f ~ ~ l l o v i n g
-~unmorirc:
,,. 1,i.d ,,/ l x ' lj,,,.,<,,, ,,I Y i , , , , < i ' ~ , l , I i ~ " l i , , i , ~ .191I~-l!i;9.
b , l n d c z 1 0 I ' ~ t l d i w l i ~uf~ ~I / ,~<s, C-.,S. l k ) , f . 01 A y ~ ~ i ~ ! t l t v tI W
! !, . G l W
c , ( ' , t l d , ~ g 01 l . . S ( ' < ~ m m
i!ttwo,8 P ~ t l i l i w l i o m ,1?!1~1--1'?~.?.
I S I . i,J Co,,i,,iric<~ P i i l ~ l i c o l i o n s (,'iifolog f1%?)-3lr,ntlrIy l i s t of
22 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 23
3. The Conference Board Management Record, Sational Industrial Canierenrp
Board. Sev York, S . Y . (monthly).-Discusses labor trends and presents statistics.
4. Labor Union Publications.
o. Economic Oittlook-CIO, Dept. o i Education and Research, Kashington.
D.C.

6. 11-ho'. TVtio i r i Lichor, 1)vrlen P~.css,Serv York, X.Y.

i . Prrntic~-HnllT.;ihor Puhlic;rtions. Pwntive-Hall. S ~Ywk, T S.Y.
o. L,ihi,, Rcp<irl--Kr&ly rqmrt in lahrx relntianr.
h . Lnhnr Gitirie-Intr~.p~.~tsexisting Inrrs.
r . L,iho,. S~vri'icc-llirkly supi)lw~[Link]~jilc[ctpxti or digcsts of nil nsa
labor laws.
8 . 1 h i 1 . r : ~of Sation:il AHnirs. IVaihiiigton. D c . , and the C o m m ~ w eC1r;mng
Huoir. Cliiwgo. Ill.-Poblisii ronwleralllc 1:hur mformwtion.
$1. Loml union irprr;enti~ti\w :and l8ho1. 1:ryycri.
10. Stntt ~ ~ n t ~ l o ? m roflicrs-heal
nt [Link] cnn s1111plyinfol.m:ition on :II.P:L
ecrll>lo>uwni i.i,nililion.s.
11. I i t d i ~11, I,,rbiri Arlicica. Rnnd School 01 Sar.i:il Scicnrr, S e w Yo&, X I - .

Cl~iriigo,Ill.
6. Ofici,ri Sterrms1,ip r r , d A i i l u w G u i d e , Trmipu~.tntionCuiilea. Inc., S c w Ycrk.
1 . T l i ~ l - w uo f Census.
ci. Digrsts of s I : ~ t e l a w rrlulinc: to t:<xrs ((:or. Div.).
h . City fin:ini.w :md rmpluyrnent (Go\-. D i r . ) .
r.. Census of pqulntion.
2 . h!iili.~lirs o/ l r i c o m ' , RIIIP>LLI of Intetnal R ~ v m u r ,ITS. T ~ . ~ a s n t .Dek~t..
y
IVasliingtrm, 1j.C.
3. . I l i i t ~ i c i p r i l I , 1 1 t I City l i n g .hw,.i;ttion. ('liii.;~go.
[Link] offici:~lsand f o m ~oi m y gui-ernment.
4. .11~8u~u~?vze?t! A ~ ~ ~ ~Satin~xtl
L o c , I n d w t r u l C o n i c v ~ nBmrd,
~~ SW Y w k ,
S.Y-Givrs c o n m n r r a prire indicrs in GO cities.
'5, Ai<to,ttobiic FCC/* ri. F i g u r n , .Aolomohilr hlmnif;ir.t~~srri' .ii;wi:~tion. Dr-
troit. \.livh.-(;iyrj rcgistlxtion dnta.
*6. Anwrican Twtisit .Assw., SPX Y d , K.Y.-ITntc i m i n i w w > t i m on lural
trnniporlntiun svstrms.
* i .h~nrriuanT:ixicat, .Association, Clrirago. Ill.-\l~.itc i w d;ili> on t;ixi srt~tictlc-.
U. Lahor * X . i n ~ w i w nT~'lrpImnc& Telegraph Co.. S e ~ yYmk. S.T.-Conrart iol. itatis-
1. Bnrrwu oi [Link] Statistics. U.S. Dept, of L:nhol., IV;rshinglan. D.C. tir:il ~ I onR pllones.
a. Monthly cn~ploymcntreport hy etalrs. "9. I T S . Post Oflicc Thpt., ITaahington. D(:-Contart iol. ~wwiptsfor inrli7-~hal
b. Cost of Living Indices. {post utliws.
e. Handbook 01 Labor Stotis!ics. Puhlisl~ed irregularly since 1926-Wages.
10. Drj,[Link] of Commerce--Statistiral data on bucmra* onrvatmns n i all
cast of living, f t e . kinds.
d. Jfnntidy Labor Ret,i~zu-Wagc surreys. statistical dnta, hihliug~.apIr? oi 11. Ranker's 1)[Link].
N . Rand-hlrSdIy. Chicago, Ill.

h. R. I,. Polk Cunipany, K : i ~ l ~ v i lTl ~m. n .

* Valunhl~in vulnp:t~ing comulrurili~~,.
24 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Plant Location 25
2. T r : ~ ~ ~ s ~ x ~ r t : r t i u ~ ~ - ~ i c [if ~ ~ti yj iltm
~ r .:ill i r ~:init
r i II:IIIIW.
3. R a w ~Iaterir~ls-i~ualitativeinforn~:~tion.
14. Stalisiiwl Scwims. 4. Fuel, IY:itcr: and Pmv\.t*r-rntes and adrlrcss~si ) i ' r~tility~iffirials.
,I. Dun & Rsarlrt~~rct 5, Labor-typical tvage rates, consnmer price index.
b. 5t:lndard & Pools 6 . Taxes-rates, Addresses i ~ fcity awl state officials to cor1t:ict for
15. Fcdrwl RPSCIT-rl h n k . ~rdditionnlinforn~ation-ICs1)lanation of tax drurtnrc.
16. Prderol K m ~ w c.%l![Link] Ronrd oi Go\e~.nor.; F r d r m l Re-srnr Syitern. 7. \Yeather-charts.
II~urliingron.I1.C. (yr~.iudic;tl)-Gi~c,sdqrnrfmrnt iiurr ielrr a d rons~in7rrwedit
'lillil.
8. Industries in Area-oil and gas, clren~icals,and n1ct;lls-l)escril~tioli
17. 1,or:tl I x ~ k ~ . oi existing facilities. l~rodurtionand list uf all plants on Gulf C ' ~ I : Irr-it11 ~
I . C I i Comme~.ci.: VI~J-. county. CAI I t I l t l 1)rirlol~1i1rmt Ilamcs of genernl managers, lists of prodi~ct.~, m i l qu:rntities nv:rilnhl(,.
l~o:trds:stat? t ~ n i w r ~ i t i e s . 3 lliscellnneous Statistics over Pt:riod of Ycars-
19. Bimnio! Suj.w!g 01 , ? ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~F&n~l
~ ! i u ~S~citciLy
z, .lgmv>-.Kasl~iugton,D.<-.- n. Population.
b. Retail Sales.
c. New Construction.
d. B a n k Accoonti.
e. E n i p l o p i m t .
23. Statc and city 1ir;~[Link]-.. f . Post Office Receipts.
24. Sntion;tl Oilirr of Vital Stnrictiir. T.S. T ) ~ I I I .of I'ohli,, Hi.:dlh Knsliington.
1)C.-Birth? and deaths in ritii,~. g. C h a n ~ b e rof C o n r ~ n c ~Statiitieal
w Sinn~nary( i w ~ e dmontl~lyi-
25, Olficiiil IIolcl Rcrlhuok & Diricli~ii,. 11wxic;ln Hutrl .liioriatian 1)[Link].y includes .stati.~tirson Port o i Houston tonn:lges. d q w t n ~ c n store,
t
sales, telephones in service, and t~r-enty-twco t i ~ c r1)uints \I-hick
indicate city vitality.
When i t is rcalized t h a t all this lielpful iniormation is available from
one orgnnization a t no coat. the value of p r i m t e and pnl~licindustrial
drvelopmant ilcprirtnm~tsbccon~esm ~ r cnpparcnt.

Tlw above listing is I1y no ulcons coluplete. H?nv)- c m ~ ; l ~ a s iIirr- s

been p1:icetl on tire nontei~lrni(~a1 dntn sources since it is assumetl t h a t
onc trained in engineering will 11e\.e a n-orking knorvlecige of the sourccs
of scientific and technical literature.
T h e factual infonnatii~nnx-nilablc flrim industrial divisions of ~ I I ~ I I I -
bcrs of commerce, utilit:- con~panie.s:mid milrorids deserve special em-
~ i l ~ n sI~erc.
is Altl~ough,us ;[Link] ~[Link] iutevpret:~tionby tlresc
organizations tvill l~rol~:iblyhe filled tvitli tile same enthusiasm fur alr
area as that held by any a ~ e booster,
a the faotunl data is usually reliable.
It is ;irrangcd in a \-cry u d u l nianner and represents tire most rapid
meiins o i obtnining n co~npil;rtion of ilat:~,p:irticularly f ~ i r:i prcliniinan.
surmy. Certainly for ilct:iile~l surveys nil<litional facts n-liiv11 r r ~ y11nr.e
t~cen~nnitted~ u u s tbe, obtained :~nd:ill other data cllt'cked
As a n example of the type of ~ n a t e r i a lobtainable from a cl~arnber
of commerce: it is interesting to take a hricf look s t the brucliurc i w x d
by idle Charnbcr of Conunerce of Houst(in," 21 rapidly grutving industrial
;rre:k, p~rticul;irlyin t l ~ c11row.s iu~lr~sirit.i.T<riefly>tl\c ini11r111~iii1111 :I?-

;.cnrl;lcrl incluilcs thc f~111,:nr-ing:

1 I ~ k c t l i ilt(.o~~ir i ~:i~~I)!. ( . o I I I I ~ ~ I ' - .
~ ~ iI,[ ~. - r i r i . u r ~ ~ r ~: il w
 CHAPTER 3 Preliminary Dato for Construction Projects

ulrnt of Agriculture. and the U S . (:east and Geodetic Snrrey. Tlic h n ~ r r -

icau Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers hare also cm~piled
considerable n-eatlicr data, vhich may be useful in preliminary n-ork.
27

PREVAILISG \YISD DIHECTIOS

'scful in initial plant armngcu~ent. .is an illustration assume that the
plant is t o be located in an area where the xind is predominantly fr,:,m
the Southeast. It wmld be nndesirablc t o locate a process ~ v l ~ i r fre- ll
quently discharges noxious funlcs on the Southeast side of the plant where
they ~ o u l dhe constantly blown through the plant. Again, asaurnc that a
PRELIMINARY DATA process discharges particularly volatile and flannnable vapors that are
Ileavier than air. I t xould be unwise to locate an open fired heater in
the path that the f u n ~ c sw ~ u l dordinarily f o l l ~ ~ wGeneral
. xind direction
FOR rnust bc considered in locating any process which is exiraor~linarilyh a -
xrdous or subject to fires. The efcct of wind direction m storage areas
for flalnn~al~le products should also be rtudied.

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Cscd in setting proper design conditions ipounds per square foot) for
tvind loads on exposed rtructurcs, equipment. or hildings. Certain U. S.
Gulf Coast areas, for instance, use 40 pounds per square foot because of
After a rlte has been selected for the construction of a process plant, ~ x ~ s s i l ~ i lof
i t yhurricanes. The final value has considerable influence on
a large amount of infurmation must be acculnulated hefore design work structural and foundation design.
ran begin. Engineers, purchasing agents, and construction supcrrisors
must h a r e detailed information about the site and surrounding area.
Several experienced men \vitl~backgrounds in both engineering and con- TJsed in process design, in the selection of insulation, in determining
struction management ran obtain the nccdcd preliininary d:tta on a visit plant-building typcs f l ~ rilrocess equlpnlcnt prote~tion,in building design
to the construction site. The information they gather includes data on for personnel ~ , u n ~ f o rilnd
t , in selecting inaintenancc procedures. The
engineering for use in design, procurerncnt pr:tctices in the area, and design of the cooling vxter system and selection of equipnent are also
informati~~n necessary for planning construction. Tllesc preliminary data influenced by atnlwpl~eric tcn~pcrature rengrs. Tctnpcrature ranges
plus psocess requirements set tire hasis for design an11 constrnrt,ion of should he studied over a tvo-year period: or longer, to provide the best
the plant. estimates of arerage values.
TYPICAL PRELIMINARY DATA [Link] H U M I ~ I T(range
T by day, month, and seasonal :iveragei
Preliminary data outlined below are typical of tllat gatllcred hy the Required for design of cnoling towers, air driers for process air, and for
engineer on his survey visit t o the job site. determining personnel cmifort requirements for buildings.

Engineering D a t a RAISFALL( I K I ~ X ~ ~yearly,

~ U I I I and
, seasonal avelagcJ
Essential data necessary for the engineering of a ~wocess~ I a l l t1vIlicll Required for plant drainage design, building design, and possibly in
should be obtained by the survey include: process deslgn.

Weather Data Ssow C ~ S D I T I ~ N S

Fur domestic projects (U.S.) information on wcatlrer iuay he ohtsineil Required for structure design, maintenance procedures, and buildlng
from government agencies such as the U.S. N'eatllcr Bureau, G.S. Depart- design.
16
28 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Doto for Construction Projects 29

Plant Terrain
11. Soils I I ~ I -l,c
t c q > l i ~ r c dfor fonndation or load-canying character-
is ti^,?. Elec:ric Power a n d Fuel Services
11. Chnror~rmnps sl~mvingground e1cv:itions ~\-llicIl:ire useful in plan-
ning 111nnt ~ i r n i ~ : ~and
g c plant roiid\\-ay ayitenls sl~onldbe prepared.
c. (I<~ncrnlslopr or I~crularitieiof the site, a r e also nccess:uy in pstimat- IYl~cnrlt,ctric pinver is to 11e p ~ r c l l n ~ c rthe l , 111c;ltionof incoming p w w r
Ing l,[Link]~~innrpar:~diug \\-hiclr in turn inriicales t h e type of construction f ( ~ ~ l i , r:tml
- . tlir plant sul~st:ltirn~ nrnst 11e rlctcrnrirrmi. Priuii~ryvoltages
gr:lcling c(l11ipment. I I I U ~l ~ e deterniined early, in orllcr ti1 start cnginrcring :ind p r o c u r c ~ n m t
11i t h r I I I : I ~ 1)lant
~ t r a n r f ~ r n ~ and
c r switcl~gcar. Tlic preliminary sllrvcy
s I ~ o l ~ ldctcnuinc
,l the (1ire1,tion from ~vhirllthe lilies ~villconic; ~vhether
~ i i ~ i v cSro~n
r tila llropcrty h i t to tlic substt~tion is to bc ove~11e:id
i ~ n ~ l c r g r o u n\vlretlirr
d. a zinglc fccder systrm \~-illhe pr,>vi(iril,or \\-l~etllcr
a . Promas [Link] ([Link] used in the 1n'occss).
t w or liiore sources i11.c to he conncctrd. h singlr sopply fccder system
I,. I ' n m s cooling rvatcr. is 1 - 1 1 1 I I t i l l be I - i l l . I n r w t a i l ~arcas snl~jtwtt o ievcrc
c. Sirnit:~rywater (tl~iai l l l h t he 11otiih1~ \ \ R I ~ c ~ I.
:~tinr,>plioricclwtril,ul disturlxinccs. Ilowevcr. p n . i , r fnilr~rofr<qui.r~cyis
d . Gtility water (n-ntcr 11wd for general clr;uiing and n~iseclluneous :I s r ~ r i ~pr~il>lwil.
~w 'IYic ~ I O T T s- ~~ ~~ p p l i m
c ra y he :t11Ic to reduce f r q n e n ~ y
scrvirw I . r ~ r~ ~ r o l ~ d ~ iofl i E:lilure
ty by ridding one or nlorc n(lditiuni11 frciicrs pro-
e , S ~ V X IgIrIn w : ~ t i o ~IIII:L~XYI~I
l \\-:it~rfor l x ~ i l e r . ~ ) vi~linypo~~-\-rr i r i ~ ~nnd i f f w n t dirrction. Pa>t I~istrlryof p o ~ fr; i i I ~ r e z
f. Fire protect,ion x u t e r . !l!:r)- 111. !I?tcr~nini'd1'1.~1111tlw s ~ ~ p l ~ l i r~r ~ ' st w r or
~ lfro111
s 11t11wli1(.:11IIWS.
g . \Vnter f o r constvnetii~nu j i Iqu:intitic:: of conbtru~.tionn-ntrr dcpcIId 'I'hr . q i l l l i r r I I I U ~:?Is0 Iw givrm, 11s c w l y :IS l ~ r ~ s s i l ~t l eh, ,late I V I I ~ I L
on type of l ~ r o j r o t nu11111cr
, of construotii~nc~i~ploy(,cs, :mil the lcligtll 01 t l ~ c111:1nt xill start opcr;~tionI I ~\vl~enl m w r will be required. Ii tclu-
the cor~structiouperiod). porary power is t o 11c provi~leilfor construction uses. i l ~ cnecessary nr-
JTater f o r process cooling, sanitary nse, and steam generation must be r m g e m r n t s for inrtnllation ~ l ~ o u l be r l made early. Poor electric utility
che~iiicallypure or trcatcd t o thc [Link] rrquircd for the [Link]:s. T h c - . m i c e or n rrrord of high frequency of porwr failures ninst be considered
source of r a t e r supply m a y be fro111 *trennr he& or other natural Water n.l~enparts of the process becon~ehaanrdous under power inilurc condi-
provided turbidity and scdiulcntation is not excessive. Brackizl~ tions. I n certain processes many prime movers must be provided ~ v i t l ~
or ~ 3 1 t\\-ater is oftt.n I I S ~ ,f~o r vmiling, l x ~ tc:rrefnl selection of the 1u:ltc- spare steam rlrivrrr for safety reasons. I n a major installation t l ~ c
rials uf construction is necessary in order t o 11revent corrosion and ilrq~licatimof drivers inay he rostly.
de~m?its. Small paclc:~gr-typcstennl .rcenerntors are nsnally nmrr i ' r o n n n ~ i r ~t hl : ~ n
30 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Dato for Construction Projects 31
iliary pressure vessel or capacity t a n k since the system ~ h o u l dprovide
tlie required capacity. Pressures above 30 t o 40 psig for plant fuel syp-
tenis are unnecessary. Csually gas supply pipeline prrssurcs arc much
ahol-e this rang?. Ordinarily the prohlcui is more one of reduring pipeline
prc.;.ttres ti] range.; suitable for plant services. For this reason thi, clue.-
tion of supply pressure should he dieruseed as early as possible. If the
[Link].:H gas is to he used primarily ior fuel, a slipply line pressure range frmu
T h e selection of the ty11c of fuel d r p m ~ l son heating value and scllinp 50 to 75 psig should be sufficient ti1 allow for plant surges ~ v i t hadequate
price aud i~ elusely rrlatc,,I to tile rconomics of purcliaml 11o~r-1.r.S m i e of i~pstrcaltipressure for satisf:rctory control and capacity in tlw l ~ l a n tfuel
tlte sources are: ( 1 I Kntural gns; ( 2 ) fuel oils and liquefier1 petrolcum systeni, Pressures a t thc point of usage are ordinarily in tlic range of
gas; (3) c o d 11s (1t11er si liil fuels; (41 plant n-astes. 20 to 30 psig, and ;ire l o ~ ~ - for e r hurncr headers.
Snturirl gas is often user1 as a raw material in certain proceiscs. \T-hcn Fiiel oils arc usunlly drlirered by railroad tank car or uiotor tank
tllc process requires naturai gas as a raw material, gas is also used as [llallt trurk. Facilities for storage of the liquid fuel niurt be providctl. l:su>rIl>-
fuel. S m i e oi the plant uses oi gas arc as fucl for priule mol-ers such heating iurtst he provided for unloading. Tliis is more fully disrlissctl in
as large internal cmnbuation engine-driven compressors or gas turbinrs. Chapter 21. I n the preliminary survey, thought should be givcn to proper
fucl for steam gmer;rtiou, engine iuel for el~,ctriralgcnernturs, ;md for location of railroad or truck unli~a~ling p i n t so t h a t tlie initial p l m t
produrtim of inert gases fur purging or blanketing srrvices. \\-hen arraugrnicnt stluli(.s vill inrhldc this facility.
natural gab il to 11e porcl~asedit is important to ohtaiti d ; ~ t aon tllc snpl~ly IiqlieJied petvoieii~~i yrrses or gases held in a liquid stnte arc t ~ c ~ o m i n g
pressure and an :inalysis i1f the g,zs as 17-rll as a guarantee of its coniposi- a n iml~ortantsourrc of foe1 for [Link] llcating in some arras, Iioi\cv~.r.
tion or the liluits of v a r i a t i ~ ~ n .Xatural gas in solnc areas is \vet or tlicir. usc as indu.;trial furls is still souicwl~atlimited. If the p1;tnt is
carries a certain nui,)unt of condmsatc. If such is the case. n trill> sl10111d small, this type fucl may he used to an arlwntage for [Link] huililing
be provided near its entrance to the property. I t uiust he decided and hating.
clearly pointed out in thc mntract for supply. rvl~icliparty shall furnisll Coal is not ordinarily used as a plant fuel fur t l ~ cprocess plant : h o w
the t r a p and ~vliercthe responsibility for drainage of the t r a p d l lie, i.c.. r r e r , coal may 11e used ns a powr-generating fuel if the projcct is located
~ v i t htlir rupplicr or. tlie ~ I I I T C ~ I ~ S \Vhilc
P~, rrrtain of the liquid tuatcrials in a [Link] producing area 01. if other iucls pr11vc uncconoulical. Neressary
n-ill immediately ev;rporatc upon dischargr, other coti~poncnts~ u n yre111aiu facilities ~vould)Jc require<l f(1r unloading. storage, and l ~ a t ~ l l i n g .h
iu a liquid state producing ;r l~azard. I n conge-tcd iudustrial a r e w the nuuilwr oi solid fuels other tlian coal exist; liowever, t l ~ r i ruse ~vuuld
ilrninagc o i trapped r,indcnsate from natural gas can hecome a i,onsirler- proh:il~ly rcquirc f i i d i t i ~ ssiiuilar to that for coal handling.
able prohlem. LTnless there r ~ d he l some process use of these liquids it is Plnnt imstes are oftell an ilnpi1rtaut s w r c r of fnrl. Their availnhiliiy.
hrttcr to insist on a dry gas, furnislicd at a certain prrssurc a t the user'; of cuursc, dcpcn~lsupon the 1,rocess. If plant [Link]? ~ u a yhe h r n e d as
meter. iuel, the prohlmm of waste disposal may he airnplified. Plant wnstc.; tl~itt
T l ~ cpurcliaser lnr~st also ascertain precisely where tllc natural gas arc to t ~ eintcrtuittent,ly ~ l s e das fuel lllay 1)r0dwc a storirgc proI)1?1u.
pipeline ~ i i m l t r r t h r property and decide which party shall supply the
turter, the primary device, thc meter house, valving arrangetnent, and tlie Product a n d R a w M a t e r i a l Transportalion a n d Sforage
pipiug acwssories. The a h u w suggestions are for supply services in the T h r p r ~ ~ l i ~ u i n adata
r y roncerning plant terrain iuay 1r:rvr ronsiclcral~lc
order oi niillions of c u l ~ i rfeet. They are not of itnlmrtnnce for wuall eff'ect on tllc 111c;ltionof w(,h iacilitiw ns ailr road unloa(ling and loading
installations ~ v i t hservice connections perhaps of 3"-pipe aim or less. points, and packaging and storage facilities. C:rrtain plant. l o c n t ~ don
Ho~T-ever,it sliould always be clearly understood which party supplier sIq>iug s i t e h a w the liquid pr~lrluetsturagc :~rriingc~l so that ;ill lilading
and installs the equipn~cnt. is hy gravity. T h e location of st,,ragr puints for hazarrlous prwlurtr tilust,
\Then the final c i ~ n t r a r tis entered into with the supplier a drawing Ile rarefully (,ousi(lrred since in order Lu m c ~ ts;tfct:- r~y~tirrtnerrts :tdd-
should be prepared locating the cmnccting point of tile owner's piping tional :rrre;lgi, nray be rerluircd
and showing the type flange, valve, joint, etc. to which plant piping will It i s vcry import;lnt to dcterniiuc the dcgrw oi intcrpl:mt tran?lwrt:i-
he connected. Tlicre data should be given the l~urchaserby the supplier. tion : ~ n dthe storage ~cquireulentsbeeituse uf their effect on plant nower
Natural gas supplicd by pipeline ~villnot ordinarily require auy aux- rc(lr~ireliietits.
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 33
32
Ran. r ~ ~ n t e r i a so~iietinies
ls enter plant;. and prodncts Icavc the ~rl:irit lierioil of crcrtiulr. Tlw [Link] il;ltn I U I I \ ~ I E IICCUIIIIII:I~(YI :IS I Y L I . I ~
hy pipeline. TVherever any piping enters or learrs the plant the cxact possible.
p i n t s should he determined a;. early as possible si1 that interference ~r-itll Labor
{plant f:~ciliticscan be ax-aided.
o. Awn I\-RP(, rates, trade union rontrarts in forw and ~spirntirm
Procurement D a t a ,I:~tw.:IIUI:~v:iilxl~iliry o f lo1,:11~killml~ , r : ~ f t w r e n

Prelilninary data :~ffectlngprorurcnlrnt arc: 11. Tr:~ilcu~iionrr,lm,wltnlii~n:nanlr-.. ;i~[Link]~s of all 111c:il or arcn
~lriiolibrwinc.s :tgmts.
1. Earlicat date xlren inaterials rliay hc rrwivcil a t jdliite. r . Otliw project.: planned in area nrld times of peak erup1<1ymrnt.
2. R w i c nl;1terials r ~ fmn.4ruction :rv;~iI;il~lcin a r c > . (1. I-niou permit.-if ~,onstructionpersnnncl arc t o be lnmugl~t into
3. Connecting r;lilru;i~isand nearwt sn-itch pi,int, councrting i n scrvi11n r l tllcil. work 11y ngrce1111wt I 'I~I(...,.
:trr:\. ~ruiiln) r e m i t s rll~litI)? ~ h t a i ~ l efor
motor truck lines. ::re usunlly n w r r ~ : ~ ~ m p l e tsatisfied
ely but sliould be a t t e m p t c d ~
4. Slain iligil\r-ny locatime. c. .lr:<ilability of personnel hou,qing-this will he rr.?olscd if joh is
5 . 1,ocatioil of ncnr<,fr rnt:lrol111litan :irc:~ near a large n w t r ~ ~ p o l i t narea.
n
6. Types of industrial equipnlent u-.e;~hlein l ~ l a n tcrr~,tion:~ruilahlc f . Food and recreation facilities available.
in tile imnlediate nrca. g. .tIcilical facilities and special cliniat~csondition~11-llich n1:ly affrct
7. Types of industrial drops in the immediate area suitable for repair persnnnc,l (most [Link] on foreign project ~ o r k )
ur maintenance or 1,arts snl~plyf , ~ construction
r ~~pipuient. It. ;\rca practices-these [Link]; may nevrr he r o l n p l r t ~ l y:~nsxcred
8. Storage space and itorage area fur plant e q r i i p c n t and c o n ~ t r w - since lal~urpractices vary c o n d c r a h l y . See Cliapter 25.
timi material. i. Transportation rrquircd by certain liersonnel-some crafts requirc
9, is intimately related to jirojcct t h a t transportation be furnisllcd or require a n allnwinee inr trarel time
Pr~~cureluent, as diicussed in
~ o n l e ~ ~ lsimilar
lat to portal-to-portal lmy.
xlleduliug and planning (Chapter 7 ) . Tllc procurement org:illiaation
j. Ci~nstructionpcrs(1nnc1 parking facilities-if erection is to take place
will be rrlort concerned with plant equipn~cntand construction material
n-ithin an ol~cratingplant nud constructi~~n employers muat l c a w their
transportation. The nietllotls of tmnapurtation, t i n ~ erequired, ireiglii
o w transpilrtation at the plant gat?, it is someti~nrsnecessary to rea,,li
rates, constru~tionlunterinl, storage facilities ( a t the jobsite), field fub-
;in :tgrcmunt 1%-it11ihc ovncr on p r k i n g facilities. T h e rpwtion nray
rir;rtioii r ~ f certain parts of the equipmtmt, and delirery data all affect
souictirr:es be r e s d r c d by pn~vidinga parking area for construction per-
~ x w u r e m e n t . Transportation and jol~site storage l m s t seriously affect
sonutal witl~inthe plant. These points must be completely underito~l,l
prelinlinary procurcmerrt planning or sclleduling.
~ r c v i o i l rto start of work.
Tlir most vital question in procurenlcnt is a h - n y s iklirery or deliver?
k . ('haugc aud sanitary f:rcilitics for construction prrsonncl-it is he-
dates. A 11rojcot a t a reiuote locntion with a possible tmnsportation tinic
of mie ulor~tli\,-ill require all scheduling t o iuclude t11k t r a w l tiluc. Arnil- mining colnmon 1mcticc for r m i t r u c t i m pers,mnr.l to h a w sllecific spnc~,
:~llotti.~l for tllcm to change elotlling. This may require constructiorl of ;l
nhility of con11non materials in the :rrr3;t uf construction tlrgethcr wit11
11rice data rnust he ascertxinetl. Price differentials may ~ v a r r a n ttlrc pro- t t w l ~ u r a r ybuilding. F::nitary faci1itit.s of course innst 11c proviile~lcnrly
in I r c t If plant farilitit.~exist, the offlier sliould nralie imilities
curing 11f a large pcrrmtage of materials locxlly and thus jlistify a lo(':ll
av:iilable.
procurenlcut ol~emtion. Certain materials such as ready-illisid cr~ncrctv
1. C,~ustructionpersonnel identification-on rertain work, pliotogrnpili
or t l ~ enratcrinls required for concretc art. aln-ays l,urelln-id locally on
rind finger-l~rilltsmay be re([uired. Badges arc usually required. JVllen
~louicsti~. ~wojcctr. Sourws of supply ;tnd )".ices for t l ~ e a r~lr;itrri:ll- illllit,
lw :iscc~~~t:ri~~wl :ls :I 11:~rtof l,rrlin~ir~::ry~ u ] , v v y<liit:~. [Link] .-:~ler t : ~ s m work i. to he ilow in all existing pl;tnt, a11 ovner'a requirements must, i ~ c
detennine~l.
uluy atiect price and, tl~ereiurr,nlust be cunsidered ill t11v s u r v ~ ~ y .
nl. Location of construction material and plant material and equip-
Construction D a t a r w n t storage areil-the location often seriously afi'rcts jurisdictional
All collt;[Link] pllase> are rtfferttd lly locill wm,litii,w sil~cctlw con- ~jroblemsill unloading. transporting, and the handling of materials. Tlic
d t , c t i o n uf the storage area, tlleref~~ri,, aside fro111the best location for
struction orgn~iisationulrrst beco~ne:L liiirt of the locale for the x11ole
34 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 35

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREIGN PROJECTS

Tlie data ili<cussed ahovc are r e ( ~ u i r c ~asl essential preliniinar>- data
for any proiert. ('on~idcrahlcadditional preliminary data aud decisions
;ire rcquircri for foreign jobs.

Permits
Construction Interference
T l ~ rcrrction of plantu in foreign countrirs. d i e r e most of the equip-
Tlirse questions arc not usually as iniport:rnt for a complete p r l ~ j e r tas ment ur ni:rterial n-ill 1x2 r n n n u f i ~ ~ ~ t u rine dthe Irnited State?. require?
for \ \ - , I I ' ~ \vitiiin a n ol~erntingplant. certain overall per~liitsor licenses in order to export the various i t e m from
C)~[Link] OR VSDER(:HOISDELECTRICAL ~'OS'ER LISES. Location, height tlw T~-niteiilit:it?s zn(l wuiilly import perniits or licenses in nrrler to move
ahovt! ground, depth lielow ground, voltages, source of power, area sup- the equipment inti^ tlie rountry ~vlierethe plant is to be erected If tlic
plied, uwier or o p w a t ~ ~nearest r, srrit~,lipointfor q~cnirigcircuit ~ i u he d countr?. is l:rnriln~~kccl; ~ n dsl~ipnimt; riiurt move through an adjacent,
deternlineii. If guy derrick is used, ~villguys clear cal~les? Location of rountr)-, crrtain ]lcrniits for i n - t r a n ~ i tsliipn~entswill he requirrd
dea~l~nen. A nunil~cr of niatcrials have heen classified by I1.S. (:ovcmnient;d
O V E H H EOH . ~ L~SIIERGROGTD P I P I X ASII SEVERS. i)cterlnine location. ;~gcmcie~ as critical to the national economy. Explicit permits niust be
size, e t ~ , . Existing 11iping in tlie operating plant is often a sourre of con- ubtaincd to move these n~atcrialsout of the U.S..4. Tlie destination and
sillerablc extra cost to tlie cmstructor of the nen- facilities. ~ ~ ~ 1 11hllt.~ 11y uzr of s ~ i c ln~atcrials
~ nffcct the granting of exl~ortpcruiit;. (:11n111lctt!
( l u not I I R V ~ ,exact or reliallle rerurdt; of the locntious of underground lines. lists of all critical materials: tlie applicable rcstrictims on destinatiou
Tlie resl~onsibilityfor removal of such lines should he establialied. and explanations of the ncecssary procctiurcs are available from the U.S.
PLAST HAZARDS.I n many operating plants nliere work is being per- Government Printing Ofice.
f ~ ~ n n obnoxiousc~l or llazardous vapors or funies may be relrased I n An :~pl~lieationt o the 1J.S. Government for a n expmt license niust
smne cases work may I I con~pletcly ~ stopped until the condition is cleared. ~ ~ l j u a l be
l y accompanied hy a complete listing uf all materials aud equip-
Tlie r1~s11onsihilit,~ for costs of unprc~ductivelabor during such periods ~rleritc , , ~ n p o n m tusrd
s in such equil~mcnt,together ~ ~ i t w 1 1i g h t or v1111uue
shoul(l be understood. Often serious restrictions exist on f l a ~ n ccutting ( a s required] and dollar valuc for each item. A numericnl and alpha-
or n-elding or the use of any open fire on tile premises. I t niust t ~ edeter- hetical designation has been rleveloped fur mrious items. ~vliichdesigna-
niined if any s u ~ , rrstrictionsl~ trill be in force. I n many h y ~ l r m a r l ~ c ~ ~ i tion must he u w l in l ~ r e p ~ r i ntheg lists. The d ~ i p p i n gdates by yearly
psoceljuing pl:ints and other plants processing hazardous n~aterialsall quarters must also be included. I,ater, as shipnicuts proceed tlie specific
niatcl~csand pocket lighters must 11e left a t tlie plnut gate. Smoking items must again be listed for each shipment anti checked off the rn:ister
arras niay 11e ~lesignatetlor snoking may h r permittril in runstrurtior~ list.
~ ~ e r s m n i cliangc
cl liouses. The preparation of the detailed lists is ro~newliatsimplified hy the in-
K ~ c m v r r .ANII ~ ; H . ~ D L I S OF
G P I A EQUIPMENT.
~ If the \ w r k is ill a n tent of the governmental control, which is more con~wmedr7-it11 runxinunns
ol~erntirigplant, tlic owner niay require rert,airl periuita or receiving pro- than ~ i t preciseh or exact evaluations. Care must he taken, ho\wver, to
cedures for material or e q u i p l e n t delivered L I rail ~ or truck. Permits account accurately for items as they are sl~ippcd. Since export license
niay be required for trucks or cars leaving tlie plant. If all materials restrictiom change frequently, i t is mandatory that each issue of all ap-
are received by the owner, the responsibility for the diipnient, proper plicahle govcrnmcntal publications offered by the various agencies be
accounting, Iiandling, and delivery a t the construction site 111ust he deter- c:lrefully slutlied.
mined and clearly understood. The data necessary to meet the cxpurt license requirements 1\41 only
K A I L ~ A ASD Y H I , ; H ~ A YCONSECTIOSS. Exact loeati~lls shouki be t,ent:itirely permit sl~ipnient. All itenis shipped niust be arcomp:rnic(l
determined for p ~ ~ s s i h lpersonnel e transportation use. T h e handling of in dctnil by the standard export documentation to meet 1 - 3 custonis ant!
plant and construction materials is greatly simplified by laying a spur sllipping rerpiretuents. l\Iwemcnt of shipments: t o dr~ckside. Ti-arr-
railroad track directly into the plant frum the ncarest railroad. housing, lighterage, and handling and preparation of h i p p i n g documents
36 Project Engineering of Process Planrs Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 37
arc ea~.lrspecialized fuiictiuns requiring ronridcrabl(: expcricnu!. 'rllc5c or 120 ?u i t , Iim\-n'<>r,:11i<I011 ~ I I I ,cul)i~,11:isis tlit, ircight vill lw l12~1/401
are lxst I~an,llt.<lby firills knor~-nas freight for\\-:irder~ or for\!-nrclin:: x $30.00 or $90.00. SIialw also usually affects the freight a-scszrntnt.
ngrurs. Such firms 11-ill un~lertakctlic coinplcte handling of all h i l ~ i ~ i c n t - , .\ssunie that the above pill^ is fabricated as a n ~ I ~ J I I \ 11-itI1I - t\vo 15-ft icy..
i~icludingshipping notifications t o vendors. c o n ~ ~ ~ l e t iof o ntraffic agrcc- ( ' ~ i l ~ imeasurenient
c ~I-illthen he 15 X 1,5 X 2 or 450 IYI i t n-it11 freight
[Link]~\-itllil~~mesticr:irricrs. and the p r c p a l ~ i t i mof stand;iril ilocu~iit~iits ;i~scsscda t $337.50. Thi. is admittedly a n cxtreiric condition. C'lwc
for a very small fee. This fcc may be as little as ?b of IT;, of tlic rleclnrcd :tttcntion nwuld have to bc given t o sliapcs and ~ ~ c i g l i t ifs . this rntiirg
cxp'rt value of tlic sliil~inent. -1s :I iiii~tter01 fact. in inany of tlrr large i tinsis Iiappciic(I to Ile in effect.
L.S. llort. it is prilcti~.allyiillljossil~lcor a t lcart complctcl?- ilnl1r:lctic:ll. It is oftrn lii~szil~lc tu n w t materials. or paclingr ~linteri;ll~ to nlaxiuiizi
to lianrlle export slripuients in any other way. Furtlierinore, the rlu:lri- I the x~wiglitper unit voluiiic v h c n cubic meaiuretnmt governs r.o.>t. 'i'lic
tities of iiiatcriais or tlic number of s h i ~ ~ m c nxliirh
ts [Link] he uccesm'y above 24-in. pipe, for inst:~ncc: could he made to carry considcrablr 1111-
for ;i project xill rcquin: ;I fairly large orgniiizatirin of cslierienr~rlPer- ditional ~\-cigllthy [Link] s~nallcrcliametcr pip? inside ti113 large j~ipc.
.onncl to lian~llethe innlunerable shipping problems. T l ~ u .it, ~ i. ~~-il:tlly ! If uiaterials arc to 11e crated or lmckageri, by packing rclatiwly light
justifinblr to retain a fir111cxpcrimccd in tliis ivork. ~n;itcrial-. slrcli as in>olation. together x i t h h(,avy ~iiatcri;rl-. >11cl1:Is
luosc pilw filtingh, the ruliage can be made to appro:xh its freight n-eight
Planning Export Shipping r ~ t i n g . (:oniinudity Cln.4fication R a t r s 111ust Ire r;ircfully studied il:
The n:;ij~~rcost. in cxlxlrt diipping is orean frcigllt, n-l~iclris mted by iuclr [Link],s. Ccl,taiii co~niiioditiesrequire a Iiiglicr rate hecamc of 11ccu-
the ton or hy cubic uieasurement. usually 40 cu ft. ~vliicliewris greater. liaritics of s t w l g e or liandling. h llnckage or cr:itc containing a iiighcr
The ti111uscel ilia>- be tlie short ton (2000 111'1, the long ton. 2240 lb or tire rate coiiiiliodiiy m:1y cause a n i n c r r n ~ cin basil. i r c i ~ l i tr;:t(, r v m t l r ~ ~ i g l i
metric ton 12204.6 l l ~ j . \\-eights may Ilc based on gross. l~ackagedTI-cigllt, the iiiajor 11ortion of tlie contents [Link] ~irilin:iri\ytr:ivel :it a l i n w rntr.
or net n-eight, drpmtling upon destination. .\kn>urrii parkaged din~cn- h,lditional dock and lighterage diarges called licavy hit cli;u'ge. nrv

1
sions arc o v r a l l ~ncawrcmentstaken a t right angles m l y . Requirements :iplllied to single sliipments if the xcight cxccerlr a errtain liniit. These
for ~ w i g l i t sand nieasurement vary x i t h tlie [Link]~~nal nrc:i served. clinrgcs c:ui beconic a considerable portion of t l ~ ccr~strequired for ccjuill-
uild luiiy also r a r y rvitli the carrier, tlie coii~iiiodity,or t l ~ ccs111irt agree- ~ n c n ttr~[Link] t'lon.
u~ent. All charges d r ~ ~ u lhe d carefully ascertaineri hut11 for the priirii~ryU.S.
The forwarding agcnt cnn usually save tlie shipper his fcc many tilncs llort (or docki and for the receiving dock a t the dcstiniition. h funotioii
overl hy tiluely adricc on tlic pcculiaritics of the a s s t ~ s ~ m e noft ocean of the for\\--arclingagcnt is t o warn thc sliil~perof tliest, costs and 11rohlcrn~
frcight rliargcs. JTllilc oceiui freight rates for all areas li:%vchecn set in :ind wl~erc~ ~ o s s i b ltoe effect savings. T h e forn-arcling agent. Iio~\-c\-cr,
certain international agreements, tlie area into ~ ~ l i i cshipment il
:nnrlc should 11c investigated thoroughly. The standard rate?, roinmodity
is t o ilc iI cnu do little wit11 a piece of cquilnnent after it is fal~ricatcri. Thus these
limitations should he considered in planning initial design.
limits, tlic stcamsllip linei serving the xrca, awl partirnlar rer~uirt~ll1ents T~.:iveltilue is a i i ~ i s tiniport,ant factor in foreigi i q x s n t i ~ ~ nsin(%'
s , this
of the nwa ~ I i ~ ~hci lconsidcrcd.
d tinic must he adrlcd to tlic deliwry tiine prinuiscil tiy vendors or fahrica-
Alarinc sclicdulrs arc subject, to seasonal riiangcs ]~roriliceliby cargir tors so t h a t cquip~nrnt\\-ill arrive on schc~lulc. A roulplcte study sl11111ld
requirc~ncnts. Tlic mariue sailing datc, exccpt for ecrtain Iiasscngcr I,? niacle of marint, freight carriers serl:ing the entry-port, and averagc
liners, is usually a t c n t a t i x one. Hcrc :~l,sotlic forn-nrding agent can travel tiuic. devclo~~[Link] will oniinarily he n~lvantagcoust o utilize :I
save tlie siiip~ierexpense hy holding h i c k heavy piwcx I I cquipii~ent ~ and siiigle stcamship line. Frciglit agrccuients iiiay bc rearlie11 and rnore
aroiding e x t r a ~ ~ n l i n a rdock
y or liglrtrrngc clmrgcs caused by early reccillt i pref~~rciitial liandliiig may be ohtaincd.
of tlir equipment. Marine fwight carrirrr usually do not follow a definite iisrd echedule
As a simple illustration of possible occan freight chzrgcs, a s s ~ i n ct h t throughout the year. The schedule may vary from 11ort to port according
a section of 24-in. pipe 30 it in length, weighing 3000 lb is to ile sliil~ped. to cargo and loading. If a singlc carrier is rclccted it inn? be possible to
Rates are t o he a s s e ~ s e ~on l weight or cubic mcasurc~nerlt,11.1iicli~v1~ is ~ o r kout definite srlicrlules so t h a t narchousing end storage costs arc
greater. Assmuc the base rate for this coinii~odityto IIC 530.00 I I C ~toll rcduced. Forewarning of the shipment of pieres ni equijr~rrcntwith es-
12000 1111 per 40 r n f t (r~liiclicvcris g r c : ~ t ~ r l .TI:? irc~iglit will 111, tr;iur<li~~ary ~ ~ ~ Ix givm to tl>,>c:irrit,r it$ 1,:kriy
1vciKIlt or d i u i e i i s i , ~sliuul,~
11.! X $30.00 or $45.00 1111 a weight basis. The cubagv xill 11t. 2 X 2 X 30 ;la Ij~issibleso tlint sli:ivc can l ~ cp~,ovirlc,lfur the diipnirnt.
38 Project Engineering of Process Plants i Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 39
T h e capacities of the serving rail systenis, incluilirig tlw type of rnllirig
Export Packing stork and operating srlirvlules s l ~ o u l ~bel inwstig:ite~i. In soiur of t l ~ c
Prrrautions should he taken to protect equipn~ent being s11ipl)ed to w n l l e r countries, sliip~ncnts of heavy industrial e r u i ~ n i e ~may t be
trol~icalrwuntries against exposure in sbiptnent, or during its dorage .ser.i,111,~1ycielapd due tn the 1a1.k of propel. [Link].- t o 1i;inillr p n r t i r ~ ~ l a r
~wiilrto prcction. .1nunit~erof plastic (non-honding) materials d i i c h are l<la<ls.
easily reinored arc a n i l a b l e for coating rt~ccl~anical
working parts, or Man!: foreign railroad s y s t c m are n:irrnn.-gage. Hail car sizes. and all
inacliined surfaces during shipwmt. liinitations on size or w i g h t orer the particular route ninst he ol~tainetl.
There i> considerable argument for and against extensive export prep- If the service is orer a narnlwgage carrier, dimmsii~n;illimitations wili
:iratim or packaging. If tlie shipment is to be unloadcd essentially a t thc seri(lusly affect the size of fabricated equipt~ient. This inforination niuit
jobsite nnil ~5-ouldthus 11e transferred itntnediately fro111 tlie original be available early in the project so that manufacturers and fnhricat~~rs
rarricr (sliil~lto the oxyner or erector, there would be little nced for any can be instructed by specification and rlra1~-ingr. Size limitations often
prep:rratii~n otlier than the nurlnal shipping precautions. If, however, require partial fabricatio11 of major equipli~clitwith final fabrieatioii at
tlir j h i t c or erertion point is inland and subject to arl~litionnlcarriers, the johsite by the construction forces. \VIien this proccdurc iv required,
lay-mers in foreign freight yards, or open sidings, the matter of pilferage the necessary tools and the particular type of skilled personnel will h a r e
may beconic serious. This is particularly trur in some of tlie Inore prinli- to be provided.
ti\-(, countries. It \~oulilappear iinpractical to assume that dolnestir. I h c h tilnc a picre of heavy equipment is loarlcrl or unlowderl labor and
lirepiration. which is usually tlic absolute minimuni, can suffice in all lifting equipment time is expended. Rail connections dirwtly into the
~,;t-cs. Crrt;iinly s~liallloose pasts sliould always be consolidated into project site providc the least expensive method of transportation. The
larger crates or packages. For this reason it is often desirable to retain I
I preliminary survey sliould determine rail connections nearest the jobsite
a ~varchousingor export packaging cotnpany a t a cnnsoliriation ylint. and obtain necessary permits for extension of a spur track into tile plant.
Tllese firnis also should assist the owner in avoiding heavy lift charges Obtaining pcr~nitsto connect t o a railroad in a foreign country can br-
m i l nlultiplc consolidations of cori~~nodities where a higher tariff due t o come a time-consunling operation. Negotiations shwild he started as
one of the coil~nir~dities will alrply. early as possible. Track equipment in the more primitive countries is
often scarce. The erector will probably save timc and costs by furnisli-
Planning Freight Movement within Foreign Country ing the necessary switch, frog rail, and other appurtenances for the con-
I n osdcr to develop litnitations in equipn~cntsize or wiglit, this 1"''-
liniinwry sun-ey d ~ o u l dinclude an investigation of a11 tlie foreign railroad
and seaport facilities. The installations a t the initial port-of-entry of
! nectinn (mil past the sx~itchor turn-out may be second-hand). Turn-out
specifications and rail [Link] must be ~ ~ b t a i n esince
tl the frog, lea&rail:
and switch-block are often eloscly specified. Railroad specifications and
first foreign destination should be thoroughly inspected tu deterinirle !
corirtruction rnethods are more fully discussed in Chapters 21 and 25.
(locking capacity. tlie eapacitics of cranes or lifting equipmmt, storage If rail facilities do not exist, tlie erector m d l have tu pruvide tlic iiccca-
or n-arrl~ousespare, and the degree of protection afforded. Dock, storage, i sary trucking and lifting equipment and j~erbaprprepare roadvays out-
and handling charges sl~oulclbc ascertained. I t is often necessary t o side tile plant. The so-called low-boy, a ~nuItiple-~~lieele(~ loir--b~~dicd
liroviilc l~ersnnnelat the port-of-entry to process documentation and t o
insure that the shipn~entswill be properly llandled and expedited to tlic
jnilsite. 1
I
dray. nlay be obtained for alu~ostunliniited caparities; I~[Link] of
t,he heavier pieces of perinanent plant equipment a h ~ ~ u be l d made. Rcduc-
t i m in fnbrirated sizes will enable r e d ~ i r t i min transportation rqnipmmt,
Direct rail connections a t the entry-port will utiually eliminate addi-
tional handling nnd storage costs since heavy shipments can be unloaded
by ship's tackle dirrctly onto railroad cars. Railroad freight rates, routes,
i size

Large Equipment Planning

schedules, and frciglit travel-time should be obtained from the serving All large or beavy itenis of equipment should be listed ~ w l yin tl11:
carrirra. If sl~ip~nents :arc 1111ndledby several carriers or irtuvrrl tbrough project so tlmt limitations in shipping may be discovered and the proper
points. or cross tlir l~orrlersof otlier countries it may be
~listriin~tiori steps taken to avoid high costs in liandling or transportation.
necessary to provi,lc p t ~ s o n i ~ c!it! these u,>[Link], ewwdite their movement. Heavy machinery well as large internal conihustion rriginci or coin-
40 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data far Construction Projects 41
pr~'%sr~r-, wciglling :IS tiiurl~ :is 100 tons. 3rc r:i~,ely-1iilqie11 ~.o~~ipIctcIy
assenibled. I n foreign operations, shipping h i t a t i o n s may further Construction Personnel
reduce the amount of assembly possible. Personnel n i t h special skills may C:onstructii,n operations in foreign cormtries hy U.S. contractors ill
be required to ron~pleteasscmhly in the ficlcl. The manufacturer must be 11w111yrequire a nuunher of experienced key U.S. personnel in the labor
notified of any particular limitations in size or weight,. preferably ~ h ~ r i n g rrnftsman categories. The percentage of U.S. expatriates t o uationals
thc initial inquiry so that rztra clrnrgcs vill not hr a$srssr,l for dib- ustd on the project vill vary ~ r i t hthe degree of industrialization of tlre
uumtling or a d d i t i ~ ~ n aexlmrt
l packaging. fmeigu c o u n t r ~ . I n certain European countries lahor in the skilled emits
llanufacturers of large meclranical equipmmt sometimes require an i. c;uily obtainable. Tlrc amilobility of skilled lahor sliuuld bc irrvcsti-
inspectim of their equipment fjy tlreir own scrrirt, engineers, usually juqt g:ttcd since savings may he effected I>?- :I reduction of V.S. cxpltrixtes.
hcforc the ~nacliineis grootrd 011 its foundation. T h r y may nlso requirc Labur regulations, l a ~ ~ -:ml s . incor~letascs or otlicr labor taxes slrould
that their cnginccr he l~rescnt,n-hen e q u i l ~ n ~ e is
n t h i n p initially operated. I E inve;tigated and fully underat~~od.I n certain countries lnhor rcguln-
in order to meet tlreir gu;rrantee. If equipment, is being erected in foreign tions may also affect expatriate pcrwnnel. Any such l a m or regulations
countrit,::, such requirement;, shonld he fully understood and agreed upon, nrurt be explained to expatriate personnel a t the time of hiring. On large
or ~[Link] the purcl~ascrontrart, so that guarantee clnwrs are not ~wojectsit is often conunon practice t o institute training prugranis so that
affected. the nalirmnls can become skilled in the varioui crafts.
Large pressure vessels; ilia~netersin excess of 12 07 14 f t . or r e ~ s e l sof Courtrurticm personnel hiring for foreign operations is usually an in-
extraordinary length: more than 60 to 80 ft, are often only partially fah- vulved process. All pcrsmnrl so hired sl~ould be employed under a
rirntcil due t<, railroad clcarancr requirenrents. On foreign project$ the rrontract for :I certain number of n~ontlri. A bonus is frequently offercd
dimensiiinr- or veiglrts may be even furthcr reduced. Thus the prelimi- :ISan incentiw to cou~pletethe projevt. All personnel sliould be subjected
nary surrey information on size limitations must bc arailable for the to a physical examination and all licccssary vaccinations taken to mect
fabricators of this type of equipment a s well as fur mechanical equip~ucnt. the rcquire~ilentsof the particular area.
I n addition all the necessary tools or equiptuent and qualified personnrl If the project is remote from a metropolitan area, medical facilities
~iiustbe provided for i-onipletion of largr vessels hy the constructic~ti .lrould he provided. I t is sometimes possible tu erect so~ticof t,he perma-
forces. I I V I I ~ tmilding* enrly in the project. I n such instanres facilities for a cer-
tain amount of lro~pitalizatinncan be prorided during the construction
Transmitting Correspondence a n d Drawings l o Jobsite ~wriod. In t l ~ ~? ~ r i u i i ( i countrie?
ve medii~als~rppliesare 11ftc11 uriol~tai~iable.
Airmail should he used for translnitting specifications, and correspond- Provisions niust he made to provide adequate ~rrcdicalsupplics for all em-
m r c for tlre foreign p r ~ ~ j c e t Drawings
. arc scnt by air express or air 11loyrrl perso~nel,both nationals as well as cxpatriatc:: since many of the
parcel-post since tlrcy do not fall into the classification of correspondmcc. muntries require that an cniployer (particularly foreign) nus st proride
The preliminary survey should include a n investigfitiou uf the custu~ri* iiicclical attention for all eml~loyeesregar~llcssof their nntional origin.
requircmtmts a t the ilestinatiun. I n certain countries all such package- Furtl~ertnore,tlic costs are lregligible cunlpared t o the possible ill-will
are opened for inspection, and it is desirable to be familiar with the in- gmcratrii if 111edica1care is not supplied.
spection procedure and facilities. I n a number of the smaller countries T.S. cxpatriatw tnnst ol~tnina passport and the proper vim ~ I I the I
packages containing nothing but ordinary papers and drawing prints may I . . r q r w m t a t i r e r . of t l ~ ecountry t o bc vikiteil. T o obtain :i F.S. lxiss-
be held by the local a u t l ~ ~ ~ r i triiet hs o u t notice to either party. \r-Irethcr I I I " . ~ tlic. person I I I I I S ~ p r o ~ ehis U.S. citizcnal~ipby I~irtllcertifiwtt, or
dutiable or not. :~fii<l:tvit:he nit14 h a r e a h e a l police release and usually a letter from
I t is sometimes advantageous to provide a direct printing rcproiluction the e ~ ~ q i l o y stating
cr the reason for the r i d .
machine a t the erection site. D a t a can then be mailed in sollie rcproduc- ('[Link];~in couuirirs restrict alrd liluit t l ~ vi ~ ~ u i ~ uof t r t p e w o ~ ~ aeffw1s
l
ible form, and prints made a s required. The printing process should hc \\-Irirl~ may be carriwl by personnel. 3I;rny cmuitries rrquire payment of
clieckeil for operation in the cli~nate,and the effect of the climate on tlie duties on pcrsontxl effects sueh a s shoes and clothing if they are nrm ; ~ n d
sensitized paper drtcnuined. l l n n y such pnpers quickly fail under higl1 I - d Thew requirenrcnta should he ascertained and put inti1 :L
temperature or humidity. The cost of dripping rrplncement papr3r coulil [irintcd form so that they can be untlerstooil rompletely.
easily e x c e ~ dthe costs of shipping prints. \1:11iy 1~111111~1y~~1.s 1111yt~.:~vel or ( C ~ I I Ii t ~ s ~ t t ~ of
i ~ ~OIIC
r wI~imII I :tnot11c1,
~
42 Project Engineering of Process Plants
\vithout i w t to the employee. payahle t o the ~mploycc'shcnefiriary in I.;IW
cli ( l t x t l ~or injury. This procedure is a good niorale huilclcr and is not
CHAPTER 4
an inqxxtant rust item.
I t is important that personnel housing he adequate. All iurnishings
~ l ~ o o l bc
c l of n good d ~ ~ r a hqriality
lc and food sl~ouldmeet U.S. s t a n d a r t k
(:ood housing and food is an important asset to any iorcign project.
S i ~ t h i n gcan affect n~orwlc,so seriously as uncomfortal~lcliving conditic~ns
c x poor food. Savings in follcl coats cannot possibly approach personnel
transl~ortationcosts caused by a high lahor turnover.
A ircqucnt prohlcm with expatriate personnel on extended foreign
proje<,ts is the qucstion of single-status r s . family-status. If housing
~ n m tbe provided, tlic n u ~ u b e r of employees pennitteil to t a k e their
fw~niliesmay hecon~ca n important cost item. It is the practice a t times
on foreign projccts to allon key c o ~ ~ r t r u c t i opersonnel
n
fa~nilicrto tllc locality. At times i t is also c o m ~ n c ~practice
n
t o more their
to permit
PROCESS
rn~ploynicr~t only 1111 a single-status Lasir. These proccdurcs and prac-
tires yary wnriclcrably ~ r i t hovners and construction firnis and are also
g~lvcl.neil11y tlrc local conditions. A11 such points inust 11c dcrelope(l and
ENGINEERING
iliould bc ir~clr~,led in the printed form or t l ~ ccoz~tractwith the employee.

REFERENCE Process engineering is concerned n i t h the devclopn~[Link], and

1. [Link], J., Jjoiicin Espo,-t Pocking, TI& Prornntional Swirn So. 207. Bureau design of cl~eniicalprocesses. Pcrliaps in no other phase of rlien~iral
71 Furrign and Domustie [Link], D ~ p t oi . Cu~nmc~.ee,IVashinpton. D.C., 1940. mginrcring can t l ~ cengineer better npply the technical knowledge anll
skill gained in his formal college education. A l t l ~ l ~ u gml ~m y operating
conq~ar~iea may departmentalize proccss cnginccring into development.
w o n m ~ i eanalysis, and design, i t is not uncommon for a single 1 1 r o i ~ ~ i :
engineer to originate a new process and f o l l m ~it tliruugh the dc5ipr1
stages t o a con~plctedjilant. Indeed. many prore?s engineers ~ i t huln-
sidcrable cxpcricnce arc called upon t o direct t l ~ cdesign of a n c pl:mt ~
ns project engineers on the Iiasis of their intimate knolvlcdge of t h r
Inwcess.
Thc complete discussion of process engineering and particularly of
Ilrocess design n-onlrl rcqrrirr a book i ~ fe o n d r r a b l e length. C r r t a i ~ ~
l~ricf conmicnts, however, concerning the r a r i w s phase.; of proccss en-
gineering \vill aid in integrating it into t t ~ coverall plant design pirtnre.

FUNDAMENTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH

Fundamental research in chemistry and cl~erriicnl cnginccring is per-
fornied to a large degree in the laboratories of universities and privately
cndoaeil rescarch institutes. M a n y of the procc?r industries, Iio~r-ever.
and a number of design firms have found i t necessary to conduct certain
types of funclamental researcll. I t is the indnetrinl-typc fundanientnl re-
search that pertains t o this discussim
43
44 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 45
XI,\\ ],~.o,lucl-;iri, ol'tc~lI N I ~ I I ill t l ~ el ~ i : : ~ k , :~~r ns ( Ic-t
i t1111c'. of 1.11w11i-t? Procc.>- d e r - e l o l ~ n ~ m
often
t hegins x i t h a b e n d - s c a l e 1aI1or:itory stud>-.
111 irullt-trial lalmratiries v h e n stnil?-ing certain types o i rcv.?tiuni tn gmn Sn~nll-ccaleyi:ia, or ~ n c t a l~ ~ r ~ u i i ~ is n ~ce~nl lt p l ~ ~ yti,c dollt:~in rlatn i l f 2111
iunrl;~n~cntal [Link] in n ~ u c l ithe same manner as the clicniist~a t a ~ x p l o r a t o r ynature. hell cxpcri~l~cntation is ~ - a I u a h l e;incc it is oiten an
nniv~,rbity or r~.,e;rrch institote. T h e difiermce is tl1:11 the inilrlstrial iilcxlm~sivemeans of proving the fwsil)ility of a process and of ilirccti~~::
[Link]~dc l i ~ ~ o wreactions
s t1i;lt. if sl~cce.:ful. havp w m e i ~ n ~ : ~ c d i aeoln- te the n-:iy tu f l ~ r t h c rrcsmrrh efforts. T h e extent of chemical cnginecri~rg
~ w r r i a lsiprifir.;~nvc.
..
1111,c l ~ f . i ~ ~ iCIIRIIII,CI!
c;~l ;ilro i- ~ , n g i ~ g cill ( I I!IW:II!I,~I f ~ ~ n ( I i ~ n ~ to~ ' nhis
t:~l
kno~r-ledgea t the llresrnt time scl,lom p e r ~ n i tthe ~ design of a lien- plant
from bench scale lahorntory d a t a alone. Tllrro are yo many unk11on.n-
I I ~ I l eIn y emnl~:lnicscarry out r ~ , n t i n l ~ o u t,xpcri1nent21l
s programs ;lnd intaugihles [Link] h a r e defied [Link] annlysi? tila1 it i- new:w'y
1111 unit olwralions, rc.:irti,in killrtiri. ;inii t ~ l e r l ~ l o ~ i y o n l l l i T c ~h .e lIllr110s~' tu e m l u a t e these iactors cnlpirically on larger x a l c c ~ ~ r ~ i ~ ~ r~~l- ~c ncl nl ct~. l
oi m 4 1 C ~ ~ I ~ > ~ ~ I I I ~ ! IiqI ~to: I gxi11
~ ~ I I IaI g ~ . r ; ~ tkw1 1 0 ~ 1 c d gof~ ~these operation.. pilot plant or semi-plant equipment. I n pilot plant and semi-plant o11rr;l-
so t11;lt <lcsignl ~ r o c e ~ l i ~anll r r s p h n t 11pcratinl1r;ln he inl~lruvcl~. tiun n procedure a s nearly like that. d l i e l ~[Link] hc e111~10yedin t h ~ caul- .
('l~eniiralin~lrritryvannot priigres v i t l ~ o u ta continr~uus,supl~lyof nen- nlercial plant is [Link] so t h a t the d ; ~ t ; l~ ~ l l t a i n c can i i he used n-it11
Fl~n~la~iicntnl kn,ir\-ledge and iniornlation. T h e twrly An~czricanchemical cu~~fiilence in the araling up of the l ~ i l o tplant to ~,o~nnierci:il six
inrlustry r~htained1nur.11f ~ ~ n ~ l : i ~ n clino~i'ledge ntal from Earope, particularly Pilot plants are costly to bnild and operate. I t is not ilnciitnnvm fur
in the field ui pnrc eircn~istry. I l o r r and m i m . ho\vewr, hnlericnn :I single. pilot ljlant to cost clusc to a inillion dollars. I t is. tl~erciorc.
univ?rsitie, research institutes, and in~lustriall a h r a t o r i e i arc inrnishirlg inil~erativc that all tl~corctical [Link] ; ~ r a i l a b l ct a the clhc~nic;:l
fundamental research nrccisary ior the growtli of the proress industries. engincer he used to rednre t h e anlount of pilot plant ~ o r requirerl k and.
Congre.s 1,-[Link] Tiic Satio11:ti Frienw 1:onndation to enmurape the if l ~ ~ s i b l climin:rtc
c, it entirely. It is p u ~ s i l ~ l vfor . instance, to o l ~ t a i n
~ l c v c l ~ , p n e n,,it fund:rmmtal resc;tr,.ll activities in tlte Lnitcil S t n t w rcaction rate (latn for a new reactilln on s i l l l ~ ~hk~ m ~ ~ l l - scqllijllllt~llt. ~ak
A roni]~etentpruccss enpinecr must ~ u a i n t a i ninti~ili~tc, c11nt:ict ~i'itlr I-sing the principles of applied kinetirs, rate e r j ~ ~ a t i o ncan s then be ilr-
rlerelopr~~entr o f f u n d n n ~ r ~ n t knowledge
al in his l~;irticularfield. H e docs reloped ~ v h i c hd l ])ennit the calculation of reactor size for a nlnnher oi
this b y periwlical review of the literature and b y close asbociation x i t h <lifferent conditions of ol~eratiouenahling t h e choicc o i the iilost c r w
rrorlc progressing in his ,Inn orgnnizatim. 11m1ie:11design ix-ith t h e niininluni a ~ : ~ o u noi t e x p ~ r i t ~ ~ c ndiitil.
t a l I t III:I!.
itill he cmsidcrcd x!-isc in sn1.11 a casc to oper;rte :I pilut p1:tnt f o r tllc
Process Development p~irposc uf ohtaining corrosion d a t a , heat transfer inior~natiun, and
S e n ' ~lesign princil~lc.s,novel re:lction; and nen' cornpinul~[Link]?. general operating charaeteristics oi the prirccss. T h e k n o ~ l c i l g c oi
suggest applications oi industrial importanre t o alert tr~,llnicalnmnwgr- kinetics gained in the brnrli-scale operation ~ ~ u aid l d g e n t l y in tilt,
m m t . Snch applications may he a new proccsr; or the i~n[~rovclucnt IIE an <[Link] the 11ilot plant and x-ould indicate very definitely the luinimu~n
existing OM,. hot11 of rvhich r q n i r c tht! design an11 cun~tructionc ~ fncn- aniount of d a t a required. T h e al~plicationof thcoretiral knowledge in
facilities an11 nlay involve ~,xpcndituresof several niillion ilollnrs. S i n w t,lrii fashion saves a, great deal of time and expense and is f a r superior t o
so 111r1cl1of engineering design is of a n empirical nature. it is seldom 110s- the c~~mplctel?- cnlpirical approach of "let's try this t o ~ l : ~ y . "
sil,lc to j ~ n n p irom the heaker to the finished plant. h considcrablc .%lthongh the empirical n~etliudof r c ~ c m c hhas been ;uccc>sful in the
amount ui what might h r called applied derclopmentnl research m n ~ he t dcxlolxnent of the process inrlustries, a wntinuous cffurt i n r ~ s tIIC, 1na11c
ilonc. Tlic intormiltion obtained p e n u i t ~the design of [lrocess equip~nent to strengthen the thcnretical h a r k g r o ~ m dof the various unit uper:ition-
with n rcasimahlc ~ r n o ~ i noit assurance. T h e process engineer \rho xill >o t h a t more and nrorc resnlts may lw cnlculated, t h o e b y reilucing or
be concerned n.it11 the design and p r l l a l j s the ultimate o p e r a t i ~ ~of n a clin~inatingcompletely niuch of t h e pilot plant and semi-plant rrork n o ~ v
~ x o c c shccinnes
~ intimately associated nit11 t h e study a t this point. H e required.
~ l i o i ~ lhe
d supplied ~7-itl1ail data nnd interpretations o l data obtaincd in
the l a h ~ a t r .His i~ackgroundof plant design and operation n ~ n k ehi? PROCESS EVALUATION
counsel extren~elyvaluable to the devrloplicntal groups. T h e p r n c e s Process evaluation consists of both a n engineering and cconomic
er~zincercan he nssureil of haring all p o s i h l ~r h~t e necessary ior design analysis of a process and in thc broadest sense is a rontinoing oper;ttion.
n s i f IIC. 111:iintnins a clo>c Ii;li-uo n-it11 ~ h pr o e w s 11rvelop-
r i ~ l ~ w l i ~ t i oonly It ,sho111(1Ile s t a ~ , t , ,,.vr.11 t ~ ~ IISI>
~ y 1wc.11 11011r. A
~ l I~efor,,:iny l : i h u ~ ~ : ~\!~!c~rl<
~ n i n dt t > l ~ : ~ ~ ' t n ~ ~ ~ t . c;~rciulannlvsis oi co:t nt :in early st:~gc \!'ill incli~,atc,if the l)rol,esc pro-
 Process Engineering 47
46 Project Engineering of Process Plants
the job approacl~c?co~rililvtio~[Link]\<Iat>i:~Ilvays11wr11i1c of gre:it r.:1111t.
posed has protiii?e and m a y :rlso suggest the direction of experimentation. to the cuotra<,tor lor w i t duilit,- uf his (111-11 o l x , r : i t i o ~ ~ . ~ .
Process er;rluation slluuld c,~ntinuca t regulilr iutervals a s significant and O f t m the "running-owr" I I ~[Link]~inaryr - t i m i t t , ~van IN. tracecl to
nclv d a t a are uncovered. additions or to improvrnicnts in t l i v iwiginal ~lcsigir, Design <Iran-ing*
This continuous recraluation of the c n g i u e c r i ~ ~and g cconouiic factors are usually eirculattd tlm~uglltile 1-ariow i l c ~ x i r t ~ n c rof i t ~t l ~ cc ~ t s t o n ~ t ~ r ' c
s ~ d aids in the overall pianniug III I;cuch-scale and
in the ~ ~ r u l ~ oprocess orgnnizatiun and idrns for ;idditiuns to the p l m t oftcli cree1) in iluri~lg
~ ~ i l plant
ot 11-ork T l ~ e r rnre ift ten nlnny !\-a>-. of a r ~ c ~ r m ~ ~ l i s ah i given
ng this proce*. Tlic customer's project enginerr can hetter control ro-t.
unit operation, Ililt thrse pwsihilities r a n be rcstrirtcd to only a l e v n-hen therefore, by requesting frequent reestiulates of the f i n d plant cost.
economics is considcrcd. Dybdal? has presented t h e relation of project Econon~iee v a l ~ ~ a t i oof n l~roccs-re?houl~lr o n t i t n ~ eeven a f t e r a plant
evaluation to veil-planned experin~ental11-ork, particularly tlrr planning goes into ioperation. Plans fur inrrea..ing protlurtiun ur fur obtainilly [Link]
that occurs I~ctrveenlaburntory and 11ilot 11l:mt lvork. One of the ICSS
iroduction r o d s n m t all he evaluated on a d~ollnrbasis. Procesb evalua-
tangillle factors in favor oi procrss eraluation a t t h i ~stngr is t h a t making tion and its p r i n ~ a r ytool cost estimation permeate every phase of the
:I c w t estimate requires knoll-ledge of tilt, cqui~iuicntto 11c cniployrtl and, d e r e l o p n ~ e n t design,
. construction, and ojwration of :i plaut.
t,l~erefore:automatically forces the chemical engineer to think objcctirely. Both operating e m i ~ p a n i c and . constructil~nfirni.; tnaiutuin cou~petent
Such thinking inevitably suggrsts nxmy itelus of inforumtion t h a t sl~oulcl estimating departlncnts. 'Tliesr groups arc ili~isionsof the cimtral en-
be obtained from the pilot p1:iut ol~eriition. gineering orgnniz:ltion nnr! arc u.u:dly d a f f e d I)>- nien of c o n ~ i i l e r a i ~ l r
experience in estili~atingrvork. l l o a t frequcntl>- ccncl~111;tn sprcializes in
COST ESTIMATES AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
our p l m r of estimating, m r h n? piping or vessels. T h e 11rimary 11uty of
Tlic type of , , I I .cstinuite
~ requirrli for tilt! studit+ thus Ear ~nentioncdis cstitnating departments is to tic\-?lop ac(,nratc c m s t r u c t i ~ ~cobt n cstitnates
termed the predcsign cost r s t i u ~ ~ since tc it is 1 1 a d only 011 information based on reasonably firm design inforlnation a r ~ lthe latest cquil~rnent
that is available prior to the actual design 11f plant equipment. T h e pre- costs available. Such estimates a r c time c o n ~ u m i n gaud c ~ t l y l, ) ~ are t
design estiniate is not only \ d u a h l c in t h a t it rlirccts research projects necessary in t h e d n . c l o p w n t of quotations b y contractors or appropria-
into the rnwt profitable paths, but it is also ;I very real aid in design tion estinlatrs b y operating companies, n-hich are presented t o manage-
cnlculations. .Is the p ~ o r ~ drsign?s of a plant procccils, alternate Ineans ment prior t11 the alloration of funds fur a project.
of oprratirm for portions of the 11lnnt often l ~ w o m eaplxu'cnt. Various Chemical engineers acting as procc?s engineers or project engineers
;irrangcul~ntsof heat excl~nr~gcr;;, prrsrure or teulllcraturr of reactllrs, ioftcnl I~owex-er,require n ~ o r rrapiil and less costly estiuratcs tlc nil1 in
a d operating pressure:: uf ni)sorhors are typical of t l ~ efactors to be con- design decisions :ind in the ilirection of research and development. T h e
sidered in alternate designs. process or project engineer r a n a l r w y s rcqurst dctailrd estimates from
Cost estiniating does not cnd xlien the drririon to build a plant is ruade. the estituating d c p r t n l c n t of his firm. I t sl~oulilbe realized, tliuugh, tlint
Itquirics arc sent t o various contr:~cturs,and they must make preliminary such estimates a r e rostly. and for marly purposes are not nercss;try.
design calculations and obtain quotations on thosc i t e m of equipment Xichols"an.. given a n excellent cunnnentary on mcthi~ds of capital
for lvliicl~they have little or nil recent cost d a t a . From this information covt eatiniati!ig varying fro111the vcry wp]~roxiulatctuethod to a detailed
contractors develo11 prelimi~iarycost cstirnates upon x h i c l ~t h r i r bids are estimate. Fig. 4-1. [Link] l~resentcdby Kicl~ols,gives r ~ i u cdifferent
based. If t l ~ rconlrncti~rn ~ a l i e s:I fir111q ~ ~ ~ ~ t a tI ~ i oi snrust
. an:llysis uiust estimate t y l ~ r sv i t h varying degrees of 11reci~imb a d on the infonu:ition
he exceedingly ~ n e t i c u l o u arid c ~ n t i n ~ r n c i emust
s he k r p t a s lor%. a s available. From this figure t h e approxi~netccust required t o prepare an
pi~ssibleto insure the lvinniug of the contract. $wcalled cost plus con- rsti~iiatcof e:icll type c:in be delerulined. T h e preci-ion of this estimate
tracts, d i i c h are usually pupular during nccelcrwtcd building programs and n reeotnnlmded imtinguni.y for m c h type of estimnte is given. This
t y l ~ i c a lof var-time periods. 11rotcct the contrnctor from t h e many incnl- 1.1lnrt wIiir11 is bi~serlon crrtain artuwl ihsrrvations of one large firm is an
culable vr~ntiugencirs ~vliich ;~lw;tys aribe, in rush projects t h a t ent:iil illustration of the type of c11:lrt thnt proves 11c~Ipf111 in d c c t i n p tlir type
considerablr risks. As the design ;in11 construrtim rv11r1~on p r ~ j c c t s of estiluate most suitnlile f i ~ ra givcn purl~iise.' K i c h d s iilu>tr;itrs its
p r o r r c d ~ .thc custoli~eruru:illy r t q i ~ c s t snc5v rr-tin~atvsof the ultimate * Evyy grour, ni+ing to u s ? r i ~ r . l l:a vlhtt sllotzl~lcun..[Link] o t l ~ilf i t n otvn l,:isr.<l
cost enrh montll ur for suuic othcr mu\.cnii~nliutrrvni. Ear11 suiwssive cin ilr ',,V" e\-p?,[Link].e.
estimate brcciulcs 11~1re:i~,curatesiuce 11101.~i u i ~ r n i a t i (is~ av;iilabk ~ 11s
50 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 51

:~[Link] h y assuming :I ii\.c-million-ilolliir [irojrct and c o q x m n g a

t>-pe A e t i l n a t e , the 111wt i i c c n r a t ~d. l 1 a ICV nccnratc type J estimate.
T h e cost of t h r t>-g~; d t,.>ti~natt,noillil I K :ipl".urimately $25,000 Tvhilc
t h a t for the type J [Link] lie $9.000. T h e best type J e t i u l a t r rwuld give
a sprc;id tlptrrwn ~ l r i n i n n ~nnd n ~ mnrimnm ::ctii:il c w t of ahont 30%.
~vhilcthe type ; Ispread n-ould 11r a ~ ~ ~ i r o x i ~ n 20';.
n t e l ~ -TI-ill tlrr iucrcase
in iirecisirm from 30r; to 20" sprcnci justify tlw acliliti~~nal cost of $16.000
rcqaircd [or the tylle -1 e i t i ~ n n t e ? I n many instancrs. 11nrticularl:- design
stndies, surh addcil cost n-i~ulilcprtainly not t ~ cjwtifiahlr. .%I1 too Ere-
qnently tillre and money are wasted in attet~illtingto estimate proiects
ivitli greater precision than is pwsible vitli the terhniral d a t a availahlc.
2 " r l o i s d Equipment C v r l
Estimates for Economic Evaluation
lrnere
O ~ ~ O u~odu t y i rae
Jsr r con
. ro on
E c m o ~ n i ccr-alu;itir~nis an inilispensable g n i ~ l et o proccss decisions. i v r v s r ai Cnlton I I 1
There include decisions required t h e guidance of rescwrcl~,process
ilrsigii, ciipital e r ~ w n d i t l i r r ~i r i i r i n t i u ~ ir e i p e d s t o ~ u n u a g e m m t i ,
and iq~tirnnni plant qicratirig conditions, % . C O I I I I J ~ P ~ cvalnatior~
C of a
nelr- prqjcd requires tlic cstim;ition of the ncn- fixed capit:il required to-
gether [Link] r~-orkingr;iliit;rl. Assuming an ann~riill ) r o ( l u c t i ~ ~rate n and a
rrlling price of tlie product, the annnal s:iler can bc calculated Friini the
total vnlne of annual zalcs. the cost of uinuufacturing, selling. udministra-
tion, and taxes r a n he d r ~ l u c t e dto yield the incouic after taxes t o bc
cxl~ectrdfrom the prilject. This i n r , ~ i n ~l ~e a nthen hc cxprrssrii :IS a pcr-
centage of t h e ~,aliitali n v r l t l n t ~ ~ivliicl~
t is a nscful fignre for stndy hy
~uanagement. M a n y studies, of course. ( l i ~not require coiriplete e~wnomic
evaluation. I n selecting alternate dcsigrs iir arrangrmerrts of equipment.
for instance, only a r o n ~ l i n r i ~ oI nI the ~ cquilnncnt cobt in the sereral cascs
need bc made.
Sliort-cut p - ~ ~ c e d for
u ~ ~s ~ t i u i a t i ntheg fixed rapital, t l ~ cnianufarturing
rosts, and the armual return are most Irelliful v h c n uacd [Link] t h e proper
judgu~cnt. M a n y metlrods have bee11 published. F o r cuuvcnicncc several
of those currently regarded v i t h favor tiy practicing engineers will be
prcscntcd below.

Fixed Capital Cost Estimating

\$'hen the design of nnv facilities has progressed to t,lic niecl~anical
design stage, the inost :rccnrate IU~:IIIS of cstiuiatiug tlie final c~isteof the
pl:int is 11y a dctaile(l ellst wtimate typicxl of tlrnt produced by im esti-
Fig. 4-2. Estinmrion oi total phnt costs.
~ u a t i n gd r l ~ n r t m e n tstaffed n-itli lrietr TT-1111ilcvote full time to cost estilua-
tion. T h e estimate;. reqnirrd 11-: p r ~ c e sc ~ ~ g i u r e rho~~-t:vc:r,s, invariably
muat 11c inade heforc ;L 1;irgr amunnt uf iufor~uationis available. I n znch Cliilton's m e t l ~ o d l presents a more derailed estimate nud permits the
variation of ini]mrtant portions of plant cust in awordance ~ v i t ht h e
rases, a. detailed estimate is s r l d u ~m~r r~a u t c d 11r ~ ~ c c o r : i t r .
Fig. 4-2 iirescnts tivo short-ent inf~tl~ods, ~vlii(.li11;ir.c proved ]~npular. estimatur's judgnncnt arid knon-ledge of the prticulwr sitnatiou Cl~ilton
52 Project Engineering of Process Plontr Process Engineering
~ I K W I I ~:I ~icri~,s givi~lgtilt, inst:illcrl co-t of :I in1111l11,r
n l CIII~VKU of iliffercut
cquipmcnt itcnis haseti on an Engineering n n d .\'em Hecord index of 400.
Tlie final plant cost is then corrected to rurrent cost by ~nultiplyingby
ratio of the cunent Engineering S c w s Record index to the base index
of 400.
t
3T:tny ~lrnrticingcnginrrri 11arc clrrcli~l~crl simil;ir pn~ccrluresfor tlicir
o~rii11-e from information arailel~lein a rompany purc1i:rsing department.
Ciist curre; ior cquilinicnt itcnis nmst irequcntly used in a particular
in~lustr>-c:in he devclolied readily. To nriii~lrontinuonz revision of t11r;c
~ h t : ~[Link]
. cost.; can iic cstin~:~tcil by inultiplying the original cod by
tlw rntiil ~ , >If currcnt ralue of soruc ~~ul)[Link] rost index to the value of
tlir index upon u-hie11 the c l ~ a r t sarc I~nseil. Screral sue11 in~lcxcsare
a i l h T h a i compiled by Engineering X e t r , . ~Record is based largely on
cwt oi steel, lunilier, foundation ~naterials,and labor. The firm of
31nrsl1all and Stercns of Cllirago, Illinois~ilauesquarterly index numl~ers
ior cq~~ililiicnt costs covering a n ~ u n l ~ tof
> r difi'crcnt i~irlustries. Eight of
these are for proccss industries: and linvc b c m found very useful by n i m y
prowis eugiucera.
I n Fig. 4-2 tlie term buil~ling and structurc inr1111lps supports and
foundation .Tudginent rnnat be used in sclccting the proper percentages
for itenis 3 tlirough 11 to insure the maxi~uulnaccuracy. Some plants
require special alloy piping which may greatly increase the portion of
plant cost due t o piping. Similarly foundation conditions must also he
carefully eraluatecl. If piling is required, the foundation cost may bc
increased by as n~uclias 25%. It is important, therefore, t o realize that,
reasonable accuracy in plant coat estimating of the type outlined a b ~ ~ r c
rcquires tlie derelopnient of considerable amount of sound engineering
judgment, based on experience with many prcrious projects. Tlic sug-
gested pcrcrntagcs given by Chilton arc to be used as guides and corrected
!vllcre\-er necessary for the special situation being evaluated.
In approximating either thc cost of single equipnicnt items or entire
plants, \Villian~sVias suggestcil that the linon-n cost of a siniilar but
rliflcrent hize unit he nlnltiplicd by tli? ratio of .sizes t o the 0.6 p o ~ e r .
For ~ x a m p l e consider
. a 1200 sq ft cxrliangcr selling for $4000. Estiuiate
tlic rost of n 2000 sq f t exchanger of si~nil:ir ~wnstruction. This cost
\!-odd he $1000 X (2000i1200) '1" $5440.

Manufacluring Cost
The total mnnufacturing cost can be estimnted ns suggested liy Dybclal'
and as outlined in Fig. 4-3. I t is the sum of labor: orerhcad, fixed cliarges
and maintenance, raw lnaterials, utilities, laboratory expenses, and royal-
tics. JIultipliers for obt,aining the annual fixed chnrgcs plus maintenance
:lnd tlie general orerliead arc given in Fig. 4-3. Where nossible liowever,
56 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 57
rwnomic evaluation should supply tlie ini'ormation esrential for choosing artor 11c*.ig11 n-ithout cxcwsive experin~entati,m I n ~ n a n yri~scc:I I ~ T ~ - ~ ~ c L . ,
the unit operations required. Experimental ~ v o r ki i nut a l ~ a con~~)lcte.
~ s the reactions are so complex that rational analysis hy the principles of
and tlie process design engineer must recognize any deficiencies V-Iiicli applied kinetics is too diffildt a t onr present state of [Link]. I n this
exist so that additional data can be requested. Plants have been designed case. the empirical pilot plant procedure must be used, in \vhich the
and built bawd on experimental data for production of a new product, optimum operating conditions are determined by a planned experimmta-
but without data for t!ie purification of this product. T h r pnrification tion program requiring many hundrrds of runs; and. tl~crcfore,consirier-
operations ~ l i i r l in-ere designed TI-ithout the benefit of lahorntory data able expense. The application of kinetics and [Link] transfer theory in
proved inadequate and caused the entire operation to fail economically. pilot plant x~-orlisl~o~llil he a t t n n p t i ~ lwl~crercr possihle since it d l
Assuming there is ;rdequate inforn~ationtllc procer? engineer s1111ulil grc;ttly aid in limiting tlir n~nonntof E~lismian-typeinrestig:ition r r -
construct a schematic diagram in~lirating;ill the operation- required for quired.
the production of the dc~.&d ilnnntity and quality of finished prot1u1.t. .I large portion of the other unit operations equipment comn~only
Each of the unit opcrntions necessary may offer e r e r a l alteru:itcs fro111 eniployrd in process plants is in thr: second category. I t is not actually
an economic st:rndpoint. l\Iaterial an11 energy halances around each unit designed hy the 11rucess ~wginccraltl~oughkno\vledge of the theory rr-
should then IIP ina~le:in11 the results recorded in an orderly fashion s r ~ lated t o each item of equipment is extrcn~elyhelpi~rl. Itrnrs such as
that they may he used for the many ~lesigncalculations of individual screens, crusllers and grinders, classifiers. settler? and thickeners, pumps.
equipment itenis and fur the n-riting of specifications. Orderliness and romllressors, licat exchangel.s, filters. centrifuges, rr)-.4allizcrs, agitators
neatness are raluable x-irtucs in this T\-ork. Hnl-ing an easily understood and evaporators are a11 purchased from conipanies that, specialize in one
flow diagram and an accurate material energy bnlnncc early in the proc- or morr of t l ~ c r citems. Theory for the design of niost of this equipmmt
ess dcsign of a p1:int eliminate+ error and pcrmitr a numher of people t(, is vcry sparse and empiricism is the only guide. The proper selection of
work efficiently on vnriuus phases of tlie design. an agit,ator, for instance: must he entrusted to a rnanufacturcr who has
specialized in the building of agitators and has a considerable backlog of
Design Procedures experimental and actual operating data. The manufacturer can, hy ap-
The usual process design proreih~rrmight be srparated into tivo major plication uf the princ,iples of dimensional similitude, specify a large
diri~ions. The first inr-olres the actual design of equilment to be built agitator installation on the basis of tests n~arleon su~nlllaboratory equip-
to order. The se~.onrIc ~ l n ~ i sof
t s specifying the ollernting i:onclitions for ~ n e n t . Similar procedures are follo~vedby the manufacturers of filters.
st:indard manufactured cquipn~ent. I n tile first catcgury, there is e q u i p ilryers, centrifugals and other equipn~entof this type.
mcnt, such ns distillation t o ~ c r s absurl~ti<~n
, tolvrrs, adsorption and cx- The process engineer must be familiar with the n~etlmdsof selcctior~
traction units an11 reactors. Thoac items inrolviug niass transfer are used by tlie manufacturer so t l ~ a tthe operating specifications required
designed by calculating the iileal numhrr of stages or the nun~bcrof for each item of equipment ran be intelligently conil~ile~[Link] it will
equilibrium stages (in distillation this \vonld be tlic number of t r a y s ) . uot be necessary for tlie manufacturer t o carry on voluminous corrc-
The actual number of stages is then detern~incdby the application of spondcncc in order t o obtain additional facts required for the selection of
appropriate empirically d e t e r m i n ~ efficiencies.
~l the desired item. I n subsequent chapters information is giren t h a t d l
I n some cases it has been fuund illore desirable to e~nploya (IifYercntial aid in the selection of different types of cquipmcnt.
stage instead of an equilibrium stage and deterininc tile nun~l)crof trnns- I n specifying operating conditions for equipment or in the original
fcr units by an integration. The hright of a. triinsfer unit can he r s t i n ~ a t e ~ l design of process equipment: it is essential that the design engineer select
by certain grneralieed correlations. The design of packed colunnls is done the niaterials of construction. h-o one is more fa~niliarwith tlie process
in this manner. rhan the process engineer; and he, therefore, is in a farornblc positim t o
Reactors are designed by the apl~licationof clic~nicalkinctics as dcs- aid the mechanical designer in the intelligent specification of materials
cribed by Hougcn and Watson:l Rate equations art, determined from wliicli will resist corrusion and erosiun. There are many handy tables
experimental data, and empirical cunstants for the equations are rvalu- ~ ~ l i i ch ha r e been printed to aid in selection of a material of construction
ated. If the effect of temperature on these constants has been establislie~i, that d l resist the corrosion of a given substance. There tables arc in-
it is possible to calculate reactor sizes for a nmnber of assulned operating tended only as preliminary guidcs and extreme caution niust be eniployeil
~ n ~ l i t i ~ This
t ~ s tccl~~iic~uc
. cn:ll)les con~pI~,ti, w ~ ~ n i ~ l:tnalysis
nic of till. rr- in their use. Often a sligl~tchange in tcn~perntureconditions can cause
58 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 59
a inctnl to corrode ~vhich~vouldordinarily withstand the attack of tlie :~ccumulatingoperating data. Such data siioi~ldnot just he placed in the
Hoi~lin question. Tlie study of corrosion is still largely elnpirical, and i t company files, hut it slionld he analyzed [Link] still "fresl?" a11d made a
is nut porsihlc for the average cngineer to k n o x the latest d e v c l ~ ~ p m e n t s definite part of tlir organization's operating experience.
since the wmhinatiorl of material:: and corroding agents is ahnost limit-
I This .suggests
~ - that for a11 bnt the zi~nplestcases a conipctent corro- SOURCES OF BASIC DATA
.ion cngineer should t ~ consulted.
r The excellent periodicals in the field
I n addition to the experiniental rlata in operating data nhirh arc uscil
\ d l also pro\-e liclpful.
in the design of equil~nient,a large amount of hitsic pliysiral an11 clieniical
.Is the design and selection of the prucess equip~nentis cninpleteil,
data are also reqnircrl. M a n y cnmpanies niaintain very cscellent rlata
specifications for each item should be sumlnarized in a n orderly fashion.
hooks in u41icli such data are accumul:ited and periodically rrviscd. A
U a n y organizations h a w developed f o r m for the various equipment
single ~lepartnlentis often charged u-it11 the full-time d u t y of maintaining
items. There insure neatness and also prevent tile engineer from over-
the data book. Tliuse engineer:: who do not h a r e such information avail-
looking somc important item of information. T h e con~pletedforms can
able ran aecuniulate data hy requesting reprints of basic infiirmatiim
be reproduced and distributed to other departments in the engineering
appenring in the literature and hy obtaining comldations of data that
organization for integration into the complete plant design. I n addition
have appeared through the years. Tllc following list [Link].i soink'
t o these specifications, i t is desirable t o produce a final process flow
rec~~nnncnded conipilations of rlata which have proved useful and 11oplllnr
dingrani. This diagram slion-s all major items of equipment, gives ten>-
with practicing engineers. S o atteinpt has heen made to list the vast
p c r a t u r c , pressures, and H o i ~rates t~hroughoutall parts of the process.
anionnt of data t h a t has a l q ~ r a r c din the periodioal literature i:ir the rx-
Tlie diagram then bcco~iiesan invaluable aid t o specialists \vho murt
ccllcnt data that is pihlished I I ~n~nnufarturersof r a r i n w rllenlicnl
15-ork on the ~nechariicaldesign of tlic plant.
~voilucts. T h e list of referenres is not to be considrreii coniplcte, :in11the
T h e proress engineer should prepare a brief hut complete written de-
omission of certain material dues not necessarily indicate tllat it is not
scription of the operation of the plant. Such a description aids both man-
recomniended. Certain of these rcfercnces arc desirable as part of a
agement and all othcr engineers and draftsmen who must contribute t o
p c r s ~ ~ n alihrnry
l and are so indicated by a n asterisk, hut inany arc ex-
the finnl design. Distribution of this information, I I I I ~should ~ ~ ,be
pcnsir? and are best ~ i i a d ea p a r t of a company library fur general
made ~ v i t hcaution. IVorkers ~vitli incomplete background for under-
tedmical use.
standing of terhnical process data may misinterpret the information with
possihlc disastrous results.

THE PROCESS ENGINEER AND THE PROJECT ENGINEER

Although the project engineer is in complete chargc of the plant design hlii.1~.1946.
arid construction, it is necessary t h a t the process engineer he ready t o 2. Itollrfson. C:. I<..and R. E. Powell. 87m. R c a . I'hus. Chcaz.. Annotrl [Link].
asrist the project cngineer a t any time. Normally, once the process design
is completed the process cngineer will move on to other assignments, but,
q ~ ~ e s t i o ninvolving
s the process cmtinne to arise a s mechanical design
proceeds. T h e project cngineer, eTren though having a background of
1nmcc~sdesign,should always refer these questions t o the process engineer
v h o directed the original design. Only he will know tlie background of the
design ralcu1:rtions. B. Handbooks 8 General References
I t is of great value for the process engineer to accunipany the project 1. Beil~teins H a n d b u c h dci. Orgmischcn Ckumie, [Link]. Bcrl~n. ( 4 t h
cnginew <illring visits tu the plant site a s construction proceeds so t h a t edition hrgnn in 1914, supplements currently appearing). L~ctest cdltiuns eovw
he niiglit he Bctter able to make decisions regarding changes in the design literature u p to 1929 on w~I1-pstablishcdorganic ~compoundr;nmi reactions; h o a c v c r ,
or nrrangcnicnt of cquiptnent. Companies interested in developing their it is drill primary source of information.
ilcsigi l~n~~ri.-I~:,n- s l ~ m ~ lpermit
d process engineers t o follow the startup 2. Rennett. H., T h e Chcmicol Formiilniy. Chernicnl Put~li~hine CO.. Rrnoklyn.
operarions of new plants, and the process engineer should spend his time S.Y.( 1 9 4 3 ) Formulas of many industrial plmducts.
3. Chrvziciil Econon~zcs H o n d h o o k , Stanford Rcsmrrh I n i t ~ i n t e ,C;tI.(. (loose-
60 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 61

" .
C. (!.. H o g c r s .lloriuol of Inriusfrinl CIw,,,i.i,y. 6th Xd.. T~iuSohtmnd
'li. F u r n : ~ ~
Co., 1-en l u r k (1042). Good de6~1'l/1lireidormiition on well-rsti~hli~l~d [Link],PI*C-.
'18. Sax, X I . , Huridbor,i: of Dongei-our JIalei-inis, Keinlmld P ~ h l i r l i i n gCo., X C W
I-ork (196l).

C. Compilations of Thermodynamic, Physical a n d Chemical Data

:iwl P V T
1 . . h w 1 r q l ~ c ,1 ) i s l i l l ~ i l ~ ~P~,~uilil~ri,~xn.
~n.
C h , J u (:IUI,, K . J . ( ; ~ i t y .I.. 1'. I{rrnnw!w ;d It. h l l , ~ i . s ! i l l n f i r mEqliiIibiii!7n
Duta, K r i n l d d k'\hlishing Cu.. SCW Yolk (1050).
I)~.eishilrh, R. R., Prcs~u~~c-l'~,li~,t~~~-l'e~~,lprrntii,i. Kdolior~sliips uf O r g u i i i c
Cornvmnrls, 3rd Ed., Handbook Publishers I n e , Smalnsky, Ohio (1952).
Horsley, L. H., Ateolropic Data, American Chcmical Society, Washington, D.C.
(1952).
2. Fuels
P m - F b i c Goses, Amwican Gas Association, S e w Yo& (1941).
Gnwoira FacLv, American Gas .issoi:i;~tion X\:m- Yark (1918) 7. Solvcnls
S p i w s H . X , T d m i c d l l r ~ l o,,i F,trl, 5118 Pil., B r A 4 S ~ 1 i m : dColnn.. I V d d >[Link]. I.. Inr/~i!rinlS o l ~ x n f sRcinhald
. Puhlishine Ca.. New Yark (19501.
I'oivvr ( ! o n i ~ w n ~ w .
London (1930). C!;hrifi,. v ; d i ~ z .Ir:inily [Link];~rlcand ld,lcs (01.
,,,:,,,y l?],,'< ,us [,,,,I>,
62 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Process Engineering 63
I,iotiiila. Eng. l?xp St;ttion Rullctin S o . 34. Louisiana Sttltc Univ.. I h t m Koog~.
,I!
3. Hnrrir. .I. \lr.;\.. J I - . Cltr.,,~.Eng. Prow,-., 4 $ , 333 (1848).
La. 119521.
4. Houg~n.0. :mil Ii. Xf. Watson. C l i i ~ n i c n lProcevs Pn'nciplrr, Vol. 111, ~ o h n
Striniioidi o! tiir l'zihalal. Ezehongcrs .lirn,ufuelureli. .4ssocinIion, 3rd Ed..
Kiev K- S m j . SPIT- I-ork.1947.
5. Long. If. J.. ('hrnt. Ertg.. G ,KO.6. 112 (1948).
6 . Sirliols, W.T., Inri. Eng. Chem., $3. 2295 (l!El).
7 "P~.oce?sEquipnlmt Estinrnlion," R ~ p o r tCIi<m. E o g , jj. S o . 5 , 103 (1947).
8. Sleveni. R. Q., C h r m Elrg., i;,KO. 10. 121 11947).
l i m n a n . J . 11.. mil J . Iiayc, T h r ~ m o d l , , m m i c P ~ m p c r t i wo j Air, John Wiles &
9, Killianrs. R.. Jr.. Chem. Eng., 64,KO.12. 124 (194;).
Sons. Inc.. S r w Yolk 11915)
10. Zirn~tiw~n:m. 0. T.. :mi I. Lnvinc, (~hemicr,l Enwin<v,.ing Erpip,n<rtL Cost,s,
*limnan. J . H . I . . Kryrs. ?'h<,i,nr~riii,in,,iic Piopeiliea of S i ~ n r n ,Jolm Lndustrial Kcsoarcb Scn-ice, Dover. N c w H:inrpsInrc, 1950.
Kilcy 6 Sons. In?.. Scm York (1936).
Properties of ('mnmonly L'aed Rejrigc~orita,.Ail. Comlitioning and Refrigcrating
M.lnc1iiner.y issociation. ll~;isl~ingtun, D.C. (1946)
Zirnnwirn;m I). T.. :mil 1. Lavine. P ~ y d ~ ~ - o n , c l iTable.* .ic & CIiarLs, Industrial
Rwrarh S ~ r ~ D i ~ c r S. c w Hnrnpi-liirr 11945).
i w

D. Materials
1. E ~ w h a r t J.
. I,.. rt nl., Jlr~clwriicid Prr,pv,-tiis of J l c l o l s it Alloys, Burrnu of
S t m d a i d s Ciw C417, I~a4unjirun.U.C. (1943).
2. D u l l o n d . T. C.. E,iginwiiriy Ilrilcrinla JIoniml, Reinhold Pnl,lishing Co..
Sm 1.d (19511 (;mr~[Link] in simpk terms.
3. Hn1,;ilil. E.. (',,iriirion Giiiilc; Elsevic~.Puhlisliing Co.. Hrnwton (19.51). Handy
tnhlri ui co~.roiionrwisiant milierial rrcommcnrlationa.
4. Sinmnds. H. K.. A . J. Kcitll, and XI. H. Rigclowl IInrdbook of P b s l i r s , 2nd
Ed., Van Swlrand. S r w Yolk (19491.
5 Tecit~iicidD o h on Plmlics, hlnnufavtwing Chemists A w x . , Washington, D.C.
(1952) Pwpexties and M;inr~fnrturrrs.

T h e possession of t h e best tcclinicnl d a t e a n d tl~eoreticalknowledge for

design of all type.; of pruccss equipment represents only a portion of t h e
requirements for s u c ~ ~ ~ s . sprocess
ful engineering. T h e process engineer
must also h a r e a ~ v o r k i n gknowleclge of equipment operation a n d n m h a n -
ical design gained hy actual operating experience or at least b y observing
operatinn. An engineer without this l ~ a c k g r o u n dwill often size equip-
iller~tin such a {say t h a t i t is impractical t o build and operate. Those
engaged in mechanical design of cquipmcnt are reluctant t o question or
alter t h e 11rorcss design since i t is not uncommon fur unusual arrange-
ments or designs t o be required due t o r~eculiaritiesof the r ~ r o c e scon- ~
ditions. An impractical design, t l ~ e r c f o r e , initiated b y t h e process
engineer might be used in t h e final plant design without question. So it
is ilreessary for t h e pniject engineer to be on t h c 1o11k-out f u r all imprnc-
tical process designs. H i s experience i n both merhanical and process
phases of design makes him unusually qualified f o r such work, a n d as
director of tlir project it most certainly ir his duty.

REFERENCES
1. Cldton, C. 1 1 , ('lictn. El~g..i i i . T o . 6. 97 (1949).
2 I l l . . J . Eng. f'rog,.. $fi. 57 (19501.
 CHAPTER 5 -
CHARGE

75% Propone
25% P r o p y e n e
Flow Diagrams

98% Pure Ethylene Product

START

Section 500
FRACTIONATION
- Go5 to Fuel .
*
-
Secton 100
(95%Ethylene Recovery]
Butones and
Heouter to
CRACKING FURNACES
AND QUENCH
Conversion: 65%
Inlet Furnace Temp.: 110F
t
Section 400
Storage

Outlet Furnoce Temp,: 1470F DRYING

Outlet Quench Temp.: 1 8 0 F
FLOW I 4

DIAGRAMS Section ZOO

CONTAMINATE R E M O V A L
lC02,Sufur Corn~ounds
__f
Section 300
COMPRESSION
350 psig
and Acetylene)

I t is important for the clieiiiicnl engineer t o he able to use the nintcrinl

and cnrrgy balancc and tlie f l o diagra111
~ in solving problems in desigir
and operatinn Just as thc halancc slipct and incoiuc account enable the Thrrc arc tltrw type* of sclieniatic d i ~ g r a u ~ins general use:
nccountant t o solre coniplcx financial jrrobltwi, the m:itcrial and e n t w y 1. Block ~liagram.
b;~l:inct~, togctli~rwith the f l o ~cliagram of a pri~[Link] the cl~cinir:ll 2. Process flow diagmm.
cnginccr to risualiac and solve his prol~lcmsin a rapirl and straig1itfor1~-:ud 3. Grnpltic flow rliagra~n
nlannrr.
Skctclring a flow diagram is almost an instinctirc ~nanipulntionfor the Block Diagram
cxl~eriencedclieniical engineer. It is part of liis thinking process as \\.dl
The bluck diagram is the simplest but least dewriptire of the scliematic
as liis cxplanntory technique. I n this for111 it is usually :I rougli skrtr,li or
diagraius. As the naulc iniplies, it consists of rectangular blocks vhich
schematic flow diagmni. I n thc design mrl ronstruction of ;I l r l ~ n t:I more
usually represent a single unit operation in a plant or an entire section of
~ ~ o n ~ p l tion'
e t c diagram callcd thc enginccling flou. diagralll tleclllllcs tllc
the plant. These blocks are conncctcd by a r r o w indicating the flov
vital rag in tlie transmission of l~roccsainforniation t o all drllurtlllcnt~
sequence. One such diagram is sllovn in Fig. 5-1.
of an cngincering design group.
The b l w k diagram is cxtreniely useful in the early stages of n proreis
SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAMS study and is particularly raluable in presenting tlic r ~ w i l t sof econoiuir
or operating studies sincc the significant data can be placed within the
I t seems desiral,lr to suggest tlic least nuniber of rules to f o l l o ~
in eon-
blocks.
rtnicting sclieuiatic di;lgraius. By their very nature they slioul~l lw
indiridualictic, aince tliey are used for varied 11urpoier. IVl~cnused 111
Process Flow Diagram
explain a process or mode o f operation t o a colleague, superior, or
customer, originality often prorides the needed emphasis. Clarity. I ~ I I K - Tlic process flow diagram a s illustrated in Fig. 5-2 is used most frr-
P Y C ~ ,inwt nerer lie sncrificed, and, t o nisure t l ~ i srlnrity, the ~lldi?llW quently by tlie process engineer in design work and in process studies. I t
nulst IJC c ~ i ~ s i d e r ~ ~ l . must bc dr:nvn so that the proccss flow and iq~[Link]:we innn(diatcly
4
68 Project Engineering of Process Plants

Process Equipment
1
'11 i t ~ m sof l w i ~ w sc q u i i ~ ~ c nnrc t slion-11. inrlu<ling i11nr~s. TI11
Oiapraurmntir cketcllca ;we ~ i i a d ct u r c s r n ~ l ~ tl hc r c q ~ l i [ ~ ~ n:I-.c n nrnrly
t :I:
pos.~il~lc. thus aiding in risn;ilization of the items I J ~d l users i ~ f t111
diagraul. Siluple clrration r i r w a r r [Link] uscd. but t h r y arc altvrcc
iuclr a ~ - a yt h a t all ronncctioni appear on th<, plant of the diapr:rl:i
.inIllis
,
~ ~ ~ o c e t l makes
urc for s i n ~ l ~ l i c i t yS. o z z l ( ~arc loc:it~il in tile prolx:
rclatirc p,isition; i.?.. at the ] ) r ~ ] p ctrqy r in 8 fr:~ctionatingci~lumn. I t i:
i n q ~ r n r t i r n to
l nrnkc tllcsc diagrams ti1 scale; since smallcr items TWJUIII b~
u1i<l111y . is desirahl(!. hon-r\-w. t o 11rcscrve a supgc>tion nf t111
r c ~ l u c c ~ l It
rvl;itix-c iiac diflrrcucw: ;iurl tltis ~ : I I I s o ~ n c t i ~ nl vx : ~ c ~ ~ o t t ~ p l 11: isI
[Link]~p :I diffwcnt rcalc for tlrc l ~ o r i z u n t ; ~tl~iui l for tl11. r(.[Link]~l.
S i n w equipuirnt rarir; cmsirlcml~[Link] is not [Link]~lr, t o li;irc -t;ind:il.~
. k c t c l ~ ( ~fors caeli itcni. T h c re]~rc.?t!ntatiousof ~ U I I ~ ~in(tors: I S . a l ~ ( tur.
l
biues. lic~[Link] t ~ citi~ndardizetln> in Fig. 3-5.

Notations
Certain cssenti;~linf~~rnxrtion must 11r provirlc(l n~ljaccntto e:wh itcn
of equipnrent. Tliesc notations must suplily in a concise nianncr tlie dat:
required liy ear11 user of the d i a g r a n ~ . Expcricnce has dictntcd t h r infor-
~ u n t i o nrrquired for tlic eilnnnon items such a s p u ~ n p sand r c s s c l ~ . Fol
spcci:rl cqiril~~ncnt. the irrer;rll rlimensions and ~ i g n i f i c m toperating c h ;
iwtcristics :IK often givcn. Tlrc following notations arc suggrstrd:

TABLE 5-1. Typical Equipment Designations

I t e m Numbers
All pieces of equipment s l ~ o u l dbe given a n item number which s h o u l ~
appear on or next to the equipment. If t l ~ citcnl numbering s y s t c ~ ui!
planncd with c a w , i t aids inimeasurahly in t h e use of t h e flow dingrau
n :ill 1d1:1wiOT 11111 (lesigl~::nd ronstn~ctinnx n r k . A
:11111 ill tlit. e x ~ c ~ l t i oof
typical s y - t c n ~TT-hichhas been used nit11 suwcss, in casc? wlrcrc the l l r w
 -
Fig. 5-4. Engineering flow dinpram: ~olvmerisationunit reactor section. (Courtesv of Foster Wheeler Cornnmtion l
- p~ --- ~ ~ p~~ ~- ~~

Fig. 5 5 . Engineering flow diagram: gas treating plant. (Courtesy of Fluor Corporation.) Thia diagram is typicel of n flow
diaaram in the d e v d o ~ m e n tstare. Line numbers h a r e not vet been assiened.
 Flow Diagrams 69
1111it is
e-. divi<lcd intu area,< or xctioi1.s. r~npli,y$a numl~er sucl~;IS
P-101. Tiic letter indicate- the type of equipment, in this case a pump:
the 101 in<lic;~tr.:that the pump is the nunll~crone pump in area 100. If
this pump has a n identical sparc, it, can he labeled P-101A. Common
letter designations for equipment are giren in Table 5-1.

Process Information
Important process information sirould also be listed. Thc folloning
:ire .suggestions for sevcral cullnllon iten~s.

Service
1)innrctcr; height, thickness
Special feature^ (lining, etc.)
llesign conditions
Operating conditions
Hent Exchangers
Service
Diffewntial pwssurr. across sh?11 and t , u h
Heat transfer arca
D u t y in Btu/hr
Design conditions
Temperature and pressure a t inlet and outlet
P1i"lps
(This information may he given on the flow diagram or on accompany-
ing attaclin~cnts.)
Sewice
Size and type
Fluid
Puuip t e i i ~ p c ~ a t u r e
Density a t pump terl~perature
Design GPhI a t pump tcinpcrature
Design differential
SPSII ( S e t positive suction liead)
C'o~~ipressors
(This infortnation may be given on the floiv di~igliunor on accompany-
ing attaclllncnts.)
Service
Stages
Suction conditions
First stage suction
Seeond stage nuctinn
Serond stag[, ~lisrll:~rge
70 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Flow Diagrams 71
BHP (Brake liorsepowcr) first stage
B H P second stage each line cxtending from one piece of equipment t o another is given a
Capacity SCFN separate number.
These numbers can be recorded on forms together xvith the flon- rate.
Piping and Valves
pressure, temperature, and fluid floving in the line. T h r linc number
changes ~vlienercrthe linc size or linc specificatiiin cl~anges. T o avoill
.%I1 process lines and utility lines serving process equipnicnt are slro~vn confusion, a linc number is eliminated when a line is rlclctrd. Thc line
on engineering flow diagranis. Often the main pruccss lines arc ~lra\\m number can inrludc tlic arca designation. One typical system employs a
heavy so that tlic primary flow sequence will be more apparent. IJtility number such as 3"06403E (Fig. 5-4).
3" 0 6 403 I<
TABLE 5-2. Typical Valve and Pipe Symbols for Flow Diagrams
Line size Fluid class Area number Line number Piping spec.
ITEM SYMBOL
Since, as explained in Chapter 18, piping specifications are writtcn in
Valves B F l f t t n g Line Oer,gnof!ons detail for each class of service, thc piping designer can obtain all the
Angle V o l v e
F Main Process information required t,o layout and design tlic ~iipingf r m i the f l c ~ ~
diagram, the line list, and the piping spccification. These line numbrra
furtlrcr serve in the marking and identifying of shop-f:hricated pipe. A
poorly numbered flow diagram, thcrefure, can rausc considerable con.

-
Figure B F l a n g e -8- Condenrote fusion tllroughout the project.

-
Valves are identified on thc flow dingram, lioth hy n u m l m and hg
symbol. The numbers refer t o detailcd valve specifirat,ions and are
Gote V o l v e Steom
very helpful t o both designers and material procurement men. .\lthougl~
Globe Valve S t e m Troced -- - - - -- some organizations do not number the valves on the flow diagram, alni~ist
H O I ~Connection --C Woier -.. ..- all use numbers on the piping drarings.
P l u g Coch Nose: Uruollv no otternot is made todirtinouirh
Instrumentation
Reducer - All instrumentation for the controlling, rccording, and indicating of
plant operation must be shown on the flow diagram. Fsunlly. the process
engineer indicates in a schematic fashion the essential instrumentation on
the prricess flow diagram. This is further enginccred and added to the
lines are ilra~vnusing various synibols (Table 5-21 to pcrmit ready diffrr-
engineering flow iliagram x i t h all other required instrumentation.
entiatim of the several scrviccs. Arrows are used wherever neressary to
The Instrument Society of America has prcpared a set of standard in-
aid in following tlic flow. All required valves and check valves are
strrnncnt ~ynrbols~vlrirhshould lie followc~lt o avoid confusion. These
indicated, but flanges and fittings are not shown except a t equipnrcnt.
are reproduced in Tablc 5-3. The instrunrcnt number is generally in-
Common synibols for the valves in general use are given in Table 5-2.
cluded in tlie syml~ol,as shown in the tabulation. Control valve and
Sizes of valves for those other than line size are shown adjacent to the
relief valve sizes should be shown adjacent to these items to aid in piping
valve.
design.
Since the piping designer uses the flow diagram as his main source of
information, much data must be supplied on the diagram. Temperatures Arrangement of Diagram
and prensnres, flow rates: and a description of the fluid flowing must be
.4 well-planned arrangement of the engineering flow diagram can do
provided. I n addition, the specifications for t,he lines must be given so
much t o assure efficient and high quality norknianship tliroughout all
that the size, material, and thickness of pipe, class of flanges, and rating
stages of the job. If some idea of tlie actual plot plan is known ~vhentlie
i r f fittings and valves u-ill be known for each line. This information can
flow diagram is drawn, it is very helpful t o have the diagram arranged
be 2onveniently provided by means of a linc numbering system in which
in a similar manner insofar as it is practical. Such an arrangement aids
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams

TABLE 5-3 ( I ) . Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols. Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tenfotive Recommended Practice) Tentofive Recommended Proctice)
BASIC INSTRUMENTATION SYhiBOLS TYPICAL IiViTRUMENTATION
SYMBOLS FOR FLOW

DISPLACWIENT-
TlPE FLOW METER

BASIC SYMBOLS FOR B A S K SYMBOLS FOR BASIC SYMBOLS TOR

INSTRUMENT WITH COMBINATION INSTRUMENT TRANSMITTER
SINGLE S ~ V I C E AND OR DEVZCEw m r w o
TUNCTlON SERVICES OR SUNCTIONS n o w RECORD^
or ROTIMETLII
OR 0TWm
IN-THZLRn TlsI

now RECORDEA.
PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION.
TRANSMITTER LOCAL.
RECEIVER MOUNTW ON BOARD

BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL TOR BASIC SYMBOL >.WAY BASIC SYMBOL
TOR FLECTRICALLY TOR PISTON. BODY FOR SAFETY
DIAPHRAGM OPLRATLD VALVE OPEIATW VALVE FOR ANY I R P I P 1 VALVE
MOTOR V A L E SOLENOID OR IHYDRAULIC OR VILVE
MOTOR1 PNEUMATICI

r L o w RECORDING
COMROLLLR.
PHFUMATIC
TRlNIMiSSlON
WITH RECEIVER
BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL SHOWING BASIC S Y ~ O L MOUNTW ON BOARD
TOR sur. FOR MANUALLY PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION SHOWING PNEUMATIC AND LOCAL
ACTUAFD OPERATED INSTRUMENT tnCCTRlC CONNECTION FROM TRANSMITTLR
IIPmGRALI CONTROL VALVE TRANSMISSION SAME INSTRUMMT TO
REGULATING EXCEPT FOR TYPE OF DIAPHRAGM MOTOR
VNVE CONNLCTlONl VALVE
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams

tBLE 5-3 (3). lnstrumentation Flaw Plan Symbols. TABLE 5-3 (4). lnstrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.

(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice) Tentotive Recommended Practice)

TYPICkL 11: 1 AU: .INTATION SYMBOLS TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION

FOR TEMPERATURE SYMBOLS FOR LEVEL

BLIMI LNP CONTROUU. CAGE CLASS L EVn RCCOIIDUI. PNEUMATIC

INTDNAL TYPE TMNSMIISION. WITH BOARD
MOUNTED IItCCIYLR
t X T U l N TYPE IRANSMITTEII

TFMPUIATURL WDICATLNC. TlMPDATURF m l C A T R l G

--
TlMPERArURC RFCORDRla
POIN? CONNECIED TO AND RECORDING POINT CON?ROUUI. BOARD
MLRTIPOIN? WDICATOR CONNECTED TO MULTIPOINT MOUNTED (ELECTRIC
ON BOhRD INSTRUMENTS ON BOARD MEISURFMEMl

mn RTCORDIWG CON TROLL^.

u ? t n N A L TYIC
PNEUMATIC TIIAWIMISSIOII

L T Y U ALARM.
INTLMAL TIPC
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams

TABLE 5-3 (5). Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols. TABLE 5-3 (6). lnstrumentation Flow Plan Symb~
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice) Tentative Recommended Practice)

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION

SYMBOLS FOR PllESSUM SYMBOLS (MISCELLANEOUS)
--..-

PRLSJURE INDICATOR, P D S U M .CCOU)ER 1IM PNSJURE RLCORDD.

LOCILLY MOUNTm WARD MOU)IIID M A R D MOUNTED I-?EN
PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION

<tONMYO(I BELT)
n

SPED RFCORDLOOI. WEIGHT RECORDER.

LOCALLY n o u r n LOCALLY MOUNITD

1 P M R MACHINE >
0

MOISTURE RECORDEL
LOCALLY H O U M m
PRESSURI COHIROLLFR. PRCSSURE RECORDING CONTROUL11 WIPrUCNTIALI.
BLIND TYPE PMUMATIC TRANSMISSION: wnn PRESSURL wcomn
Ishow con,roll.r COWINCD INSTMUMINT BOARD naumm
dmcoy...ha &+rap
il 0
' rn0""[Link]
 Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams 79
the layout men and pil~ingdesigners t o visualize tlie plant more readily
and prevents thc ovcrenrphasis of a line that is artnally w r y short hut,
TABLE 5-3 (7). Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
appears long hccxuse of the arrangement of thc flow diagran~.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, There arc many methods of accomplishing good arrangement. Pumps
Tentative Recommended Practice) can he placed helow other equipment as shoxn in Fig. .5-5 or all equip-
ment may he arrangcd above n common hase line. Process lines ran he
TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS
FOR COMBINED INSTRUMENTS shown on onc dra~vingand utility lines on another. Or. 110th utility and
process lines can be slro~rnon the same drawing. The lattcr is done so
that the full picture ran he seen on one drarving. Oftcn, liovewr, this
results in o v c r c r o ~ d i n gespecially if utility connections hecorne eucessirc,
such as on large compressor installatione.
Thc flow diagram, t o he read and understood easily, must not appear
crowded. Oftcn a numher of scpnrate dra~\-ingsarc needed tn rcl~rcsent
a process. l i n e s passing f r o ~ nequipment on one sheet t o that on n r ~ ~ t h e r
are nlaintnined a t a constant elevation so that tllc continuation of the
line on the next ihcet can he found ~ r i t hease.

CONFIDENTIAL I N F O R M A T I O N
Because of their coml~lctcncss,process flow diagrams, engineering flow
diagrams, and a t times hlock diagrams, contain confidcntinl information.
They should never bc distributed indiscrirninatcly or alloyed t o he rc-
produced by unauthorized persons. If unscrupulous individuals are per-
mitted t o copy a flow diagram, they arc ahle t o ohtain unfair advantage
by avoiding the time, effort, and cxpcnse requircd to originate a colnplete
flow diagram. Such practice violates all known codes of ethics.
 Plot Plans

I z
&

PLOT
PLANS
After the engineering flow diagrams are completcd and before detailed
piping, struct,ural, and electrical design can begin, the layout of process
units in a plant and the cquipment within these process units must be
planned. This planning is done by a group of cxperts including the
project engineer, i~ipingand structural designers, and the process engineer.
The results of their work arc plot plans: the lnartcr plot plan and the
unit plot plans. The master plot plan (Fig. G - l i shows the location of
each process unit, road\ray, and building. The unit plot plan (Fig. 6-2)
shows the location in plan view of each piece of equipment ~vithina single
process unit.
The preparation of a plot plan is the mrist important function in the
design of a process plant. Onc key to good operation, economical con-
struction, and eficicnt maintenance is \wll-planned, functional ;mange-
mcnt of equipment and building$. A key to employee satisfaction and
good public relations is a neat and esthetically pleasing plan.
Each plant differs in many ways and no tnw plant sites are exactly
alike; hence, there is no one ideal plot plan. I t is possible, i~o~vever,to
describe some of the more important rules wfiicli insure a satisfactory
arrangement.

MASTER PLOT PLAN

Figure 6-1 is a skctrh of a typical master plot plan. Dimensions have
been omitted for clarity. Generally the plant is divldcd lnto blocks
80
82 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plot Plans

~vIiic11are most conveniently separated by roadways. Kumerous factors

[Link] location of roadxiys and the arrangclncnt of blocks. Sonie
of tlieac arc:
PLANT [Link] drainage system can be planned from a contour
map of the site. S e x t r ~ ~ a d w a yands the general areas t o be used for
process units and buildings can be chosen. Portions of the site requiring
the least amount of fill and having the best soil-bearing characteristics
are selected for tllcse areas. The highest area on tlic site may be used
advantageously for storage of priducts so that gravity loading of tank
cars will be possible. Adequate dikes must be built around these tanks
to prevent rapid spread of fire if tanks o v e r f l o ~ . (See Chapter 24.)
ESISTIXGH I G H ~ .LSD Y RAILROAD [Link] and warehouses
niust be readily accessible from thc main l~igli\vay, and warehouses,
storage yards, and product loading areas nlust be convenient t o the near-
est railroad. If the plant is to have harbor facilities, product storage
should be in the vicinity of the docks, tlioug11 far enough t o rnininiize the
danger of duck fire.
TYPESOF P a o c ~ s sITSITS. If the product from one process unit is fed
directly t o another, the units sl~ouldbe adjacent t o reduce piping and
purnping costs. Operation, maintenance, and utility distribution are often
simplified by locating similar units in one section of the plant.
S a r z r ~ . Safety rules are fully discussed in Chapter 24.
P L A N T SERVICES. The power plant, shops, warehouse, cafeteria, and
change house should be located not only for maximum efficiency and con-
venience hut also for minimurn interference with the process operations.
One simple starting point for grneral planning is to make rectangula~
cardhoard cutouts scaled to each proress unit, p m e r plant, machine shop,
tankage area, and office building. These cutouts may be moved uver a.
dra\ving of tlie total plant site. Each arrangement can be furtller studied
by preparing schematic block diagrams on which each area is shown as a
recbangle and all interconnrcbing piping is indicated. Utility piping
should also he included on this diagram. These block diagrams arc
helpful in deternlining the space required for interunit piping and are
thus a great aid in developing the final rnaster plant plot plan. The
econoniica of ronstruction, operation, and future expansion for each
proposed arrangement will determine the most acceptable plan.

UNIT PLOT PLANS

Unit plot plans (Fig. 6-2) are prepared in niucli the same lvay as tlip
master plot plan: except that tlie detail is much greater due to thr larg~v
number of elements making up the process unit. Scale niodcls begun
:it this stage and developed as design progresses are most helpful.
Briefly, the steps in preparing unit plot plans arc:
84 Project Engineering o f Process Plonts
1 . [Link] all m:ijor itcnrs ( r f e ~ ~ n i p ~ nmcli
t v t :IS \-~[Link] rschangers,
liamps, and coniprcssors. Indicate the size and xeight of each.
CHAPTER 7
2. Decide vhicli equipment should be elevated. Csually the elevation
of equipment is dictated by pump suction reqnirctnents or other proces
requirements. Elevation of equipment is alvays costly and should h r
done only if necessary for satisfactory operation of the proccss.
3. Study the process flom and operating procedures. Thc flow sequence
and function of each piece of equipment should he thoroughly underutooil
su that its arrangement in the plot can be functimal.
4. Determine maintenance methods for each item of equipment ~o that
equiplncnt requiring frequent maintcnunce ill he easily :~ercssiblc.
5 . Stully all iipc~rating11azards so that the snfeut arrangement of equi11-
Iilent can be dcviscd (See Chapter 24.1
6. Plan tlw spacing of equip~nent in :tccor~l:~ncc:with the following
rules:
SCHEDULING
a . D o not spnce pumps closcr than three fect. Closer sparing
hampcrs maintenancc.
h. I~quilnieut~ i t hr m ~ o v a h lparts ~ must he :~rrnngcdso that the
THE
parts can he rcmoved witlli~ut di~msntlinglong lcngths of pipe or
moving other equipment. Free access by hoisting apparatus is necee-
sary.
PROJECT
c. Remember that foundations snch as sprcad footings oftcn exceed
t,hc din~ensionsof the equipment they support. Hence both equipment
and foundation sizes should be c o n d c r c d . Careful planning and scheduling are vital t o any project as complex
7. Study the crcction p r ~ ~ b l e nfor
~ s a11 equipment. I T l ~ r npmsible, its as thc design and constructi~nof a procc; plant. After t h co~upletion
~
[~lnciment~ho11li1facilitate wcction. of prelin~inary11rocess dwign \xwrk, f l o ~diagranls, and plot plans, a
project sche~lulccan he developc~l. This project schedulc d l then hc-
Goo~lplot p h n i n g is more a matter of experienced judgment than of co~iiea guide for lilanning and rec~mlingprogress tl~ronghontt,he job.
[Link] :I set list oi rules, hecausc tlicrc~:Ire so many 7-dues to he met.
A gruup of cxprricnccd c~~gineers car] ~levelrql:UI acccptahle plot 11lan in ;I PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT SCHEDULE
relatively short time. Using models to represent equipment, these ex- The srhe(ln1c sI10u1d i ~ i ~ l i r a tthe
< , stxrt anil c~~rnl~lctinn ~Iatesfor cngi-
lierts can gather around a conference table and propose numerous possible licering, drafting, and l i r ~ ~ e u r e ~ n e;I-n tn-~,ll
. as ~~onstruction ol~crationsfor
:lrrangelncnts vi\ridly and quickly. From the combined experience oi each major item of cquilimrnt. If properly jire~~itrcd and i i ~ l l o ~ ~ c oi l~, n -
cnrh of tlie men participating, the merits and dcnlerits of each arrangc- pletion of t,he project on time \ d l he asrure<l.
~lrtwtcan be readily iletermine~l. Plot plarming is d e f i ~ ~ i t r the
l y jub for I n addition t o assuring rcasonalilp pronillt conq~lcrionof n construction
the most experienced and capable engirlccrs in a plant design group. job and effieient coor~lit~ation of er~ginrcrit~g, bc11eilul1,sprovide the only
method for contracting firms or design groups of operating companies t o
anticipate nmnpo\vcr r e ~ ~ u i r c ~ n e n tContr:irting
s. urg:rnizations, in pnr-
ticular, requirc careful planning in order t u niaintain reasonably con-
tinuous employment for their personnel. The 111o~teconomical utilization
of personnel can be realized \\.lien a n~ininlunlof three and preferably
four projerts arc being handled consecutivrly. A single project usually
results in slnck or idle pwio~ls for spl2ci~~iz1~d 1~ersonne~.T ~ same C
85
86 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Scheduling the Project
p r d ~ l e n iarises w i t l ~parallel project ollerations ( t v o or more projccts
being engineered siniultaneously) ~ i n c ethe f u n d a ~ n m t a i steps occur
simultaneously.
The ideal vork xliednle for any type of mginrrring organization r h i e h
contracts services in proce.;~plant design ~ 1 n 1 he d obtained hy spacing
ronsecutive eontracts t o permit a 30- to 45-day interval Iwt~~-ecn them
Ideal conditions rarely exist in practice since the contractor is usually
confronted ~ i t ah proniise t o "start v o r k i~nnietliatcly"regardless of his
internal w r k program. The contractor's engineering scl~edules,however,
aid him in planning the beat conditions possible.
Once the preliminary scl~edulcis made, organization of personnel and
planning for the job are greatly expeditrd. Tlic job schedule, lio\~ever,
must be a vital [Link]. Aa xi-ork proceeds, more arcurntr inforn~ation
bccon~csavailable and hcncc more realistic and n ~ o r edetailed scheduling
i$ pc~ssihle.

THE SCHEDULE SHEET

A srlledulc preparcd in grapliiral fomm as s11olvn for a rrndr riistillution
unit in Fig. 7-1 has been found nioat convenient. Thc syml~olsarc used to
indicate start and completion dates. Opposite each item two horizontal
graphs arc sketched. The top graph sllo~vsthe planned scheilnlc. The
hottom graph indicates time actual progres* of work up t o the time of issue
(April 8j. Tlic second graph for each item simws t l ~ cprogrrss up to that
time. If required, the time scale can be enlarged t o indicate tlic progress
by weeks inatcad of months.
Schedules such as these can he preparcd on printed forms and rcpro-
duccd for distril~ution t o cxecutire personnel of thc contractor and
customer. This graphical presentation pcrmits key personnel t o dctcr-
mine rapidly the progress of the job as vell as plan future work in
accordance with the proposed schedule.

H O W SCHEDULES ARE MADE

The key equipment and material items that are knolr-n to control job
progress are listed a s in Fig. 7-1. The flow diagram and plot plan are
most convenient sources of information for preparing this list. The plot
plan provides a logical basis for division of the project into sections. The
example in Fig. 7-1 is for one duch section or unit.

Equipment Delivery Times Control Completion

The next step in preparation of a schedule is determining the earliest
completion date. This date is usually controlled by tlie item of equip-
ment having the longest delivery time.
Once tlic probable completior~date is selected, engineering, drafting,
 88 Project Engineering of Process Plants Scheduling t h e Pro~ect 89
and construrtion are wlirdulccl in ,letail so t l ~ the i 111aitr.r ech~dule]nay terial listing. [Link] of all in;ijw c q ~ l i p n r n tnnchor-lmlts. W h w r piling
IIc complctcd. is to be used it is prohahle that piling arranpwients may he romplete at
The entire effort of the [Link] nud ronstruction organization must bc this time and pile driving could start. Preliminary construction opera-
~cl~etlulcd so that all work ~villhc cuorriinatecl. Information, equipment, tions are sometimes started a t this point.
and materi:~lsmu-t flo\\- 50 that no group Till be delayed. This goal will 12. Structural steel design or design of other structures rrquired for
bc rcalizetl only if the p e o p l ~doing tlip sclieduling h a r e full k n o ~ l c t l g eof process operations. .4rrliitcrt~ralstu~licsof lilant hnildings.
the scquenre of 11litnt design, procurement and construction operations, 13. Electrical conduit arrangements, underground electrical material
21s n-ell a s the time ron~umcdby each. listing.
14. Foundation drsign for independent electrical equip~llrnt undcr
Sequence of Operations in Plant Design a n d Conslruction item 6.
3 9
Tile following srqucnw (11 design and corictruction operation is typical 15. Hcccipt of certified dimmsion [Link] on items 3 tllrougl~7.
J.;
for nlost prnccss plant projects. 16. Completion of piping arrangements sufficiently t o determine and
fix vessel nozzle orientations.
: I . Process (lerign and prorcss flow diagram preliarat,ion. 17. Release of vesscls for fahrication. Vesscl fabricators d l h a r e
2. Preparation of engineering flow diagrams and preliminary plot liecn selectcd by means of 3 above.
plans. 18. Release of founrlatiim dri~\vingsto construction forccs for erection.
3. Partial vessel design. JIajor vesscls are usually long-dclivcry items 19. Release of structural steel dra~ving;for llrocurcment and fahriratiol~
and they inay be partidly procured as s m n as process information is c o n - (of structural dcel: rclease of all niateriala for construction of clev:ited
plcte. 1-esscl iutern:tl such as mixcrs, stirrers, and other equipment ~ e i n i o r r r ~conrrctc
l rtr~lcturesI I tile
~ constrl~ctiouf ~ r c ~ s .
related to vessels should lie specified a t this time. 20. Construction stnrt: clenr site, preli1nin:lry grading and foundation
4. Specification of mechanical equipment including electrical and excavatims.
steaui drivers, pumps, c~~mpreesors, material handling equipment, and 21. Completion of preliminary piping material listing including valves
other equipnicnt n-hich may ljc procurcd \vithout the preparation of corn- and n~iscellaneouspiping appurtmnllces for procurement.
plcte dra11-ing~. 22. Complcti~inof ~nisceilancourmnior eiructural steel for pipe support
5. [Link] of iustrunicnts. Control valves arc usually postponed and listing of all iniscellnneous items for field construction use in pipe
until preliu~iuar:- 11iliingnrrangenlents have been completed. u p l ~ i ~ manufaeturc.
rt
6 . Design of major clcctrical switel~gcar~ main plant an(l substatio~r 23. St,art of instrument instali:i:ion ilm\vings: listing of all materials
transforlllerp. and mlallrr elertrical gear such as motor starters. a s soon required for instrument inst:tllation.
as item 4 i- co~nplete. Siuglc-liue plant electrical distribution diagrams 24. Cmnpletion of piping design nnd rrlcaie of piping for fabrication.
m u d he ~ , i ~ n i ~ ~ l csufficiently
tecl to perlnit a study oi plaut loads. This 25. Completion of architertural ilesign arid ulaterial listing for build-
work is uften dorie u11 a preliminary bu.%isfroni various process puwcr ings. This phase may lie roulpleted inurh enrlier for buildings not used
studirs. for process operations.
i . l k i g n and sl~ecifientionof heat cxclmngcrs, dircct fircd heaters, 26. Completion of elcctrir;~l<Ira\\-ings:lull iiu~trriallisting.
niiswllaneous Iientrr appurtenances, nn(l steal11 generating equipment. 27. Completioil of procure~nentof all major equi~~[Link] procure-
8. Prel~aratiunof {~illiugspecifirations. including valrc spccifications uicnt of miecellancons materials \\-ill continue.
and r ; ~ l v eitcni nulnber lists. This permits a ralvc take-off directly 28. Delivery of ccrtain itcms under 4 ilirougll 8 to jol~sitei~cgins.
from tlic engineering flm diagram. 29. Completion of underground instdl a t'Ions.
9. Fit~:llizingg~mer:~l 11101 [rl:m and a r m plot lilans. 30. Con~pletionof foundations.
10. Pluiiuing piping urr.:~ngeuicntsand listing' of materials for under- 31. Delivery of major itelw, structural ~ t e e lnnd , start of al~oveground
ground piping. wrction.
11. Fouridntiou dcsign for vcsrels and ot,hcr equipn~entfor wliich pre- 32. Installation of piping.
liminary veudur datc ilavc, been ruxivcd. Prcliiniiiary foundation lull- 33. Installation of clectricals.
34. Installation ili instrummt:lr~rm.
90 Project Engineering of Process Plants Scheduling the Project 91
3.5. Testing. foundations, UC (item 1 1 ) . and design of the electric rlistrihution systenl.
36. Insukrtion installation. Piping design continues during this period and reacl~csa stage of c o u -
37. Clean-up. pletion such that checking i ~ fdrawings can bcgin. Vessel rlra~vingsa1.r
38. (lprration start-up procetlurcs. checked ( C D ) and sent ti1 the fabricator so he can prepare shop dra~vings.
39. .-\eceptancc of plant hy custi,nwr. After approval of these shop drawings the fabricator is "released" to
A hricf study of this list \ d l indicate the depcndencc of each operation fabricate the vessel (FKI.
upon one or more of the previous operation*. A ro~uplcxinterdeprndencc Equipn~entdravings are also checked and returned t o the vendor with
exists in n-hich design gr<~ups depmd on infiirniatiun from other design or ~vitliout comments. Then, checking ui structural steel, foundation,
groups. fabricators depend on infmnation i r o ~ tlic~ riesigncrs
~ (dclivcry piping. and electrical drax~ingsf o l l o \ ~in~ the ordcr named. I n schedul-
can be delayed if this information is Intci ; and finally, tile construction ing this ~ v o r kit must be remembered that vendor's and ressel drawings
crews depend on information from designers and material from fabrica- are necded for structural steel checking. For foundation drawings,
tors. structural steel, vendor's and vessel drawings are needed, and for piping
Example of Schedule Preparation
and electrical drawings all previously checked draxvings are rcquired.
This example serves t o illustrate the principles of schedule preparation.
As in cxnniple of schedulc prcpnration ronsidcr the items in Fig. 7-1. Detailed suggestions arc given helo~vfor esti~natingdelivery times and
The piping layouts in uiost proress plants require thc major portion of ~nanhourrequirements needed in thc preparation of a w r k a b l c schedule.
drafting manhuurs. Piping dcsignrrs and draftsu~cn,therefore, ]nust bc
supplied as early as possible with vcndor's draving? of equipulmt and INFORMATION FOR SCHEDULE PREPARATION
resscl sketches.
Vessel sketches hased on design calculations and npplicahle codes arc Manufacturing a n d Delivery Times
prcpared by the vcssel dcsign griinp. These eketchcs are then released Thc delivery date of equipment should influence all work thronghout
to thc procurement department accompanied hy a requisition or other the design organization, including process design. Major equipnlcnt, the
document describing pertinent design requirements and guarantee desired. basic design oi which ~villnot he greatly affceted by Iatcr computation,
The release of the requisition to procurement for the purpose of obtaining should he designed in detail as carly as possible sincc usually such itcms
bids is designated by tlie synlbol R on Fig. 7-1. (Rcfcrring t o the bottom d l h a w the longest delivery. If extraordinarily large machines or
portion of iteln 1 it is seen that, t11c timc of requi3itioning f m column C-1 Ilcary-walled vcsscls are required, these items should l ~ cspecified or
was behind schedule.) Since the fractionating eoluulns (items 1 and 31 sketchcd as early as possiblc and relcascd in a preliminary form so that
are more iml~ortantin piping layout, the time for requisitioning these is procurenlent operatiuns may procced.
scheduled two weeks bcfme the less critical accuululators (item 7 ) . I n order to determine probable lnaxiuium delivery tinlcs the equipment
Vendor's drawings of equipment must he received hy the piping design to be procured nmst be stndied and n list of d l major itclns prepared
group a t about the snmc time as vesscl sketches. Early sdicitation of Tlic iollorx-ing list indicates probable delivery times for various types of
bids (indicated by R ) aud pleccment of an order ( 0 )xvill assure on-tirnc equipment. Current quotations are tlie most reliable sourcc oi delivery
reccipt (ED) of vendor's drawings. These i l a t e ~dcpcnd, therefore, on timcs, bnt the filllowing list indicates probable values for various types
tile rapid finalization of proccss design specifications and cfficicnt pro- oi equipnlent and can bc used for estimates.
curemcnt operations.
Vendor's dravings and vcssel sketches, along with flow diagrams and TYPICALD E L I ~ RORY ~\~ASUI~.LCTURINC
TIME FOR
plot plans, are transmitted to the piping design group for use in preparing VARIOUSTYPES O F EQUIPZI~:NT
(1955)
piping l a y o u t ~ f o major
r lines. The completion date (Li of this layout is
esti~nated f m n the numher of drawings requircd and the ~lunlber uE VESSELS
n . Forged or heary wall chanlber~.greater than 3"
layout men assigned to the job.
The piping layout contains inforumtion sufficient for the preliminary thick 12-14 months
design of main steel structurcs and for orientation on ressel nozzles w t ~ i c l ~ b. Lnrge heavy plate vr*sclr. greater thnn 1" thick 10-12 month*
c . I)rums or othcr liglrtwall vessel* ti-8 inrintllb
in turn permit requisitioning of fabricated steel, R (itcm 5 ) , design of
d . Sulall vessels 6 6 months
94 Project Engineering of Process Plants Scheduling the Project 95
accunrulated by the project cngineer, so that their work may hcgin before estimat,ed hy experienced conztruction firms. Alattozi' has given n con-
all process cngineering has becn cumpleted. struction sclredulc chart (Fig. 7-2) hascd on an analysis of a number of
Manhour requirements for process engineering drpend upon the type projects that ~r-illpermit estimation of the ronstruction time when thc
of process, the availability of fundamental data, the availability of total manhours oi labor is known. This manhour requirement is usually
process engineering personnel, and thc policies oi the firm performing tlrc
~vork. Owner-operating firms develop and aocumulatc process data hy
experimentation and expericnrc with operating units, IThen the decisim
is made to install a plant or process, tlic data are given to an cngineering-
rontracting firm for resolution intu the various steps of unit-operatiun?
and finally into forrrrs xliich may he used for detailed design. For such
cares and for the process design of known processes, time required for
pri~ressengineering 11y the contractor is often very small. I i the con-
tractor is asked to pcriorni research and dr~eloprnentwork and complete
proce::s design, the time required may be considerable.
I t ~ o u l dhe unlvise to attempt a list oi suggested time requirements for
proress design. Each j ~ i:: h usually unique anil the chief process enginrer
ali~~uld be consulted when the schedule is being prepared. I t is rvrll to
remcmbcr that time requirements for projects \vhich require conaidernblc
rrsenrch and devcl~~pincnt arc the most difficult t o estimate. Difficult
Thousands of manhours
problems often do not conform readily t o schedules. A conservative
estimatc is preicrable fur such problems. Fig. 7-2. Constmvtiun schedule. LKrprinted by petmission, M. Mtitiazi, Oil A! Gas
DESIGN-DRAFTING. Requirements are described below in greater detail. , XU.48, 100 (1983).1
J ~ u m u l 51,
This work encompasses all functions aitcr the prucess and specialty
engineering phases. The design-drafting for the plant illudratcd starts given in the original job estimate or proposal, either as an artual man-
the second month after the contract is signed, and will reach a peak in hour figurc or an estinrated labor cost. hIanliuurs can bc calculated from
tlic fifth to the eighth month. the lal)or i m t by ~liridingby the ax-cragc hourly wage ratc. If such in-
PROCPREMENT. Procurement must, proceed with each design stage or formatirm i.: not available .\Iatt(~zi'suggests as a gucss 18,000 manhours
vendor prints will be received late causing a dclay in detailed design. The for caclr $100,000 worth of materials and cquiprircnt.*
lack of vendor prints can as effectively stop work as lack uf equipment,.
Procurenlent thus must place all orders with dispatch, in order to receive Planning Personnel Distribution
vendor prints as early as possiblc and secure early delivery of equipment. Taljle 7-1 gives tllc l~ersonncldistribution for tlic cxanrl~leproject by
Procurement usually starts in the first rnontli and may or may not con- 111011tl1
tinue through construction. Certain procurement a t the jobsitc must The incrcase in cngineering and draiting labor during tllti pcak part
continue as long a s the job is in progress. of tlrc job is uhuut 5007; above that a t the start. Operating on the hasis
C~NSTRIJCTION LABOR.I n the illustration. construction starts on the oi 40 hours per ~vcck,the engineering l~ayrollmay amount t o some
fifth month aiter the contract signing. The delay allows time for a cou- $14.000.00 per \veek for tlic Gth and 7th montl~. Firmi contracting en-
siderable amount of material and equipmcnt t o arrive soon after ground- gineering must, tllerciorc., be prcpnrcd to accept considcrahle expmsc if
breaking. a Iargc staff is to he maintained.
I t is extremely important that construction work does not begin too Scliedules ior the rarious enginerring phasrs are rarely precise. Prob-
soon. If bcgun early, idlc periods will be encountered in which it will be ably the most efficient or pra~.tiral ol)cration for firms cngagcd in
necessary t o await delivery of equipment and materials. Such conditions engineering services is t o understaft' and wurk ~ m r t i r n eduring peak ~ o r k
naturally increase cost. loads. h n o t l ~ e raltern;~tivcis stn8 vrrr;~tilitywit11 movement of l~crsonnel
The time required for construct,ion of a given projeot usually can be
96 Project Engineering of Process Plants Scheduling the Project 97
into the u r i o u s operations as required. M a n y snialler firms oper:ite Percrt~tsgcof Total Po.-sil~le
very effectively on the latter principle. Dwign Category Engineering Manhouro Variation f
A. Found at'tons 7 2.0
B. Structures and rtructur:ll steel 15 3.0
TABLE 7-1. Typical Personnel Distribution C, Llrrhanical rq~lilirn~nt* 3 1.O
Time Enpinemng Procurement 7 2.0
,

No of [Link]
Month h1m hIanhourh
* Incl~,dpip u m ~ s ,compressors, hpnt exchnngms, and :my t y p ~m ~ c h : m i r n l eWil,-
m m t not ~ I W W L .

A preliminary or overall cstiuialr of ilesign-drafting time 11i:iy some-

times be madc by a perrentage method working backward irom tlie
particular process unit rost. For instance, materials for a certain unit
have been estimated t o cost $4!000,000.00. For this particular type unit
as based on similar past contracts two manhours of combined enginwring.
design drafting, and material listing operations will be required for each
$100 of iiiatcrial cost. Thusl a n estimatcd budget of 80,000 manliours
could he ret.
R y using tlic above pcrcentagcs the tentative distribution of v o r k
might be as follom:
Category hlanliours
A 5,600
B 12,000
134,900 c 2,400
Total nrnnhoura t1io~vi.n D 5,600
Otlicr engineering services E 44,000
F 5,600
This appears t o be a simple and straiglitforxard analysis, but such
estimates are not reliable unless the initial inanhour edilnate is accurate.
Calculating Drafting M a n h o u r Requirements
I n order t o actually prepare a manhour budget a list of equipment must
A n u t ~ i l ~ eof
r nietliods have been deviwd by various engineering- be prepared. From it a detailed list of d r a ~ i n g smay be prepared B y
contracting firms I detcrminirig ilciiyn-draititig nianlim~r budgets. applying values of required manhours per dralving according tu category
hIost of tliesc methods are bascd on experiencc in tlie particular firm the total manhour budget and detailed budget: by category, can bc deter-
and are not ordinarily useful d ~ e applied n to other firms that 11ave differ- mined.
ent methods. Tlic distrihution of work by percentage sliomn belolx- 4 s an illustration of tlie method used in estimating the number of
h o m r e r is applicable t o nearly any type of unit processing fluids. I n drawings required, assume t h a t the following items of equipment are a
general iiicrlimical cquipnwnt, vessels, rind piping drafting consume from partial list of tlic items required for a process plant. The list is separated
53 t o 65 per crrlt of tltc trrt,itl t l t i ~ r i l ~ ~ for
~ u rm unit. It can
s y t y l ~ o]JI.<I~C..+ into ta.0 parts, I>, Tcseels aud C, Mechanical Equipment.
usually be assullled that, for t l ~ o s eprocesses in \vlrirl~piping rc~luirrtilcnls
are reduced, corresponding increases will be reflected in mcclianicnl equip- Item Knmber
ment or vessels or both. It must be understood that tlie following per- D. Verrels
T-101 10' diam X 60' long vertical vessel
centages apply t o single units. If a project ronsisting oi se~reralunits is T-102 S diam X 45' long vertie:iI vessel
tu hc cstimatcd c:rcb unit ur eleliimt iiiunt bc coiisi(1erd sc11amtely. T-103 9'diam X 5S' long vertical vrsel
98 Project Engineering of Process Hants Scheduling the Prolect 99
T! IK Dr,~nnig hfanhour./Dran ~ n g
<4 200
B 15P200
C 15&250
D 15&200
E 3W400
F r o n ~t h ~ item;
v a tentative draning 11st can he made n n m e d ~ a t e l y

I)~.awingsfor Teaseli
Category No. Drawings Total Manhours
D. Teistds 3 Vessel dr:iwings (;ill details are nx~allyon a single 1 ,tj00
A . Foundations 8
druiring for each vessel) B. Structural 7 1,100
A. Fmmd:itions 1 Far above, T-101, 102, 103 C. Merhanical -
B. Structural 3 Ladders & platforms for T-101, 102, 103 D . Teasels 9
F. Electrical 3 Electric:ll 6 instnnnent conduit & lighting E. Piping 9
G. Inctrrnncnt 1 Schenintic riraxrings of instrumrnt installation F . Electrical 6
Insulation 1 Indntion dctnils fur T-101, 102, 103. Insulation G . Instrumentation 2
is not shown on the pererntap. list since it is (Insulation) 1
gener;~llyneeligible with respect tcl total deiign- -
drafting. Total 42
-
Subtotal 12 Dmn-ings for D. This example is very incomplete since no piping was inclu<led in the
first list for tlic three vesscls. Other drafting which \vould be included
For machines snrh as C-101, 102, 103 a shdtcr of some kind would he in a complete list is process and utility piping for the vessels, utility
mnnilatory. piping for heating and plurnbing in t h e compressor building a n d mcchan-
ical details for vessel appurtenances and for 1111isting apparatus in the
Drawings for Mechanical Equipment
building.
A . Foundabions 3 Compressor building, phn, section, details
Foundations 4 Compressurs C-101, 102, 103, fnumlntions T h e reliability of a n y d a t a sucli a s t h e percentages of r o r k distribution
B. Compressor bnilding 1 .krr:~ngemmt plan or manhours per d r a ~ v i n gdepends greatly upon operational methods and
Comlirehsor b ~ d i l i ~ i g 1 Structural steel extent of statistical data. Such d a t a is subject to many variables even
Comprrsmr huildinp 1 Hoof pl:w & rlcv:~tii~ns within a n organization and cannot be applied with confidence unless
Comprt~sorbuilding 1 irchitwt~~r;rldetails
continuously tested. Statistical d a t a on labor should be acculmulateu

.
ll. Miscellaner~nsv e s d ?
for compressor regularly and regularly revised.
auxiliaries 6 Comprrssor buttles, starting air battles, water I n scheduling drafiiirg nlanhours one must realize t h a t the total m a n -
bottles, x i t e r syitm,, f i d , lrtbrication -rstrxm hours required for each operation cannot always be continuous. I t might
E. Piping 6 Process piping he assumed for instance, t h a t t h e 1800 manhours estimated for vessels
Piping 2 Cooling watrr & Iubricutim tystcms
Piping in the previous illustration could be completed in one month by 10 men.
1 Starting air system
F. Electrical 3 PInn.s, seetiuns. details power & lighting Such thinking cannot be applied since certain vcesels will require t h e
G. Instn~mrntations 1 Inrtallariim details maxinium inanhours while others will probably be under the minimum.
- Furthermore vesscl design usually proceeds to near a 60% point when i t
Subtotal 30 Drawings for C must be stopped to await finalization of piping. .4 further 10-20 per cent,
-
Total for D and C 42 Dmwings may then be uscd completing urientation of nozzles or supports to suit
piping. After this, another period of waiting nus st ensue while thc vessel
Frotn the original list of 6 items, T-101.102,103 and C-101,102,103, 42 fabricator cmnpletcs his shop drawings. Vessel designers then must
drawings have been listed. B y applying a tnanhour value per drawing, check the fabricator's drawings for strength and accuracy b&rc original
total manhours can be estiniated a s follows: drawings m a y be completely released since t h e fabricator's design prac-
100 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ticei :onictinirs affect the original design. Screral months may i l a l ~ i c .
therefore, h e t ~ r c minitial design effort and completion, most of i~hicliis
consumed in awaiting data either from the originating orgnnizatiiin iJr
the fahricntor. For this reason sewral jobs in varions stages of corn-
letio ion n-ill serve to maintain a relatirely cou;txnt v o r k Inad.
I t is necessary in ~cliedulingwork for an organization to attempt thc.
masinrum use of all personnel. One aid in accoiuplisliing this is the
preparation of a bar graph or monthly time chart sllorriug the various
pro/ccts in an organization. t11r4r starting times, and the anticipated tinrc
for ear11 ph:w of lvork. Then a dra\ving -1irct coiint can hc utilized t(l
detrrn~inctlie possible m a r i ~ n u m or
i ~niniu~unrsof iuanpowr. X e ~ vjobs
should be srheduleil to start during anticipate~iniiuimum vurk li~nila.
Regardless of the nunlher of men available only one p r r o n can 11c
em[iloyed on one drawing a t an:- particular time. I t ip; thereforr, not'
good practice to use large draxi-ing sliects. Uettcr use of inanpower ran
ENGINEERING
he realized by rcduction in dra~l-ingsize. This will i n e r e a s the numher
of drarings and thus increase the possible use of manpover. There is,
of course. a practical limit in size rrducti(,n: but the use of larger scales
DESIGN AND
serves t o increase the number of drawings required.

SCHEDULING DEPARTMENTS
DRAFTING
Contractors as well a s operating companies that do a consiiler:~hlc
amount of their olvn engineering design and drafting hoth find it desirable
to establish a permanent scheduling dejlartlncnt. This ilcp,zrtment must
After the project engineer has received proc,ess specifications and
be staffed with men having adequate bac,kground in all phases of thc general mccl~anicalsl~erific:itions:x preliminary plot plxns, and prilject
design and construction of a process plaiit. The sclicduling of ir nlulti-
schedules, the urork of tlie specialty engineers and design draft,smen may
million dollar project is hardly the job of a 10~7-paidclerk. It requirea a
bcgin. It is the job of thesc men to conrert the calr:ulations and decisions
man of broad experience ~ h iso thoroughly familiar with four stages of of process and project engineers into dran-iuga and specifications which
process plant construction: namely, process design, mechaiiical design are indispensable in the procurement, fabrication, and erection of process
and drafting, procurement, and erection. plant facilities.
Contracting firins have found the use of a scheclu1ing department Engineering design and drafting efforts :ire usually rliriiled anlong
advantwgeous since such firms are ordinarily engaged in the execution of
groups CIE specialists in thc various phaws of t h r ilcaign. The work of
tilore than one jol~. I t is preferable under such situations t o have tlic
these specialists may bc divided intu tn.u n~njorcnteguries: equilin~cnl
scheduling done by a group of men who have an overall vieir-point and
specialty engineering and dcsign drafting.
are not interested in only one particular job. If a project engineer
schedules his own job, there is a tendency to favor t , l ~ a tjob. It is EQUIPMENT SPECIALTY ENGINEERING
essential, however, that the pmjcct engineer assist the scheduling group
Equipment specialty engineers in cooperation with process engineers
in the preparation of the pruject schedule.
develop the detailed mechanical specific~tionsfor process equipment. I n
REFERENCE * A p u r t ~ uui llir gmel'hl n~rel~uuical
specificatiuna air uilru m p v l i d by !lie
campany for whom the plant is being built (see Chapter 11). These a1.e incorporated
1. Mattori, M . Oil and Gas Journal, 61, No. 46, 304; No. 47. 180: No 48, 100: with the usual specifications of the design organization and become, upon approval
KO.49, 102 (1953). I,? the rustonlrr, llie gmerul guide f u r 111 ~nech;mival design inrlu~liog piping,
structural, elecirirnl, and equipment design.
101
ENGINEERING
DESIGN AND
DRAFTING
After the project engineer has received process specificntions nnd
gcnvral n~cclr:iiiical specificntions,* preliminary plot plans, and project
xhedules, the v o r k of the specialty engineers and design iiraftw~enlnny
begin. It is the job of these nlen to convert the calculations and dcei s ~ o n s
of process and project engineers into drawings and specifications d ~ i i : l i
are indispensable in the procurement, fabrication, and erection of process
plant facilities.
Engineering dcsign and drafting efforts : ~ r cn ~ n : ~ l l ydi~iilcd alllong
groups of specialists in the various p l ~ a a w( ~ ft l ~ c'lciign. The v o r k of
these specialists nxty be divided into tn.u 1n:rjor categories: equip~uent
specialty cnginccring and dcsign drafting.

EQUIPMENT SPECIALTY ENGINEERING

Equipment specialty engineers in cooperation with process engin~ers
develop the detailed mechanical specifications for process equipment. I n
* A portlun of the general nrrel~auieul sprcificnliuu a r t d ~ r uaopplird by the
company for whom t h e plant is being built (see Chapter 11). These w e incorporated
with the usual specifications of the dcsign organization and become, upon appmvnl
I,? t h e customer, the gcncrul guide for all inrelmnic.;d design indudlug piping,
strneturnl, clwtrirnl, and vquiprnent design.
101
102 Project Engineering of Process Plants Engineering Design and Dratting 103
addition they aid the procurement divieion in selecting the equiplnent xork thcsr, men frequently dcvelop the inecllanical rlcsign of equipment
I\-hich n i o ~accurately fulfills the process specifications. The follo\~ing that nus st be built to order bwause it is uot regola~lynianufactnred.
sliecinlty grmps arc ~naintained:
PI-MPSASD COXPRESSORI;. Engineers who specialize in pump and con- DESIGN DRAFTING
pressor selection are included in this group. They maintain close rontart The ~levelolimentof a complete plant design after equipment selection
with pump and colnprcsior manufacturers and not only select the best has been cr~l~~pletcdis so intiniatcly associated xith drafting t h t the term
cquipniertt for a given job but also advise process and project engineers ~lesigndrafting is often used to describe the four major categories: piping
on appliratim and in&llation problems. design, structural design, electrical design, and instrument installation
HEAT EXCHISGERS. This group is staffed tiy experts on heat exchanger design. The design work in these categories is largely accomplished by
design ~ I l ocan check quotations and specifications on all heat exchange drafting techniques.
equipment by making deyign calculations for comparison. Some con-
tracting firms manufacture their own heat exchangers. In such cases this Piping Design
group does the design calculations. Piping design is important in pnicess plant engineering. I n the
VESSELI)ESIGN. V ~ E S Emust
~ S be built to conform t o the requirements engineering of nrarly any process plant, piping rlesign and drafting ~vill
of the process, and any plant drsign organization must have a group of usually c(insulnc from 40 to 60 per cent of tile total engineering ldesign-
expert vesscl designers. These men design all pressure ressels, tanks, drafting) n~anlrourbudget.
stacks, and ducts in accordance with customer specification and applicable Piping itself is intimately wlatcd to pv~icesst~iiginecring. Drsigncrs
codes. \-essel designers also prepare or supervise the preparation of vessel ~ l i olay out the piping for a illant 111u.5t learn and uridersta~~il
the various
sketches and layouts of vessel internals. process requirculcnta better than personnel in otlwr pllnscs uf the ~vork.
ISSTRI:MES'I'S. ' h i s fast moving field requires engineers who devote For this rwson organizations providing enginrering xrvices fov the proc-
full time to instrumentation. They adrise the process and project ess industries depend on their piping design personnel to lead the other
engineers on instrumentation during the development of flow diagrams phases of the design work.
and also specify arid select all instruments for the project. Piping designers do the folloving:
FCKN.~CES. Contracting firms that huild furnaces maintain a large
staff of furnace designers ~vhomake detailed process calculations neces- a . Layout, arrange, and design all piping in accordance with the speci-
sary for proper sizing of furnace and heater installations. They also fications and the applicable rodes.
direct the design drafting on furnaces. Organizations which do not b. Orjcnt pressure vessel nozzles.
manufacture furnaces have a small group of furnace experts who prepare c . Check drawings other than piping for clearanccs with structural
furnace specifications and select t,he best furnace for a given job. steel, foundations, and other types of equii~lnent.
PIPINGMATERIAI.~. Piping n1:itcrials experts aid in the preparation of d. Study all piping arrangements for strcss.
piping and insulation specifications for each job. They list all piping e. Prepare stress calculations.
materials and accessories shown on piping draxings and select the f. List and specify all nlcchanical (manufacturedj expansion joints.
materials in accordance \ ~ i t hthe specificat,ions and applicnhle codes. g. Show all thrust and other forces (In piping drawings and tentatively
~ ~ I ~ C E L L A N E EQGIPSIEST.
OU~ Each process plant project is unique in locate all anchors and supports.
some way and special cyuipment not handled hy other groups must also h. Complete all fornlal calculations in a reproducible form.
be selected or designed. Equip~nent such as dryers, filters, materials i. Design, select, and list all detailed pipe supports, hangers, etc.
handling apparatus, autoclaves, centrifuges, evaporators, and mixers,
111:ly he required in many projects. Process engineers and the project Structural Design
mgineer can often rollahorate in the development of specifications and in Personnel in this group design all foundations, all structural steel,
the selection of such equilimcnt. Some companies, however, have found a n U o r reinforced concrete structures, and all industrial-type buildings
it advantageous to maintain a gniup of experienced chemical and mechan- in conjunction with architectural designers included in this group. Since
ical euginecrs n.11~alx~cializein the wide variety of cheniical plant eqnip- foundations are largely located below grountl, personnel in this group
merit not cotrirnon to all installatiuns. I n addition to their more routine must work closely with piping persomcl designing the underground in-
104 Project tngineering of Process Plants Engineering Design ond Drafting 105
stallation. I t is rommon practice with crrt:~inolyniz:~tions~ L sIio\v
I 2x11
undergrrrund ~ v o r ksuch as foundations, piping, and clcctrical conduit on Instrument Engineering
the samc dra71-ings. This procedure is extrcmcly advantageous both in Inatrunicnt cnginecring for the process plant is more fully covered in
initial design and during erection. Designers in this group must, of Chapter 20. The selwtion uf instrunrents and preparation of specifica-
course. conforn~t o all applicable national codes and the particular sprci- tions fur instruments may he handled hy instrunicnt specialists before the
: t if I k The n-orli rrn~sists01: drafting q ~ c r a t i o n snn,l need not l ~ edirectly associated ~vitlithe engi-
neering requirrd for installation. The so-called instrumcnt drafting pcr-
n. Preparation of design sketches and formal calculations. sonnel liavc t l ~ cfollowing duties:
b. Preparation of all structural stccl d&il drawings.
c. Prcparation of building rlr:~[Link] nnd rlmign of heating, vmtilation. a . Make general arr:mgen~cnt draxr-iilgs for instrumcnt installation
:nld plumbing.* sl~olx-ingthe location of all instrument. by aynibol and tlic mrinus run.
d. Listing nnrl specification of :ill mtitcriwls. of instrument piping in general.
h. List all instruments shun-ing the 11ropr.r pilling r l m ~ ~ - i nnumi,rrg or
Electrical Design other dralx-ing number on which the primary instrumcnt is located, the
Personnel in this group are responsil~lefor the complete electrical design item nuinl~er.ant1 t>-pe of instrulnect (iudic:~tcd by sy111bol), type of
required for the project according tu the particular specifirations and tllc capillary. or other connecting piping, air or process fluid. or electrical con-
various national codcs governing electrical installations. Sj)ecifically the nection from primary instrument to controllcr and controlled elcuicnt.
work consists of: c. Preparc detailed dra~x-ingsof thc installation of all instruments
locally nir~untcd,except control valvcy I\-l1ir11are shon-n by personnrl in
a. Prcparation of all electrical conduit layouts and final dra\~-ings.
piping design. The hook-up of contrul valves nit11 speri;rl appurtenances
b. Preparation of all other electricel dralvings for substations, switch- is usually detailed on the instrument installation draaings. (Sote: Thcse
gear arrangements, etc. (Sate: Where reinforced concrete work is required
(lr:~xingsarc all scliematic except for connection details to erjuipi11cnt.l
for foundations, manholes, and supports of electrical equipment, electrical
d. Prepare control pancl detail dr;rxings for fabrication and crcction
rlesigners usually prepare outline drawings d y . Final concrete design is
of t l ~ ccontrol panel and prepare back-of-board drawings for thr rontrol
donc 11y the structural designers. Usually the electrical dcsigners complete
roum installation. Prepare initial board-front layout xi-licn gmplric
whatever structural steel drawings are required for switchracks, substa-
panels are wed.
tions, etc. I f the structure is involved or extensive, t,l~is~ o r kmay be
e . List all ruisccllirncous piping or o t l ~ e rmntcri:lls used cxccpt clcctrir:il
cou~pletcdor cllccked by structural designers. .\Ianhole designs for under- n-iring ~untrrinlsand electrical conduit. This may he done in conjunction
ground electrical s y s t e m rnust he designed to provide adequate space and
with or by the electrical groul~. Personnel from the electrical group v o r k
suitable arrangement of electrical equipment by electrical d eslgners. ,'
in conjunrtion with personnel from this g r ~ ~ utup avoid duplicating the
Structural designers set wall t,hicknesses, specify, and locate reinforcing
inatcrial take-oE.
stcc1.j
f. C h w k :~dcquacyof vemlor's [Link]. Instrument vendor'? dr:in.-
c. Preparation of all clcctrical cquipnlent specifications. For niajor
ings suffiw for i n ~ t r u u ~ c nrli~nension
t detail. 1)1;1\\-in;s prcpareil by t l ~ c
plant snitchgear and plant transformer substations, specifications arc
instrunlcnt group ;tiow iinrtnuuents d r a r n rli:igra~n~~~atici~lIy or in outlinc.
usually prepared in conjunction with the project mginrer.
1,~r:rlly111ount(>(l invtrunlcnts. wch as liqui~llevci dcriccs. n41ich ~.onnt,ct,
d. Preparation of all instrurncnt electrical conduit drawings in eonjunc-
p l ~ y ~ i c d to
l y other cyuipment must be shown dimmsionally for in-talla-
tion with instrument (system) design personnel.
tion.
e . Complcte listing of all elcctrical materials, cable, conduit, etc.
(1. (:heck pipin:: ~lrnwing; for pruper l o ~ , : ~ t iof ~ ~irrificcs
n and ~nnnu:~l
J. Thc horsepower, rotation, and other mecllanical requirements of
au,l :~utonraticctnrtrol dcvic~~s, tl~rrmo-rvrlls.11ress11rcpr~ints,ctc. C l ~ w k
motors are often specified by personnel in the mechanical group. Com-
:tlI clrawingr for proper 1uc:rtion of utlier prin~aryde\.ices.
plete motor specifications, however, are prepared in conjunction with or
by electrical design or engineering personnel. Types of Process Plant Drawings
*Some organizations maintain a separate group of heating and v~ntilatingnir- Two ninjilr t y r . ; of rlra\vinas are rrquircrl for prorc;F plant projrcts:
conditioning engineers, but often this work is suibrontractcd. r i g s r e ~ I rI i s I I I : ~ u i : c t ~ r rSe:irlv
.
106 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Engineering Design and Drafting 107
all drawings that are prepared by the process plant designer are used in careless distribution m e t h d s often results in serious crrors. [Link] increase
procurenlent: either by direct release t o vendors ior price or for material the cost of engineering, procurement, and erection, TVhile it would be
listing (take-off) and suhscquent procurement, un~terirahleto attempt to dercrihr the variety of mcthids and proccduree
used by the various engineeriug organizations, it is hcliewd that the
1. Dran-ings prcpared by tlie process plant designer.
details of the use of vendor-prints and wnlc iliwu*sion of ilistribiitim
(I. D r a ~ ~ i n g
prepared
s for the installation of cquipment, either fall- ~ u e t l ~ o dwill
s be lrelpful.
rirated a t tlie site of construction or manuiactured or fabricated else- The three types of prints suhmitte~lby vendor.< are sllop dral~ings:
wllere; also uscd for ccrtain matcrial listing. erection drari-ings, and dirncusion drarvings an11 data sheets;..
b. l)r:lr~ings prepared for thc n~anufacturcof equipment by others
Shop drawings are not ordinarily furnislrcd by the rendor except for
with initial or general design by purchacr.
fabricated piping, pressure ressels and tanks, structural stccl, and 0 t h
c. Draxings prepared for the construction of facilities; also used for
items designed in accordance ~7-iththe purcl~arer'sspecial rctluirernmts.
material listing.
Such drawings are not required by the purchaser for ure in plant design.
2. I\lanufacturer's dra~vingaand data." and with certain equipment they ~ ~ o u divulge
ld the vendor'.; "knorv-ho~~."
n. Dra~vingsprepared hy the manufacturer for his own use in man-
Shop d r a w i n g of mechanical eyuipurcnt usually ci~nsiatof a large nuuuher
ufacture or fabrication; sometimes called shop drawings; of [Link] s11~1rvingeach piece or part of the asembled item. Thcir
b. Erection d r a ~ i n g sprcpared by tlre manufacturer for us? hy the nrulrber alonc would prcserrt a prohlrm
purchaser in erecting thc equipment purchascd;
Vendor-prints designated as erection dra\~ingsare use11 by the pnr-
c. Dimension dmrvings. data sheets, catalog tear shccts prepared by
cliaser t o identify manufactured equipment and in~licate ercction
the manufacturer for use by thc purclraser in design.
scqucnce.
The third type of vendor-print, the dimension drawing and data
Installation Drawings
sheet, is used hy the purchaser as a source of data for plant desigr~. For
The peculiarity oi the process plant requires the prcparation of draw- manufaet,ured mechanical equipment, the rendor does not ordinarily
ings t o hc used primarily in locating equipnrcnt to a greater extcnt than furnish the purchaser with all the details used in actual manufacture hut
drawings shoving the details of manufacture, construction or erection. It instead furnishes only the information necessary for installation. This
woul~lhc impossible. for instance, to construct a catalytic-cracking unit information consists of a singlc outline [Link] showing in plan an11
vithout soruc grapliical illustration of the various pieces of eyuipmcnt in elevation all piping or other conrlcction dimcnsi~ms,di-assembly dimen-
p~~[Link] any such installation thc locations of equiprncnt must be sions, anchor-bolt locations, total weight and veight of parts whicli may
rarcfully planned and located by means of dmwings to determine space he disassembled, and overall dimensions f o r clearance purpos~s. F I X
rrquireurents. Thus, all parts of a major plant must hc dralvn in con- rertain reciprocating machines, dire~[Link], and dcgree of oprrat-
siderable detail in position and t o scale. Conncctiun dimensions must ing forces mny hc included. Flow diagrams for lubrication and coding
be s11o1r.n on the drarl-ings to permit ercction. systcrns and iring diagrams where required should be furnished.
The importance of location or inatallation [Link] becomes more Individual data sheets are furnished by the vendor for auxiliary equip-
a p p a r m t alien it is realized t h a t structural steel, pumps, compressors, ment supplied v i t h large machines. The purel~asershould carefully l k t
wsscla, and other cquipment must propcrly fit anchor bolts set in thc all such R U X ~ ~ ~equipment
R T ~ by suhitem numbers on llata vhicli is prr-
conrretc foundations. T l ~ c(limenaions of the cquipmmt and thc locations pared by and distributed in the purchaser's organization so t h a t the-c
must he h o v n before design drawings of the foundations and supports data may he identified by tlrc engineering, procurement, and erertiim
can he ~wu~[Link] constructim forces must have these design d r a ~ v -
groups.
ings beiore construction starts. hlnnufacturers of large machines do not ordinarily stock or warclrousc
these machines. Each macliinc is nranufacturctl on tlre basis of an
Vendor-Prints
order. If the manuiactnrer has previously nxmuiaetured i d c u t i c ~ lor
Proper handling of vendor-prints (manufacturer's data and drawings) similar equipment, prclirninary data may be supplied n-ith the pro-
is \:ital to thc success of a project.. ' h e lack of suclr data or lnisuse hy posal. Proposal data, howevcrl is usually only approximate and canuot
bc used in design of the process plant. Often a month or nrorc ruay
108 Engineering Design and Drafting 109
Project Engineering of Process Plants
I : I~ctn-IWIorder plncmicnt ;in11 vrcrillt ,If I ~ I I I ~ I I : Ii l~: ~ t i ~1111. as continuous display of cards by each temporary holder, the moven~ent
major equipment. of prints through all dcpartnicnts can he follorved.
Venilor-pints are required for all types of equipnimt except that n-hich Vendor-prints should he checked for proper identification. If the
is rorn~r~only manufartnrrd in quantity and in standnrd fisrrl di~nrncint~s. vendor has failed to include idcntification, the data and attachments
I t n-ould he unnecessary. for i n ~ t a n rt~o , r e q ~ ~ e vendor-prints
st on nrrli- should be referred t o the originating department for identification.
n : ~ r yf n r g ~ itcrl
~ l fla11:r~ sinrc tl~(wc;arc ~ ~ ~ i ~ n u f a r tto
u rilin~msini~s
ed :in11 Usually the data can he identified by inspection of the purchase order
s~~crifications fixed by various cndcs. Tlrr: s:me vould 11r true for or the original specific'I t'ton.
ordinary valves or any similar commonly manufactured equipment not Vendor-prints may be submitted for l~rcli~niuary use: for purr~Ii;isrr'.:
specially designed for the single apl~licatim. approval, or as certified prints, After identification ;in inspection of tire
record card xi11 indicate if the prints are for preliminary use or. for
Filing a n d Distribution of Vendor-Prints approval. Final certified prints must include the vendor's certificatior~
The handling of venilor-print* in a design organization s l ~ ~ u lbe d and thus can be easily noted. After determination of status, tlic prints
rarcfully plannwi and an cxnct procedure h u l d 11e follu\vcrl. I ~ r d k -11ould be stamped, P r e l i ~ ~ r i n n For
r ~ , ~ l p p ~ o v i ror
l : Certified .ill vendor
proper idcntification is the most common source of errilr. Sncli errors data should be so stamped rcgardlcss of thc degree of imjrnrt;mce. One?
cause ~vastcdeffort and may delay the release of the manr~facturerto the method is instituted design-drafting prsonnel vill a11vays look for
prnceed v i t h fabricatinn. the stamp and misuse of data will be awidcd. This ~~rocerlure assures
The lnost important requirement in vendor-print liandling is idcntific:~. that the correct item number and status will ahvays Rppear on the vendor-
tion r~-iththe proper equipn~entitem number. Sperific iustnwtions tliould prints. If niisscnt or lost they can be easily identified.
be issued to vcndor;, prefcrnbly starting wit11 the inquivy, reilucsting LXatriI~[Link] of recipients or dcpartnrcnti, and dates sliuuld all
the inclusion of the equipment item number on their drawings. \\'it11 he rccorded on the record card. Since all movement xi11 be tlirough the
large organizations it is possible to h a r e design and procurcnicnt prwecd- production department the status and location of all data can be detcr-
ing parallel on similar work utilizing almost identical erluipnicnt. Casual mined a t any time.
identification in such cases may be ~iiislcading. The u w of a purcl~ase Vendor-prints submitted for approval require special handling. Since
order number for identification hy the vendor is insufficient since more ~nanufacturcrsare often instructed t o withhold fabrication until approvnl
tlian one item may be incloded on an order. is received such drawings or data must 11c handled with the utniost dis-
All drawings or other data received should he date stamped upon patch. The open enril system mentionrd above is very advnntagcous
arrival. tlwn clicrked by some single person or group, prcferably the same -.ince it forces action. 1)rnrrings :mi data submitted for allproral can be
group \\-hose function is distribution of internal as well as extcrnal data. signed a colored card ti1 indicate urgency. Approval dra\vings or data
I n solnc organizations sn1.11group. are callrd production ~lel~artmcnts and muy be checked 111 designers or specialid gruups. The final approvnl
have the responsibility for receipt and recording of &,sign d a t a ; the stamp sliould only be affixed by t l ~ eproject engineer. After n11]1ruvnlall
filing of all record or pernlaucnt. datn; the identification of data and the copies should be rcturnctl to the Production Dcp:trtn~ent for recording,
proper distrihutim of data both internally and extcmally. I t is also internal distribution, and return to the Procurement l k p a r t m e n t and to
conunon practice to have all rcproductim serviccs such as blue-printing the rendor.
under the s:me department. This makes the flow of all design data the T l ~ creceipt of final certified vendor-prints rclcnsci the pur1.1i;iser's
respi~nsihilityof one drpartment ~ v l ~ i cish imperative for the large organ- design completely. Dates for r e l ~ a s eof construction arc uftm fixed as
ization. Clerical personnel when trained t o the routine can usually follow a set interval after receipt of eertificd vcndor data. These data niust,
tlic steps. therefore, be rccorded and lutndled in a manner similar t o that already
Tlic production department should have in its possession a card show- discussed.
ing the item number, vendor, and other descriptive data for each piece Another function of the Pro~luctimDeplrtrnent sl~ould11(, ti113p11yric:ll
of equipn~entrequiring a vendor-print. The card is originated by the removal of all superseded vcndor datn. This may be a diHicult procedure
peraonnel originally specifying the equipnlent. The descriptive data are a t times since design personnel often have what they consider good
added to the card as it progresses througli various groups concerned \\-it11 reasons t o retain superseded data. If this prartire is permitted each
the articular equipment item. By the enforcement of simple rules such (lcsigncr \\-ill shortly he nraint:~ining liis o\vn acl~:irnte file, but \~itliout,
110 Project Engineering of Process Plants Engineering Design and Drotting 111
control. D a t a n.1iicl1 is superseded shoulil always he destroyed. All files number on t,he erection drawing prepared 11y the 11urclmser. Thc piece
of prints from first t o ]:id issue ~ h o u l dhe ~n:lintained hut only in the number usually includes the drawing numhcr on x h i c l ~the piece is sl~own.
Pri~[Link] Dcpartuicnt and sliould nut bc released except by some 9 1 1 aucli numbers uiay be liste<l in :i hill-of-matrri:il or o t l ~ r rrel~rodueible
authority. form for issue to the ful~ricator(vendor). Receipt of the list of piece
numbers releases r11c fabricator t o 11roreed wit11 fnhricntinn.
Drafting Practices Details and dinicnsions shmw on piping rll.:r~~ingsare ~wnsiderably
Each of the specialty groups and design drafting groups produces d r a x - reduced vhen piping is shop fabricated since the fahicator must prepare
ings of ~ o m etyllc for 11sc in furtl~erdesign and in construction. I n addi- shop drawings called detail sheets for his own use. Thesc sheets are not
tion proccss cngincers and project engineers require a crrtain :nnount of usually suh~nittctlfor approval or i,liecking by the purchaser except for
drafting assistance in the i~reparationof f l m ~diagra~ns,sketvhes, and plot alloy or heat treated pipe. A con~plctecheck of all the detail sllcctt: would
plans. constitute a rerheck of all piping drawings. Since the fabricator (vendor)
Standard equipment purcliased from n~anufacturersrcquires no draft- niust prepare his details t o fit the designer's (purchascr'si erection draw-
ing. The sllecialty vnginccr nccd only obtain certified endo or-prints ings the burden of accuracy is x i t h the fabricator and he is mhjcct to
from thc manufacturcr for tranxnittal t o other design groups. Such cash penalties for errors in fabrication requiring field changes.
equipment includes pumps, coniprrssors, motors, instruments, and fur- Since the process plant designer must 1lrepnre piping drawings to shun-
naces and heat excl~angcrs (if they are being purcl~ased direct frorn a location and arrangcnirnt, the fabricator docs not iurnisl? iiilditional
manufacturcr). erection drawings, other than the det:lil sketches. These shop sketches
The design of piping, vrssels, structural ~ t e e l ,foundations, clcctrical prepared by the fabricator may bc subu~itterlto the pnrcliaser as a check
systems, and i n s t r i u n e n t ~ t i ~requires
n a nurnher of drawings to correctly on pipe fabrication invoices. Fabricated pil~ingis often purchased on a
portray the design calculations and decisions. Some typical niethods used tonnage basis, in which case cadi load of pipc delivered must he weighed
for these drarvings and process plant drawings in general are given here. on public scales ~ v i t hccrtificd gross and tare n-eights. TYhen fabricated
on the basis of cost per piece, liowcvev, schedules of material and labor
Piping Design
costs are thc basis for invoicing together witli tlie shop sketches.
Process piping is usually drawn single-line cxeept for the large sizes
(12 in, and above) which are drawn double-line, showing the width of the PIPING
STRESSAKALYSIS
pipe. Details and n ~ ~ t 11n
e s drawings and instructions in the pipe spccifica- No detailed drafting is required for this part of piping design except
tions indicate where pipc i.; to be bent or fabricatcd frorn fittings. Fit- simple sketches. The loration of anchors and supports and all forces are
tings are rart,ly slio~vnin M a i l on drawings, symbols being used through- usually marked on prints of the piping dravinga for usc of personnel
out. Tlie diameter of flanges is always drawn to scnlc so that clearances designing pipe supports. Tlic forces are not ordinarily added to the
may be readily determined. The conventional synlhols arc used for dra~vingsfor reproduction. Anchor points ior pipe are shown by means
indicating valves. Fare-to-facc diniensii~nsof valves may or may not be of a symbol placed a t tlie point of anchor.
shown on piping drawings depending upon practices followed. A schedule of various types of meciianical expansion joints is sorne-
Tlie proper scale for piping drawings varies. The use of a small scale times prepared under tlie direction of pcrsunnel in this group. The
such as in. = 1 f t usually results in a s e r i ~ u s l ycongested dmxing) schedule lists tlic r a r i i ~ u stypes of joints t o be procured, giving dimensions
particularly n-hm the piping is for inrolvrd processes. Wlim all piping (not vendor data) and the required thrust and stress clinracteristics.
is extraordinarily large. 6 in. and above, ?& srale may be acceptable. Manufacturer's shop dra~vingsor dimension sheets are usnally required
Details for srn:rller piping bhould be inrrrased in scale, however, and since only the manufacturer can supply certain necessary data. Upon
sholr-n elscwlicrc. Many firms insist on :j/n in. scalc being thc minimum completion of pri~curcmcntand receipt of drawings, final data may be
for all piping drawings. added to the expansion joiut scheriule for use in erection.
Piping may be shop fabricated or firld fnllriwtrd. All piping2'$2 in.
and bclow which is ordinarily screwed is fielll f:rl~ricated. All piping 3 in. PIPE SPPPORTS
and ahove is usually xelded and tlanged and, thrrefore, shop fal~ricated. The various types of pipe supports such as slmes and hangers (see
Each piece of pipe t o be shop fabricated is given a consecutive serial Chapter 18) are usually indieatcd by symbols or numbers on the piping
112 Project Engineer~ngof Process Plants Engineering Design and Drafting 113
r l r ~ i ~ i g .There
. numbcrs refer to standard detail ~ l ~ e e l sIf
. [Link]- equipment mcets requircn~[Link] the allowable n-orkin,w 1xessures ; ~ n d
nary forces arc involved thc design of both the attachment and the sup- temperatures. R c must, therefore, clieck thc purchaser'z il~sign.
port may be checked hy structural designers. Usually all necessary Since pressure vessel fabricators preparc shop drawings for manufaetur-
materials for the various attachments are listed on the standard detail ing use. these dram-ings are also used for vendor-print purposes. Pur-
sheets. chasers of pressure vessels generally require the rendor t o submit prints
of shop dmm-ings for approval prior t o rclcase for fabrication.' A con-
siderable period of time usually elapscs het71-een initial reisel inquiry
9 certain amount of nketching is required by personnel listing piping and releaec for fabrication since all piping layout :lnd connections must
anrl fittings. The ~v,.orkronnists primarily of the preparation of lists, of be fixed before resscl nozzles can hc located or oricnted. For large rcsscls
piping nrntcrials ~vhiclrnlust i n r l ~ ~ dall
e valves and other piping acces- this period of time is usunlly required in any case by the vessel f:thricator
sories. s11c11ns bolting :mrl g a ~ k c tmaterials. Piping material listiug or for procurement of plate, heads and [Link].
take-off is limited t o field-fabricated pipe when part. of tlre piping is shop
fabricated since the fahrirator lists his 015-n material. K h e n all pipe is Structural Design
field fabricated, all materials must be listed, assuming the process plant Tlrc location of process equipment m : ~ ?bc based on procc,ss. safety. or
designer is also erecting the plant. nmintenanee requiren~ents. Structure>, supports) shelters. and founda-
tions are: therciore, of a secondary nature and il~eir~lcsigniuu-t depend
Vessel Design upon layout and arrangement of tlre various pieces of process equipnient.
Prea-ure versels, tanksl drums, fractionating columns, and other sep- Design oi strurturnl iyrtrnls i. usunlly h a d upon stand;rrdized re-
arating cquipnrent are usually designed and manufactured in acrordnnce quiren~cntsof t h 111a11ual
~ of practice publisl~eilhy the .hrerienn Institute
XT-ithcodes as described in Chapter 12. The code design of mc11 equip- of Stcel Construction (see Chaptcr 231. The process plant designer or
ment specifies materials, temperature stress, and manufacturing or con- purcliascr must prepnrc out,lincs or single-line arrangement ilra~vings
struction pmctieea. sho~vingall structural members, their sizes and connection points. Con-
The purchaser must prepare an outline drawing shoving the diameter nection points are usually what arc knoxl-11 as ~vorkingpoints in industrial
and length of shell, the location and type and size of all connections or practice.
upenings, thickness and type of materials for shell and heads, all intcrnnl Infornlation must br included such as t r ~ p - o f - ~ t ~~niniunun
el. clca~wms.
and external appurtenances required for attachments, and rqjerating con- hnndrail dimensions, grating or fluor plate boundaries, l:~~ldcrs. ztnir? and
ditions for design. Since vesscl design involves total slicll stresses includ- platform or other support connections.
ing those caused by wind forces on vertical towers, the diameter and Tlrc rrndor or structural steel fabricator uses purrhazer's ilraxing.: f ~ r
numbcr of anchor bolts lnuvt also be specified. Design-drafting require- rreigl~testimates in prcparation of a price proposal, and for prcparation of
nlents for vessel procurement are satisfied upon the completion of the hie shop dra~vings. Ear11 piece of steel inurt be detailed for fahriration in
T - e s d outline drawing. the sllop. This pmeticc is similar t o methods fnllo~vcdby thc piping
Vessel internals such a s fractionating column trays, after process re- fabricator. Structural stecl is often sol11on a tonnage h;~si?. The total or
quirements are [Link], are often structurally designed by other firms final l ~ r i c rih u s ~ ~ a l lbased
y on calculatril n-cights of material dripped.
specializing in tray manufacture. This is particularly true when stain- \Then orders arc plnred on a l u m ~ ~ - s ubasis, ~ n all purchasers dr:~x~-iugr
less or alloy tray n~aterialsare used. Vessel designers, however, may be must be complctc a t time of inquiry.
required to prepare nominnl layouts of trays according to process requirc- I n addition to structural rletails the stet31 fahrieator also p r e p a r c
ments. Other internals such as mixing equipment are oft,en mechanically (singlc-line) erection drawings, fi~llo~vinpstanrlar~lizcd picot-marking
designed for support and location by the vessel designers. Vessel design procedures used by tlic industry. 'I'l~csc <lr:i~ringearc uscd hy the p ~ r -
personnel usually prepare schematic drawings showing vessel insulation chaser in erection. The vendor'* slio,, <lra~\-iug.: xrr not orrliuarily salt-
det,ails. mitted to the purchaser for either approval or checking unless the vendor
The vessel manufacturer is responsible for construction of the vesscl
* A f t e r drawings s1.e appro\.ed the nranuiiicto~.er is infutmed t o proeerd v i t h
in accordance ~ v i t hthe proper code requirement when the vesscl specifica- tlrt, f;dn.i~*tiuuoi t h i t e m in q r s t i l l n T h i s n u t i l i c n t i o n ir wI'[Link] t r , 8% n wlcrirr
tion requires code construction. H e must, in effect, guarantee that the fur i;J,[Link]:~tion.
 114 Project Engineering of Process Plants Engineering Design and Drafting 115
requests a n approval from the purchaser for some change in structural
Instrument Engineering
member size. Changes may be required in order t o provide clearance for
ladders or piping. Thc details are. Iri~n-ever.s ~ ~ p p l i efor d the purchaser's Design-clraftiug opesations for indrumentation in-tallntion are very
use or record. similar to tlrose for the electrical install:~tionin that d r a ~ ~ - i n are
g s usually
It is ~vellto point out that all g c n ~ r a lpractices ~ I I I I O T T - P in
~ ordinary s < , l ~ c ~ ~ i aand
t i c are used priluiiril>- for inaterial [Link]. Instdlatiull
huilding conrtruction arc not acreptahle in process plant design. T o details, again schematic, are u s ~ ~ a l lpreparedy for those instrun~erlts
i h s t r a t e it usually makes little diffrrence if structural member substi- ilirectly connected t o other equipment or for iustruulents located in a
tution by a fabricator results in a liicr~lherharing strength equal to or control center. The latter drawings are dimensioned but not necessarily
greater than the originai. Hut replacc~nents i ~ rchanges made hy the draxl-n t o scale. Tahulntims situilar to tho>? 11reparid for tlie rlectrical
\'endor for process plant structures slli~uldhave prior approval from the installation are prepared for all in;trument control rircuits I ~ o t electrical
l~
purchaser. and pneumatic. Vendor data for indrnnlr~ntntion and area plot plans
I n addition t o the general outline drawings prepared by the purchaser, are required for instrunient design drafting.
notes on drawings arid sprrifications s l ~ i ~ u l11ed included to advise the
fabrication or rrcction n~ctllodto be used (riveted, bolted, or welded), Drawing Scales
and the galvanizing or painting specifications. W i ~ e n galvanizing i~ A frequent time waster in many organizations is the arbitrary assign-
required, purchaser's drnn-ings arc? affcctrd Lwausc nil ~niscellaneous ment of fixed srnlcs for wrtain y of r i g s r e a r 1 of the
coonccti(~nsusually made in the field must be done in the ehop before variation in design or scope. S o ~ l o u b tso~lieof the fixed scalc thinking
galvanizing. F i ~ l d~ c l r l i n gor other changes arc not ppriiiissilble since is derived fro111 certain arcliit~cturalpractices in n.ilic11 one tracing may
the galvauizing ~ % - ( ~ uhcl d disturbed. If cllanges must he made, the be used as a so-called < ~ v r r l nto
y e11ci.k for ir~terfcrences. This procedure
member must usually be renioved and regalvanized. is rarely practical for process plant drawings ~viicredrafting to a precise
scalc (measured) or in great detail is undesirable. A usual scale for
Electrical Design piping drawings is 3/8 in. = 1 i t . T h e next lowest readable scale is
Schematic single-line wiring or circuit diagmms must bc prepared in. = 1 f t . For congested dm!\-ings :!h in. may be too small. The best
for the process plant .shorving all electrical equipment, Iond distribution, scale is one which provides n clear picturr or vlricl~[ulfillr the intent of
t,ransformcrs. and [Link]~gear. F:lectrirnl (lesigners use these diagrams drafting by providing a graphic illustration of data.
to lay-out and shon- in detuil all conduit runs and accessory equipment. T h e actual scope of ~ v o r kcovered by a drawing has little t o do v i t h
A11 conduit, [Link], a i d equipn1ent a l e assigned numbers or synibols. economy except for some saving in printing costs. The highly congcstrd
In addition to the detail dra~vingssllolving conduit runs and connections, dralving complctcly cmered in car11 square inch of spiicc, as is tllc usnal
sclicdules n u s t be prepared wliicll list by number :ill circuits and conduits, result \,-hen l/i in. scale is used for process piping, is in reality a t r c m m -
tlie drawing on n-liicli tlie cnnduit is sllown, conduit length and size, and dous time vaster. It is inefficient in the initial drafting, in rlmking. in
cable length and size. Otlier tabulations are also prepared showing the material listing, and in erection.
proper sequmce and setting for power control apparatus. Process plant drafting does not usually require absolutc precision such
Drawings prepared for the clcctrical i~lstallationare extremely sche- as would be found in machine design. I n nearly all depign work tlic
matic and 15-ithont dimensions except on details showing terminal points practicc of scaling draxings t o detrrrnine dinlcnsions is strictly limited
of conduit rutis: the arrnngeuirnt of conduit in hanks, entrances of t o estimating. JIost drarvings for tlic process plant must bc made t o
conduit to buildings, or exact a r r a n g e ~ n m t r required for clearance. some certain male in order to show relative sizes and locatii~nsof equip-
For thrsc drawings area plot p1:tns are needed as well as vendor's cer- ment, but extreme prccision is not required nor justified unless tlic design
tified diuierision prints for all proccss equipment requiring electrical is purely a developnient of some mechanical ~levicc. The majority of
connections. design drawings for the process plant are prepared for erection purposes
Usually clcctrical drawings prepared hy the process plant designer are rather than for marruia~~turc.
used only fur erection of the plant and for ~ x r t e r i n llisting. 1Iost elpc- In drafting practice the centerlines of cquipmcnt only are lorated as
trical equipment is always procured by nwans uf ~vrittcudescriptions. precisely as posriljlc to scalel so tlmt discrepancies :Ire not, curnulatire.
All dimensions which arc necessary f11r crection, construction, or elear-
1 16 Project Engineering of Process Plants Engineering Design and Drafting 117
I r I I I I r i Sc:ili~~g,
~ cscellt~ i r ~ r~ I cctinuiting
E drawing x d l ravc r1r;tfting inanhours. lI,,rL of thcsc various printing
purpose, is unnecessary. I t d l probably he ohviour in any case that processes and reproduction methods are extensively used by the major
v i t h scales such as 3/$ in. = 1 it, accuracy closer than One or two incl1e.s manufacturing firms. Any dctail manually added t o a dra~i-ingmnst be
~~-onlcl he impractical. checked. Hence printed data should always be less costly.
..machine similar to the typewriter which pcrn~itstyping directly on
M o d e m Drafting Techniques ~ l r a ~ v i is
n ~extensively
s used for adding standard notes to clra1~-ingr. The
.iltliough many ailvanrcs liarc heen mndc, in all hrnnches of science. laborious dmdgery of hand lettering lengthy schednles and lists may
relatively f r ~ vimprox-cnients have bccn made in thc most basic of all thus l ~ eeliminnted. .iny capable typist can he trained to operate the
rngincering functii~ns,thc lxel~arntionof drax\-ings. S o methods have ~rr:icl~ine so that a further cost reduction in labor is porsihle. Such ma-
yct I m n rlrviscil to ron~plctcly rliminnte the pninstnking manual pro- r~kiine;usunlly repay their initial cost in a few nlonths hen l~ropcrlyllsed.
ccdurr of (11.:ifting. For the 111,ucw; 11l:urt: t l ~ crrwt of Ia11,r consumcd I~ncioul~tcdly niany of tilt, firlns cngnged in contracting cngincering
in ilr:ifting ol~crationsalunv o f t m reaclics 5 j ; of the total erected plant t o industry could profit by invcstignting drafting and rcprodu~:-
n ~ t . Thus it is extrcnlcly important to utilize time-saving proce~lnres tion lilethods used by some manufacturing firn~s. TYitli [Link]-drafting
in this pl~aseof engineering, pnrticularly for firms contracting engincer- t s the process plant approaching $0.07 per minutu per person it
c ~ ~ s for
ing xrvices t o industry. \vould appear that any method which offers labor saving possibilities
Since the d i w ~ v e r yof blue-printing thc only nlnjor change niadc in I sl~ouldbe d c o n l e d .
drafting p~~oceilure has lwcn the substitution of pencil teclmiques for
inkcii drmings. Several decades ago all dra\vings ti~adefor reproduction
1verc first prcl~arcdin pencil, then traced in ink. Impruvcnlcnts in dmft-
ing procedures. materials and reproduciion processes permit ]~rotlnction
of p i n t s from pencil dra~vingsequal to prints from inked draffings. Few
process pl;mt engineering fimms any longer use inked drawings except
at tinies for final flox diagrams or for certain standard draxvings.
Linen drawing sheets prove much more satisfactory under the severe
services found in process plant design-drafting and reproduct,ion than
the various tracing papers. The niucli better working surface of the
linen sheets n-ill save sufficient t,ime to warrant the slight additional cost.
A number of mcthods conimon to the printing industry are being used
to ndvantage in drafting operations by the nlore progressive finus. Many
titue-saving possibilities are offered by the offset printing process. Dr-
tails a ~ i [Link] that. nus st appear on all drawings can bc reproduced
on the linen drawing sheet by this process instead of hcing hand draxvn.
1-: ~.' ~ ~ frequently
ous nscd dctails are sometimes printed on smnll sheet?
nnd distributed along xvith larger dran-ings as standards. Althougll
ilrafting labor is savecl, rcfcrenres to the sheets niust be made and the
printing and l~andlingof an additional drawing consumes time. Such
dvtails may be reduced in size by a simple photographic process and re-
produced directly cn the draving sheet by offset printing. Although
the size may be reduced, the reproductions produce sharp legihle prints.
The same process may he used for reproducing catalog pages, manufac-
t u r e r ' ~dimension drawings, or any descriptive data required for erection
of thc plant.
I n general any detail which can be printed directly on a n original
 PART 11
BUSINESS
AND
LEGAL PROCEDURES
 HE project engineer not only works with engineering
T p r o b l e m s but also deals wit,h procurement operations,
ofice procedures, and contract interpretations.
PROCUREMENT
OPERATIONS
To purchase the needed equipment and materials a t reasonable cost
and to have them delivered a t the proper time is one of the most important
phases of process plant. construction. The procurement department of an
engineering organization does this work, hut not without the help and
advice of the project engineer. Even though many purchasing agents in
the process field have engineering backgrounds it is impossible to expect
them to be well informed on all the phases of technology. It is, therrforc,
necessary for them to seek the advice of the project engineer nhcnever
engineering judgment is needed. In like manner the project engineer
must depend on the purchasing department f w up-to-datc procluct in-
formation and prices, contacts with vendors, and above all for the pro-
curing of materials on schedule. It is important, therefore, to be con-
versant r ~ i t hthe organization and operation of a purchasing department
for process plant construction procurement.
Pn~curementfor a process plant project is different from the purclias-
ing operations required for n nianufacturing plant, ~vlierethe buying
process corers only a relatively few standard commodities which arc
bought in quantity a t regular intervals. Personnel engagcd in purchasing
for a process plant project must have a n-ider experienc~,and must he
an-are of p o ~ ~ i beourrcs
le for inan? inore kinds of eqnipment.

ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF A PROCUREMENT DEPARTMENT

The SAPA (Rational Association of Purchasing -4gents) V ~ a recom-
s
mended a variety of organizations for procurement departments. One
typical of procurement for prnccss plant con4r11rtion inxy consist of
121
124 Project Engineering of Process Plants Procurement Operations 125
turer, horrcver, ehou1,l not l ~ cmade f ~ , long
r p r r i ~ d hcvcn on a singlc usual minimum uinw t h r c ~quutittimli !\ill in*ure r~~lcction
of it vendor
projcct. The procuremcilt operations on a major process plant ~vill on the basis of price, dclivery, and quality of product.
usually continue over a t least one ycar, and priccs may fluctuate during
that time. The procurement department must knuw price trends and The Quotation
rescrve the right to take advantage of these changes for the sake of Tlie wllw lvrnilori ~ u h m i t shis qllotstion on a special iorm upon which
economy. i n ~ l e f r g c n c r ~ lo n i t i ~ I ~ . d f i n i t i n a n t c 'Tl~csr :ire
luintr,l in ~ n l a l ltype, but s11011lilnot he disregarded since they are a legal
Expediting a n d inspection p u t of the c l o c ~ ~ ~ r t e ~ ~ t .
Expediting and inspecting are oitcn directed by the procurement dc- The epccific information pertinent t o the cquipn~entbcing quoted is
partment. The primary funct,ion of project expediting, hoxever, is expe- i y p c ~ on
l the qnotation form and should inelude tire follm~-ing:
diting movement of materials to meet the construction scl~edule,and Q~uintit!/ and Description of Jlnterinl Being (Jiwteil. T h r dcscril~tion
nccd not be directcd by those engaged in the buying operation. mxy 11c brief 1y1vci:illy if it is ~.[Link] o a specification n-hich givw a
rolnplctc ~lchcription. h~lditi,maldeseriptivr literature anll i l r n ~ v i n gare ~
PROCUREMENT PROCEDURES
nlso ;~ttachcdif thcsc aid in hetter dcscrihing tlic item.
The lrrocuremcnt of materials for a process plant l~ruject can be Price. The price should l ~ cgiven as both a unit price (pricc per itcuii
divided into several phases. 2nd R total price (price for total number of items and also l~riccf m lliv
1. 1nquir:r-A formal request for a quotation of price. total order) .
2. Qnotation-The iormnl rcply to t h r rtquest for price. Estimated TPeights. This information is nwcssnry in planning hrst
3. Rid con~parison-Ol~jective study of all quotations received for a slliiiping neth hods and in comp:iring bids.
particular item. T ~ j p eof Quotiition. (a) Firm price-Price quot?d is binding on tlw
4. Purchase order-The formal order scnt t o the successful l~iddcr. scllcr if acecpted n-ithin a givcn time limit (usually 30 days) ; ( h i Esc;l-
5. Inspection-The examination of materials during fabrication and lation cl;ruse--1\Iany quotntions during the days of initial material
upon completion t o insure highest quality. shortages and inrlctcrminablc costs of Wurld TVar I1 cont:tincrl c s r a l'I t 1011 '
6. Expediting-The acceleration of progress on manufactured equip- rlausca ~vhichpt~rnittedthe u p ~ a n adjustment
i of priccs due t o incrcaicu
ment by the purchaser. in labor, material, and transportation betwcen the date of placing of thc
irrdcr and shipment.
The Inquiry Trode and Qrluntity Discounts. Certain qnantity discounts and clis-
Actual detailcd opcrations of the inquiry phase are: ( a ) accurnuletion ci~untsapplicable t o ljuycrs v h o will rcrell (such as contractorsi are reg-
of data in the form of epecificatir~nsor dmxvings, (b) sclcction of r m d o r s nlarly givcn. The nniount of the discount s1111uldbe givcn on tlic quota-
to mhonl inquiry is to be directed, and ( c ) typing and mailing. Item ( a ) tiuo. Any cliscount that is treated hy the rrnilor n-it11 the grentert of
is a responsibility of engineering, ( b ) evolves from past experience or -errecy s1111uldbe looked upon ~ v i t hs u q j i c i ~ ~ n .
engincering development, and (c) is a clcrical operat,ion. The usc of trade iliec~~unts on metcrinls listed in c a t a l o g i.; ~~:rrtienlarIy
Many companies have standard inquiry fr~rms. The iorm invariably :,ilrantagcous for both \-endor nntl lmyer. .k catalog m:iy Ile printcil m c c
has this is not a n Order printed plainly on the sheet t o avoid conful;inn. n year or less v i t h complete ileecriptions and yo-callr~llirt prires i\vhicli
Drawings and specifications where applicable arc attachcd to the inquiry. :Ire priccs aborc the actual anticipated sclling price) given for carh item.
The method of quoting is outlined and rcquests for delivery date promise, The actual price c:ln thcn 11evaried to allon. for changing ci~stsby re\-iring
terms oi payment, and a price breakdown arc made. The date on which the discount shect and not the entire ccdalog.
the quotation is required is given, and !nitten quotations are requested. Uiseounts are oitcn quoted as a series of percentage discounts sue11 as
The number of inquirics solicited for a given item depends on coni- 20. 10 and 5. To calculate the actual price the list price is multiplied hy
pany policies. If procuremcnt is being done by a contracting firm for a (100 - Discount)/100 in this care, by 0.80, 0.90, 0.95. A series of dis-
customer, the customer's desires will be followed. I n fact many process rounta is used because one discount may not apply to every situation, bnt
firms furnish contractors with a list of acceptable vendors and specify various combinations of discounts can he devised which ill hc applirnhlc.
the minimum number of inquiries to be solicited. Three inquiries is the Terms. Thc terms of payment including the amount of cash discount
 I
128 Project Engineering of Process Plants I Procurement Uperarions 129
I
tabulation of bids. All such tabulatioris I\-liicli require engineeri~igjudg- The purrhaw orrlrr form sliould also includc all the purchaser's rtan~lnrd
ment zliould be subtnittcd to the project enginecr for approval. The pur- I notes on policy printed (not typed) directly on the original document;
!
chasing department should be particularly careful t o indicate all terms otherwise, loose addendums or attachments will be required. Each loose
and transportation factors and should point out the difference in these
items. Copies of the quotations should be supplicd with the tabulation
to aid in the cnginccr's study. The contract~~r's project, enginecr vill
I piece of paper represents an added cost in handling and can easily bc
lost in transmittal. The folloving notes are standard with moet prorure-
~ ~ w orgxniz
nt nt ions.
oitcn submit tlicse tabulations to the customer's project enginccr for his Gzraranfee. Some type of guarantee clause should be included for all
approval. equipment and material purchased. Extensive and elwhorate, guaranter
clauses usually requirc additional correspondence, with subsequent
The Purchase Order waivers or amendments. The best guarantee is always the integrity of
After selection of the vendor, a p u r ~ h i s corder based on the successful thc vmdor. 'l'he following is typical. "All equipment or material*
~ ~ u o t a t i oisn issued. Purchaie order forms arc ubed for this purpose.* furnished on this order shall be guaranteed, for a period of not more than
Tllc inforniation on these i ~ ~ r n liiay i s bc divided into three catcg~~rics- twelve (12) months from date of delivery (or date of operation or usel
lieading, main portion, and standard printcd notes. The location of each against operational failurc, due t o rnanufacturcr's design; or mechanical
of these on tlie purchase order has bccn specified by the American hsso- failure, due t o manufacturer's workmanship, when the equipnlent or
ciatirm of Purchaxing hgents.5 material is being operated or used in accordance !\-it11 the original q~ecifi-
HEADISG. Gives company name and address and spaces for ven~lor's cations. All parts or materials found to be defective wit,hin the specified
name and address, shipping address, and instructions. F.O.B. point, ternl., time interral shall be replaced without cost to the purchaser, F.O.B.
date of order, p n ~ h a s e - o r d e rserial nun~bcr,and date iilaterial is w n t c d . nianufacturer's plant."
31~[Link] main portion of the form, usually precedcd by a A primary vendor (one who receives order) does not guarantee man-
reference t o tlic vendor's quotation, lists the quantity, dcscription, am1 ufactured parts of equipment furnished t o him by another manufacturer,
pricc for each item. The total price of the ordcr is also given. If the beyond that other manufacturer's guarantce. The primary vendor n-ill
order can be referred to specifications and drawings, the dcscriptio~ican usually acknowledge the guarantce clause by stating that the overall
I I brief
~ and the specification and drawings transmitted as a part of tlic guarantee is limited to the gnarantees of the subvendors. hlanufacturcri,
order. Whcn available the approximntc weight of cach item is listed however, accept a certain moral responsibility for any equipment sold
sincc this information oitcn proves useful t o recipients of purch:~scorder since their reputation is a t stake. B u t no manufacturcr will ordinarily
col~ies,such as the engineering dcpartn~ent. acccpt any responsibility for loss of profit in production caused by failure
PRISTEDNOTES. A number of standard notes; terms and conditions of of his equipment, and practically all guarantccs are limitcd t o rcplacc-
tlie order arc also printcd on the purchase urder. Thesc include instruc- nient of tlie item d i i c h fails.
tions for mailing the bill of lading (carrier's receipt): packing list (list Inspection. A paragraph should bc included stating, in effect, that.
of contents, dimensions, and \\.eight of each shipping package or cratc), "all equipment and material furnished shall he subject t o shop and field
and invoice (list of items shipped or on order showing prices and other inspection by the purchaser or his delegated agents, and the vendor shall
cliargcs).t Instructions for identifying all shipments, letters, and d w u - notify the purchaser a t least-days in advance of its readiness for
n ~ c n t sv i t h thc purcbascr'a order number and equil~rncntitem uu~nbcrarc shop inspection. If the purchaser does not wish to inspect certain eqni11-
:~lsogiven. It is very important that, thc wnrlor follow these rcquerts; lnent the vendor will bc so notified, but shall undcrstand that any sncli
other\~iseconsiderable dclay and confusion is causcd in identifying tht. - inspection rclcase does not in any way relicve him of tlic responsibilitirs
111ateria1s. sct forth in the guarantee clause." Another clause frequently used is that
* Furms i w tu the origiu:d ordcr (rhangc o~.d?r)UI.C :dso in i%-idcIIW. "purchascr's inspectors, or representatives shall havc access a t all times
'l'lw wording Churlye O d r i is printed pron~iuentlynn thr Cure to cull :rttcntiou to to n~anufacturer'splants or shops for the purpose of inspecting equipment,
the changes and differentintcit from thc original order.. during the process of ~nanuiacture."
i 0rde1.l~transaction of business dcpends on the prompt reccipt of i m x r a t e Quality. A statement is included on the quality of materials. "All
eoples of all these items. The construction departnlent materials men use llie materials i'urnishcd or used in the manufacture of purchased itcnis shall
parking lists to check inruming material. Tlic accounting dcpnrtmcnt must check
the invoices against t h o older and cerliiv them to the eamutiollcv's office ior ..
be new and of first quality and in exact accordance with tlic annlicable
pym~nL. specificntions."
130 Project Engineering of Process Plants Procurement Operations 131

Labor Clauses. A typical labor clausc might be: "The vendor agrees limited to those protecting against fraud and cont,ingenries beyond tile
t l ~ aall
t labor used in the manulnrture of the specified itenis furnished shall control of the buycr. Certainly man r i l l never devise clauses so cleverly
be employed and paid uuder the applicable regulations of the Fair 1.al10r n-ordcd that they will protect against practices which are legal hut never-
Standards -4ct of 1938, and its subsequent or future amendments. The theless unethical and damaging. Tlic bcst protection is a reputable man-
vendur further agrees that all invoices submitted to the purchasrr shall ufacturer.
bear a written certification of his compliance n-it11 the abovc regulations."
A number of laws cxist regarding discriminatory practices. The par- "Acceptance" Order
ticular area in which the work is to be done and the type of labor used all Lcgally, the purclinse order hccomes a contract only after arceptancc
should be investigated previous to order placenlent with unknown firms. hy the seller. I t is, therefore, conlmon practice to send an "acceptance"
Serious difficulties may bc caused hy the use of an open-shop firm if copy of the purchase order to the scller .so that he may sign and return it.
closed-shop workers are erecting the equipment. Shop fabricated pipe The signcc for t,he vendor must be an authorized agent of the manufacturer.
may be a source of many labor entanglements, particularly if the pipe is
not fabricated in the area where it is to be erccted. The piping specifica-
INSPECTION
tions should include a requirement for a stamp ccrtificati~inon cach piece
of pipe giving the manufacturcr'a association with the applicablc labor .In important phase of procurement for procesa plants is the inspertion
union. (JI equipnent during and upon completion of manufacture. The advan-
Subcontractor Clmrses. Thc purchase order ia frequently used as an tages gained through careful devclol)mmt of specifications and drnvings
instrnmcnt in placing sulicontracts. The standard niltes in the purchase hy the purcllasing conipany can bc h a t by careless ~vorkniilnrhip and
order need not repeat the phrases in the subcontract. I t is suficicnt to errors made in the manufacturer's shops. Particularly on major items
state: "When equipment, materials, or services are bcing furnished under [ i f equipmcnt, therefore, it is ~vorthwliilefor the purchascr to send his

a subcontract, the executed subcontract, form shall apply and become a inspcctor to the vendor's plant. The pririlegc to inspect equipmcnt a t
part of t,his order." The subcontract form itself is legally an addendum the plant is usually agreed u p m prior to the placement of tbe order and
or attachment to the order. is included in the purchase order. No reputable manufacturer vill d e ~ i y
Shipping Imtructions. The point of origin and tiic tlcstination of inspection privileges and many wclcome a competent inspector's sugges-
material corcred by thc purchase order must bc listed for use by both tions.
vendor and purchaser. The mcthod of transportation is sclectcd early I t is the inspector's job to witness tests on merhanicnl equipment such
in the negotiations if possible and should bc indicated on the purchase as pumps and emupressore, to observe and approve fabrication nicthods
order. When t,ime is limited the purchaser may request truck shipment, of vesscls, pipe and structural steel, and to encourage the bcst worknian-
, air cxpress. If shipping methods cannot be decided
railway e x p ~ s s or ship on equipment bcing manufactured for his cmployer. He should be
a t time of order placement, the statement, "Shipping instructions will be a person of considerablc practical kn~~~v-lioru xvith an ability to spot
issued later," should be included on the order. The vendor must bc in- mistakes and also an ability t o get along wcll with p e ~ ~ p l e A . large
formed of shippit~gmcthods for large equipment so that assembly of the portion of a competent inspector's work consists in preventing mistakes
equipment for shipment can he planned. before they occur.
Patent Protection. Since the patent law holds the user of a patented Thc inspector's reports are made directly to the purchasing department.
item just as liable for suit by the patentee as the sellcr who has knovingly The projcct engineer should be notificd about rejeetcrl equipment. t ~ u i
or unknowingly infringed, the patent protection clause is inserted in pur- :tiljustments on rejected items are handled by the purrhasing drpar'
chase orders to protect the purchaser. It requires that the vendor com- ment. If inspection is madc a t thc sitc of construction, arrangements
pensate the purchaser and/or ultimate user of the material for all custs are made for replacement of rejected material and for returning it to the
vhicli may develop due to suits filed by the party claiming infringelnent." vendor. I t is sometimes possible, in the case of equipment surh as pumps
Many other special terms and conditions peculiar to the particular and filters for the vendor to correct faults in the field. For this work a
transaction may bc included as part of the purchase order. All such technical representative of the vendor is sent to thc jubsite at the vendor's
notes shuuld be clearly pliraped and above all sbould be kept to the ixxpenre.
minimum. I t would secm that clauses protecting t h e buyer should be Beranse of the high cost of inapcction, only ~nnjorequipment items ran
132 Project Engineering ct Process Plants Procurement Operations 133
I I ~inspcctcil prior to .;hipment Stwl; it1.m- such as T X I ~ E S and instru- IIc must IIC certain tliat the vcsiel design groulj coml~lrtrsthe final dc-
ments must 11e cliccked upon delivery a t the construction site. rilcd dran-ings on schedule so tlie fabricator d l not he delayed
.liter t l ~ cmanufacturer receives final dravings and fabrication begins,
EXPEDITING the progress of the ~vorkcan be reported by the purchaser's inspector n-bo
The ]iri~n:wyfunction of expediting is t o assure dclircry of purchacd IIILI.;~ observe the shop operations daily. The expediter need only visit
n~:itrrialsa t the jobsite in acc~~rdancc n-it11 the project schctlule I\I:~tt,rial tlic shop occasionally, but he continues to follow the progress of the vessel
such as valves and fittings arc- ava~lablcfrom supplier's n-arehouses anrl until it is delivered. JTlien the inspector'r report indicates that x o r k i*
ran he dclivcrcrl a t ally ti~nt,. The 11rogrc.s of specially h i g n e i l equi11- Ilcing delayed, the expediter will visit tlie shop, determine thc causc of
~ncnt:Iiu~vcvcr,such as 11rcsurr ve-..cis or large wmlwessurc, must l ~ r tlie delay, and help tlic fabricator overcome it. If the falxicator has :I
fullo~\-cdcontinuously by employees of the purcliaser cnllcd expediters. ilumbcr of orders from other companies, the expediter niust make more
llanufacturers estir~xttcprohal~ledelivery dates for equipnrnt to be fall- frequent, \-isits to he certain illat liis job is not unduly delayfd bccansc of
ricated in their shops, but tlicsc [Link] depmd on proiiipt dclivcry IJE ~\-orkon other orders.
~n:~terialsfroin tlieir supplirri; efficicnt srlicill~lin:, ( i f s l i ~ ~~vork,
p mil I n sununary an expediter's duties may bc briefly 1iut1inc.d as f o l l ~ t ~ s :
early receipt of draxings from the purchaser. The l~urcllaser'seuprditer
can do nlucli to :Issure that c~tiniatedddi\-ery dates will be ~ n c tlly 1. Accumulate data wbicli may affect delivery.
vorliing with botli the manui:icturcr and his 011-n organization. 2 . Anticipate delays and bottlenecks and resolve tllcse directly with
His ~ v o r kcan be explained more clearly by describing tlie progress of the vendor.
a large steel presmre vcsscl from the inquiry stage t o delivery. 3. Assist vendor in obtaining priorities.
.In inquiry is sent t o three or niurc inbricators and it includes s p c c h 4. Assist vendor in resolving his procurmlent problems.
wtions and a preliminary sketcli of thc vessel. The vessel diameter, 5 . Change delivery schedules when necessary.
plate thickness, type of liead.; and number and sizc of nozzles arc given. 6 . Correspondencc with the subvendors and suppliers of the primary
From this infornlation the vendors are able t o develop tlieir quotations wndor.
wliich give costs and estimated delivery time. 7. Be a x ; m of changes of engineering schedules in his 0x1-n orgnniza-
During tlic inquiry pcriod ( t ~ too tlircc m e k s ) enginecring w ) r k tion, and to relay this informntion to the vendor or ial1ric:ltor d l e n
proceeds in the purchaser's offices and by the time tlic or11c.r is plaretl nccessary.
the nictal specifications and vearel sizc and tlrickncs.; h a r e been cr~nfirnie~l. 8. Expedite his own organization to complete vital dra\\.ingi ori
If changes have been made, a rcvisc,d sketcli is attached to tlie purcliax
order. The fabricator is informed by a note on the order t l ~ he t is
"relcased t o purcliasc all materials on the basis of tile preliminary Although delivery on time is essential, early delivery nlny bc a (lip-
advantage. llaterials obtainable from stock should not bc ilclivereil
sketches." The expediter reccives a cupy uf llic purchase ortlcr a t the
until needed or extensive warehousing facilities u-ill hc necessary. Spc-
same time it is sent to t l ~ cvendor and it then becomes thc responsibility
of the expediter to re? that delivcry is mule on tinic. cially built equipment buch as a vessel must be lifted twice if delivered
before foundations arc ready. The cxl~editcr,therefore, must aid iu
After tlie f a l ~ r i w t i r11as heen told to prucccd xith thc ~ ~ u r c l i : ~111
se
: i u d i n g surli early deliveries.
materials, tlie purcliascr's expeditrr visits the fahricatoi.'~ ~11011 autl
AII expeclitcr must have a ~vurliingkno~vlcdgcof fabricating l~roccdurcs,
obtains copies of all material orders. H e then cIle14<s hy telcplionc or 1muxnnnent methods, sources of supply, and slripping practict,s. I n
personal visit with the steel mill t o be certaiu tliat a definite rolling
:&lition lie must he able t o work effectively ~ v i t hpci~plcin his o ~ and
n
schedule for the steel plate has been arranged. H e also confirms tlic the fabricator's organizations. Since liis priniary duty is to encourage
delivcry dates for all otlier equipment ordered by the ninnufacturer.
When tlie materi:lls nrr delivered to the fahriratnr. riillin~of pl:itr to people t o finish a job on time, his actions must be diplomatic in order to
void resrntincnt,.
f u r n ~the alldl can begill; but lab~.icatursu w relurtit~ll1 1 1 (10 lu1,tlicr
work until final desigu drawings are reccived from the purciiaser. I t is
difficult. anrl costly t o start n o r k on n Iargr vessel and then he forced t o GENERAL PURCHASER-VENDOR PRACTICES
iiiseontinuc for a short period until some d~xigncli:mgc is made. Tllc next
iniportant ]oh of tlie expediter, tl~ewforc,is u-itliir~his ow11 o~.ganiz:ition.
134 Project Engineering of Process Plontr Procurement Operations 135
1. I n general all transactions between purchaser and vendor should be changes in scope of the project, tlre vendor must be formally notified t o
kept on a formal basis, i.e.>in writing. "immediately stop work and incur no further costs t o the account of the
2. Instructions t o vendors shall always be sent in the form of a changed purchaser." The vendor is then a ~ k e r lt o submit. cancellation elrargc.
purchase order or addendum to original order. This should be a docnnient accompanied by proof of his costs up t o tlie tinie IIE cancellation. Thi;
similar to the purchase order, carrying the signature of the purchasing purchaser may accel~tdelivery of materials purchased by the rendur for
agent, and identified with the original purchase order hy some similar use in co~upletingthc order, or the materials may bc retainc~lin the
nunierical designation. vendor's warehouse and their value deducted froni tlrc c:inrell a t ion '
3. It is good policy for only procurement personnel t o discuss prices. charges.
materials, or equipment with vendors during the inquiry stage. Since it, Even if equipment is cancelled because of tlie rmtlor's failure to per-
is uncil~ical to disclwe a n y vendor's proposal t o another vendor, the form satisfactorily, cancellation charges are incurred by tlre purcllaser.
fewer persms having this inforination, the l e ~ schance there is for acci- I t is the purchaser's responsibility to have some kno~vledgeof tlrc vendor's
dental disclosur?. capal~ilities.
4. Price re-negutiation may or may not he permitted after a. formal Cancellalion slrodd never he undertaken \ ~ i t h o u tcunrplete iinodcdgt.
prnlmal is rcceircd. This is usually a matter of policy ~ i t hthe pur- of the costs involved. These include the vendm's labor rosts, inaterial
chaser. If one vendor discovers an error in the purchaser's inquiry or for costs, loss of profit, and the purchaser's loss of time and engineering
some reasim is allo~vedto revise his quotntii~n,all othcr vendors pnrtic- manilours.
ipating should hc allo~x-edthe s:une privilege.
5. Suffivient timc should he allowed for receipt of proposals before PROJECT ENGINEERING AND PROCUREMENT COOPERATION
deriding the successful bidder. The many duties and responsibilities of the procurement department
6. A good policy is to require that all changes, additions, or deletions can be met only through cooperation bctveen procurement and project
be handled by the procurement department only. Under certain con- engineering groups. Mutual understanding of the duties and problems
ditions this policy may require additional time, but i t avoids confusion. of each and an atvareness of their interdependence are needed.
It should be the complete responsibility of the procurement department Projcct enginecrs should remember that changes in dcsign produce
t o negotiate the con~mercialpart of an order (pricc, terms, and delivery), delays in fabrication. A change that may actually be rather simple can
regardless of the technical requircments. become quite complex when large organizations are in~rolved. Drawings,
If equipment is being manufactured in accordance with the purchaser's orders, and suborders must bc altered before the actual e l r a n ~ ereaches
dcsign, the fabricator may ask a nnmbcr of technical questions which can the manufacturer's shop. Only alterations whirlr are absolutely ncces-
only be answered by the engineering department. These questions should sary should be made during the fabrication stage.
always be addressed t o the procurement department and then relayed
t o the engineering department. h iurmal reply is then forwarded b y REFERENCES
engineering t o procurement for transmittal to the vendor. I n this manner
1. [Link], Norman F., Principles of Srirnlific Puichnsing, MiGraw-Hill Book
thc procurement department can retain full responsibility for all changes Co., X r w 1-ork,1928.
in price caused by design alterations. 2. Hcinritz, Stua1.t F., Purchasing, Prenti<:e-Hall. I n e , Kerr Yo&, 1947.
7. Order cancellations of fabricated equipment or materials of special 3. Johnson, E. R., G. C. Huehncr, and G. L. Kilson, Transportalion Economic
design may be required because of changes in design or scope of work Principles and Pmctices, D. Appleton-Ccntory Co., Scrv I-urk, 1940.
4. Lewis, Howard T , Pmczrrrrntnt [Link] and Cnscs, Richa1.d D. Irwin, Ine.,
which are the fault of the purchaser. Cancellations may also be madc
Chicago, 1949.
because of failure on the part of the vendor to manufacture the equip- 5. National Association of Purchasing Agents Handbook of Purchasing Policies
ment properly. Cancellation clauses are written into the purchase order, and Procedures, Volumes I and 11, Piational Association of Purchasing Agents, Xcw
by stating simply, "This order may be cancelled within 30 days after York, 1939 and 1942.
placcnient without r w t ~ I tlic
I purchaser." This statement is used when 6 . Revised Amencan Foreign Trade Definitions, National Forcign Trade Council,
the intent of the purchaser is to limit the vendor's action until the pur- 111 Broadway, Yew I'ork, 1941.
7. Rindsfass, C. E., Puichnsing, McCrnw-H111 Book Co., Xcn Vork, 1915.
chaser is ready to prureed with the work. \Vhcn work has been started 8. Stuffleb~am,G. T., The Trofic Dictiurrory, Simmons-Brondrnan Puhlidling Ca.,
by the vendor and it is decided t o cancel the equipment because of Kew York, 1950.
 CHAPTER 10 Office Procedure
TIlimility is one of the most essential personal trait; in any field
xicncc. Any true scientist is aware of the many assumptions and gaps
137

11f kno~rledgein his field and never prceumes knoving everything. Being
Iiumhle, howcver, does not mean being obsequious. Tcntativc l~ositions
i,sn he held vithout reticence.
Open-mindedness is important in dealings hoth individuals and
groups If two ideas of equal technical merit are proposed. one by you
nnd mother by a pcrson ~ v h omust executc the idea, it n-ill 11c ailranta-
peous to use the otller pcrson's idea. I t is logical to :~ssutnctlinl lie will
do R I ~ t t c job
r using his own method.
I n large confcrmces, too: open-niindr~lnesspays iliridcnds. I n thwc
-ituations it becomes tlic ability t o listen to utht,rs. Often in conicrenc~.~
:in ;rtiuusl~licreis created ml~icliseems to com]~cleach particillant to
OFFICE p r f o r n i . B y resisting this tcmptation and rcrnaining open-minded, onc
can ci~ntrihute imnieasurably a s the confcrcncc procccds by offering
carefully conaidered conclusions based oil au analysis of t l ~ cprublcn:
PROCEDURE and the ideas presented by tlic othcr mcn.
11ost pcople have had the merits of court,esy drillcd into t h c ~ usince
cliildliond. Thew lessons are often forgotten when antliorized visitors
arrive during busy moments. Sales engineers, in particular, arc giwn
Enaineerine
- - is only one of the functions r~f the project
. . engineer. I n iinproper treatinent a t times ~rlicnthcir arrival is inopportune. Com-
addition to technical duties, he must manage his officc. The stalt' of this pctent ?ales engineers have considerable k n o ~ ~ l e d gabout
c tlieir particular
office usually consists of assistant projcct engineers, a secretary, and a fielils, and aid the cngineer in keeping infonned on nexv developments.
file clerk. It is, of course; only a small part of a large engineering office Timc spent ~ r i t hthem is not ivastcd cvcn thougli no purclmse of thcir
vhich includes other project engineers or project managers and tlieir 1)rotlucts is anticipated a t the time.
staffs as well as departments such as accounting, purchasing, drafting,
and engineering specialties. Formal Conferences
r.
There is a constant interchange of ideas and instructions between the 1IIC f o r u ~ a~onferencc
l has bccomc an important tool in m o d e r ~indus-
project engineer's office and the other dcpartments, as well a s direct con- try. For the proccs.; plant project it l~erniits:r sllnring of ideas hetvccn
tacts and correspondence ir-ith people outside the company. Therefore. kc? personnel and specialists rvhich ~vould tnkc wccks if handled l g
he also must develop facility in holding conferences, correspondence, and correspondcncc.
filing. A discussion of each of these functions i d be of vnlnc since poor T o be successful, liowvcr, a fornud confcrcncc must h a w a c:ipal~li~
crccution of any of thcsc will produce mistakes and faulty design no ltxder :lnd a defillitc pllr]lu6~!Idlirh should ile knon-11 serrr:ll day:. beforc
matter how competent the engineering. tlic niccting. TIE 11urposc must be a specific o ~ i cif niucl~is to Lc ac-
coinplished. C d c r e n c c s on gcncral subjects require too ni;n~yl~eoplr,
CONFERENCES accomplisli nutliing, and often creatc misunderstandings.
Thc project engineer must exchange ideas with many people during V-hcn need r~rircsfur the discussion of n specific phasc of work. only
a working day not only by means of formal policy-making conferences, 1 1I K V~ J ~n-110
~ I ~ can
~ contribu(c inost to tlic ~lixussiunsliould l,e rrqrlwtt,il
but also by informal conferences or get-togethers ~ v i t hmen fro111 other t o attend. Thc conference leader should then outline the course oi dis-
departments, customers' representatives and sales engineers. cussion and see that the original plan is folluwcd but refrain from strong
As is always the case in dealing with people the intangible, and for the d:~t~w~rm of t shis oivn ideas.
most part unteachable, qualities such as humility, open-niindcdncss, : ~ n d ('otril~lctenotes of tlic vonfert~[Link]~uuldhe itii~rl~'.F P I nietiiories
~ are
courtesy are important. inl':illibl~~,;ind it is desirable tu liave ~.ccorclsui ;ig~.[Link] m ~ l,lcci~iui~s
136
138 Project Engineering of Process Plants Office Procedure 139
so that responsibilities are clearly outlined and xvork assignments com- employees. There is no one perfect form. Usually the one used by a
pletely understood. Thc conference room should be well lighted, com- firm has evolred as the company developed, and it p8rticularly suits that
fortable, quiet, and furnished in good tastc. A blackhoard is alxrays organization. Management and other personnel become accustomed to
useful in group discussions and should be part of the permanent equip- the for111 and much tinle is saved because of this familiarity.
mcnt of the room. \Vitllin thr <.onfines r ~ f the form the engineer is free 111 rxcrcise llis
The conference technique is often misused in modern business. Too ingenuity anrl vriting talent.
many unnecessary conferences are convened. Some organizations have The most import:int consideration in report xwiting is the audience.
so many that there is little time for work. If one man can make a In writing a report for the president of a largc cllemical company. for
decision, i t i t senseless to take the time of other persc~nncl. Conferences instance. an engineer should realize that niost of this man's tiuic is
shi~uld t ~ rcalled only when a decision must be made requiring the spcnt in management. He no longer practices his technical skills and
knorrledge represented by many backgrounds. its intricacies are no longer part of his thinking. If it is necessary to
discuss theory in tlic report, background should he sul~plicrl anti. if
TECHNICAL WRITING possible, it should he described in terms understandable to the laylnan.
Tlic engineering graduatc is often criticized for his lack of ability
Technical Articles
in expressing his ideas. Gcnerallp the undergraciu~teengineer takes one
or two courses in report I\-riting and these pro\-ide his only gui~lancein Periodical technical journals are distrihution centers fur n w theories
rwitten expression. and ideas. Technical men must read articles nr abstracts of nrticles in
Tllc?e courses are invaluable, hut good self-expressinn in any form thew journals in order to be familiar r i t h tlic latest dcvelopuents, and.
can nevrr he developed snlely through courses that teach tlie tecl~niques when possible, sliould contribute n c a ideas and experimental data to
of the art. Good self-expression, rather, is a by-product of thoughts the general knowledge by submitting papers for publication.
and experience beyond the limits of the individual's specific field. The quality of such contribution reflects on both the author and his
I t is unfortunate that the rigorous curriculum of a formal engineering employer, and great care should be exercised in their preparation. As;1' 1111-
education leaves little time for reading and study in other fields. Many ing the information presented in tlie article is reliable, tlic nest ~ n n s t
practicing engineers realize this lack and use some of their free time for important aspect is the mode of presentation.
rcading nonscientific literature. Technical writing should be free froni long, ponderous sentences and
n i i t i n g done by the project enginccr must bc suited for rvi~iclyrarying slioultl be as clearly w i t t e n as possible. Since the suhjrct luatter is
audienres. Such writing includes: often difficult to ~,ompreliend,tlie least a writer can do is make tlic
TECIINICAL REPORTS. ( a ) Contract proposals; ( b ) descriptions of individual sentences easy to understand.
plants visited and their operations; ( c ) detailed conference notcs; ( d )
Correspondence
technical instructions such as operating instructions.
TECHSICAL ARTICLES(written for publication in trade or professional Correspondence makes up the major portion of a project engineer's
journalsi. writing. If correspondence is excessive, the projrct engineer is little
CORRESPOSDENCE. ( a ) Interoffice; ( b ) design instructions; (c) various more than a "paper shuffler."
types of letters outside the company. Nearly all large business firiiis are confronted \ ~ i t h a tremendous
volume of paper. Althougli in thesc modern tinier, conirnunic;rtion~have
Technical Reports been greatly simplified, the written word is still thc only legally aeceptuhle
The preparation of a technical rcport as such has been described in neth hod of indicating respmsibility. Recording reasons for actions by
many forms"&"." and is usually a part of the engineer's training. Each one party as instructed by anotl~erin many organizations is practiced
firni has its own niethod of composition. Generally the first page is a largely because of a lack of individual trust, initiative, and usuallp self
letter to a superior often called a letter of transmittal. This is followed confidence. The phrase "get it in writing!" is a common stateuient in
by u title page, an index, a summary, and then the main body of the industry. From this idea lnucli of the needless correspondence evolves.
repcrt. Tlie engineer-contractor's propusel is one type of report. External correspondence is necessary but can bc reduced by careful
The form of report used by a given firm must bc followed by its planning. Internal or inter-office correspondence is used for issuing
140 Project Engineering of Process Plants Office Procedure 141
itistr~~ctionsor ili>filiing rc;l~ou:ildity. TT'lic~i rrrl):~li ~ ~ s t r ~ ~ c t \\-ill
inns The example is a transniittnl letter common to larger firms. It proridcs
snffice,Lion-crer, it is ~rastefulto insist on )nitten n~eniorand:~.Of coursr, a reronl for icreral files and nlro in this case s h o ~ sthc status of a
iudg~nentninst he nsed in dcciding whcn rcrhal instructions arc ailcquntc. I r i n g . .ill numbereil itenis cxcept 9: 10, 11, 12 are printed on the letter.
Certainly romlilcx instructions invoking nrlniprical 1 1 t ~11<n11d he Item 6 identifies the firm and is necessary since copies of such lettcrs
[Link]. but a simple request or order seldom need he witten. arc sometimes attached to formal external correspondence. Initials of
;\notiler rn:~,ior sourcc of useless corrcsponricnrc in lt~isinrss rnn he recipients of copies. (Itcnt 4 1 , are often used on interoffice communica-
traced ti1 exrcssirc restriction of authority. TYitliout autliarity or [Link] tions. Files (Item 8) refer to the particular record files for the depart-
clear-cut instructions the inilividual m u d seek to "corer himself" at 1~cr:- nlcnt or project and aid tlie file clerks in filing tlie letter. Second sheets
step lty vrittcn proof of his actions. (~vhcnthe Ictter is longer than one page) omit all printed hcadinga
All husincw organizations can profit hy an objertirc :~nalysiso f their except, 6. Tltr ilatc and project nunihcr is addcd hy typing. Copy
correspondmce procrilures. I\Iucli intcr-office correq~ondcnrc i,xn IX sliccts are simil:~rto second shccts showing item 6 only.
elitniniltcd altogether and that d i i r l i is necessary ran i ~ cliniit?(l to an
original and onc ropy for the joh file. Forms ~~-liirll ran iw fillcil in It!.
11:~nilor I I a~ fi.w simplr typewriter mnnipulntionn sar(, 1)iitli tiriic and lortns are soii~rtimcsurcd for interoffire comnn~nir:I t '1011.
3lcni~trao~li1ni
,~slx~[Link]:lrc discusscd l~rlow. They arc generally lettcrsizc (8% s 5 ? 4 ) . The firm niunr a p p w r on
thesc forms, and itcniu 1 and 2, 6 and 7 arc usually includcil an the
lnlerofice Correspondence Ileading. Such nien~orantiamay bc llandvritten notcs.
The interoffice lettrr, not?, or nlcnlorandi~nlis usually i r l r ~ n t ~ hh).l
n printtd lieailing on some type of fornl. Intcritfficr or Intcr,lirisiiill
correspondenre in cnginrcring scrvicc i)rgnriizations is oitrn also 111:rdl~ General instructions to personnel are usu:illy issued on sonic type of
rcadily irlcntifiahlc hy use of colored stationer?;. Some typical forms r e ] ~ o ~ l u c i forin
l ~ ~ c so that distribution to several people can hc made.
arc s h m n here. The follon-ing fornl is sonletinics used.

Exclmple of Interoffice Letter Example of a General Instruction

SYZ C'lwn~iralCn.
(1) Date: J a n u a r v 2 . 1955 (0) SYZ Chemiral Co. l h g . Ikpt.
i2j TO: R . D . Plow ( 2 ) Interofire Letter So. 2 8 3 2
(3) From: S . S . S h e a r (7) -1pprq1. S o . 2 2 4 6
(4) Copies: E . D . , M . N . , R . J . (8) File 4 , 15, 6 Date: J a n u a r y 2 , 1955
(5) Subject: Dwg . 2246-02-El, Revisions Subject. Use o f V a r i a b l e - t y p e M a c h i n e s
(9) Drawing 2246-02-El is t c b e r e v i s e d a c c o r d i n g t o To: Chief Draftsman, A l l P r o j e c t Engineers, Design
t h e a t t a c h e d marked p r i n t . When r e v i s i o n is S e c t i o n L e a d e r s , E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n Department
c o m p l e t e a n d c h e c k e d , k i n d l y r e t u r n two ( 2 ) p r i n t s Heads, P l a n t Maintenance D e p ' t .
t o the writer prior t o general distribution.
Four (4) v a r i a b l e - t y p e machines have been i n s t a l l e d
.-- i n room 3 0 8 ( t h i r d f l o o r n o r t h - e n d o f E n g i n e e r i n g
(10) S. S. Shear Proj . Engr. B u i l d i n g ) and have b e e n i n u s e f o r s e v e r a l weeks
(11) A t t a c h m e n t 1 during operator training. W e are e n c l o s i n g c o p i e s o f
(12) SSS/ef a s h e e t s h o w i n g t h e v a r i o u s s i z e s of t y p e f o r m ,
n u m e r a l s , a n d s y m b o l s w h i c h are a v a i l a b l e . You may
r .
Ilie nuinhers are used here for purposes of diseussii~n,but do not appear c a l l E x t . 3 2 5 f o r extra c o p i e s .
on tlic actual lctter. One peculiarity of the interoffice lctter is thc omis- The m a c h i n e s h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d t o r e d u c e h a n d
sion of the salutation, such as Dear Sir, or G e n t l e ~ ~ ~and
e n the closing, l e t t e r i n g o n d r a w i n g s a n d , b y means o f t h e smaller
sucli as you1.s truly. Thcrc is, ho~\-crcr,identification n1ateri:rl in itcus type, t o reduce size o f p r i n t e d forms. Supervisory
5 , 6, 7, and 8. p e r s o n n e l are e x p e c t e d t o become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e
142 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure 143
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e machines s o t h a t t h e y can b e used other types 11f correspondence so tlmt they will receive special handling.
t o the fullest extent. The [Link] is a typical design letter.
G e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s are b e i n g p r e p a r e d a n d w i l l
be i s s u e d s h o r t l y . Example of a Design Instruction

A . D. Hochstad, c h i e f Engineer (1) ABC EXGISEERISG CORP., PRIKCIpIA, P;. J

(2) Customer XYZ CHEM. CO .
This general letter includes a letter nuvnbcr wlich simplifies filing and (3) Date 1 1 / 2 1 / 4 2 (4) Contract 6-25316-2 (5) ~~~i~~lnst. yo. E-22
(6) DES. SECT. E (7) Sheet 1 Of 1
identification when rcvisinns are ncccsiary, Such lctterl; are often issued (8) Dwg. (9) Vendor X (10) Mat'l B;JI
on special forms .;o that they can he identificrl easily. Thc use of difierent- (11) Spec. X
colored stationery is probably the sirnplest method of identification for
the large firm. It h a s b e e n a g r e e d i n a c o n f e r e n c e o n
11/21/57 t h a t a l l e l e c t r i c m o t o r s s h a l l
be as m a n u f a c t u r e d b y G y r e E l e c t r i c Co.
TRANSMITTAL LETTERS(INTEROFFICE) The a p p l i c a b l e c a t a l o g numbers a r e :
A large anlount oT data nnlst bc tranrferrcd through an organization.
Tranzmittd lettcrs or formi snvc typing time. Th? follo~vingform only H.P. Volt. C a t . No.
requires filling in or chccking the applicahlc pllrases. Up To 5 h p 220/110 E-A-1222
6 t o 3 0 hp 440 E-B-2136
Exclmple of Transmittal Letter
31 t o 5 0 h p 440 E-C-3145
Date: 51 a n d a b o v e 2300 D-4460
To:
A . L. G e r u n d , P r o j . E n g .
From:
\Ve are attaching c o p i e s of:

Drarving KO.
Projert KO.

(12) 1I 1 1 1 1
G F S P V
------ H h l E I / Proc. EF 1 CF C Total
(~-i-lT~-lT-~TITITIT~

n/nI Ko.
Items 1, 2, 3 are self-explanatory. Itcm 4 s h o ~ thc
s contract number
Vendor Print Vendor as assigned by the contractor, "ABC Eng. Corp." Thij tylle of nu~nerieal
Approved Kindly revise as noted designation is finding \vide use in industry where autolnatie accounting
Return to Vendor systems are used. In this instancc the first number refers to tlic type
Approved as n o t e d .
of general work such as design and erection of a cllernical plant. The
Release for fabricntion - Release for construetiun first digit of the second numbcr refers to the type of contract, the
For your use in design For your use and record next four digits are the consecutire contract number. Thc last number
indicates the part of the project.
For preliminary use only
Item 5 givcs the subject and numbcr of the instruction. The subject
When revised, please return prints to writer. in this case is E (electrical dcsign) ; 6 sho~vsthe basic design section
or group to which the instructions are directed primarily; 7 is a sheet
~ E S I G X~SSTRTTC!TIOS ~,[Link] numbering metilod designed to prevent misplacing of sheets.
I n addition to the gencral instruction letter it is desirablc to provide a Items 8, 9, 10, and 11 provide a means of designating the type of
npecial fonn for engineering and dcsign c l ~ ~ n g e 1;ngincering-contracting
x information in general. In this case! 9, vendor, and 11, specification,
firms use different names for this correspondence such as "Design Instruc- are checked because the information concerns a vendor and is a specifi-
tion," "Engineering Memo," or sometimes "Design Letter." The most cation. If a drawing or bill of material ncre involved, items 8 " 1 . 10
important requirement for such memoranda is a visible difference from would be checked.
 Office Procedure 145
144 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
Gentlemen:
Itrm 12 pro\.ides a simplified rnctl~odfor in,licating t l ~ c(Ii.;tril~utim
and nuu~bersof copies of thc Design Instruction. The lcttcrs refer to I n order t o effect a possible saving i n driver
~lcsignsections or departments as follorva: c o s t s i t h a s been decided t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r
motors above 5 H . P . w i l l i n c l u d e t h e words " o r equal"
G Grnernl B Buildings a f t e r t h e Gyro E l e c t r i c Co. c a t a l o g number.
F Foundations P Piping
S Struet~~ral,
s t d or concrete H Went apparatus For o t h e r acceptable motor manufacturers p l e a s e
V Trseels E Electrical r e f e r t o o u r Approved Vendor L i s t t r a n s m i t t e d i n o u r
M Mrchanienl equipment Proc. Procurrment, l e t t e r No. 55, November 16, 1 9 5 5 . It i s s u g g e s t e d
I [Link] (IF' Contract file t h a t o n l y two ( 2 ) b i d s b e r e q u e s t e d i n a d d i t i o n t o
EF Engineering file p r o p o s a l s from G y r o .
C Customrr
Yours t r u l y ,
I n this vase copies are checked for E, Elcrtrical; Proc.. Prorurement; XYZ C h e m i c a l Co.
EF, Engineering Filc; CF, Contract File; and C, Customer. E. G. M a r t i n , C h i e f E n g i n e e r
Commercial Correspondence
The types of lettprs written to outside firms may he ( n ) correepondcnci.
between an ovner and contr;~ctor; ( b ) l w t w r n purchaser and vcn~lor;
(c) various engineering or procurement instructiuns to subcontrxtors,
vendors, and consulting firms.
Example of a Letter from Contractor to Owner
OWNER-CONTRACTOR CORRESPOKDENCE
AUC Engineering Corp.
Operating firms usually carefully restrict cxtcrnal correspondence to 1223 Eighth St.
executive officers or kcy personncl. Corrcspondcnce between an owner Principia, PIT. J,
and contractor originating witli the owner usually will all be signed
( 1 ) C o n t r a c t 6-25316-2
by an executive or in the name of the cxecutive by the originator (see
example). ( 2 ) L e t t e r No. 85
Contracting firms to the contrary cannot restrict thc I!-riting of corrc- ( 3 ) F i l e s 5 , 7, 15.
spondence since Inany functions must occur eiinultaneo~~rly and any such F e b r u a r y 6, 1956
restriction ~ o u l dbe impractical. Tlic project manager, l~oaever,should ( 4 ) Mr. E . G. M a r t i n , C h i e f E n g i n e e r
see copies of all correspondence as it passes into the general contract file. XYZ C h e m i c a l Co.
All correspondence betnccn thc owner and contractor will ordinarily Dinwiddie, F l a .
be directed to 'the contractor's projcct enginecr regardless of subject. ( 5 ) A t t n . Mr. S. S . S h e a r , P r o j . Eng.
Some examples iollow: ( 6 ) S u b j e c t : L e t t e r 168 a n d D e s i g n I n s t r u c t i o n
E-22. Telephone C o n v e r s a t i o n
Example of o Letter from Owner to Contractor 2/2/1956,
XYZ Chemical Co. Gentlemen:
Dinwiddie, Florida
E. G. Martin, Chief Engiueer L e t t e r Number 168 This w i l l confirm our telephone conversation
F e b r u a r y 2 , 1956 i n w h i c h we a d v i s e d you t h a t y o u r l e t t e r No. 168
ABC E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p . ( F e b r u a r y 2 , 1956) w o u l d n o t a f f e c t t h e o r i g i n a l
1223 8 t h S t . s p e c i f i c a t i o n of o n e m a n u f a c t u r e r , Gyro E l e c t r i c
Principia, N. J. Co., f o r motor d r i v e r s .
A t t n . Mr. A . L . Gerund
Following our u s u a l p r a c t i c e t h e procurement
S u b j e c t : App'n No. &2324. ABC C o n t r . 6-25316-2 d e p a r t m e n t o b t a i n e d t h r e e b i d s f o r motors b a s e d on
D e s . I n s t . E-22.
146 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure
preliminary data. This was unnecessary since your
original specifications had indicated only a Gyro Electric Company
single manufacturer. Proposals received were 2286 Enoch Ave.
analyzed, as is our practice for all equipment. Portland 6, Pa.
Gyro was found to have an acceptable delivery, and Subject: Proposal 3427, October 23, 1942
the prices were lower than other bidders on all
items. The analysis in this case was not Gentlemen:
transmitted to you because the low bid was
received from the manufacturer that you had Please accept this communication as a letter of our
originally specified. intent to purchase equipment essentially as described
in your proposal 3427, provided:
A letter of intent was issued to the vendor a. Prices quoted are firm.
January 2, 1956 in order to place the equipment on b. Delivery promise of six (6)months or
an early schedule. Our confirming purchase order, better as based on our priority rating will
based on final specifications, has now been issued be maintained.
to the Gyro Electric Company. If our priority is c . You agree to proceed with engineering,
not changed, delivery can be expected in early design and manufacture immediately by
June. placing this equipment in your schedule.
Please acknowledge receipt of this letter immediately.
Yours truly, Our formal purchase order will be issued together with
ABC Engineering Corp. complete specifications at an early date.

A. L. Gerund, project Engineer Yours very truly,

ABC ENGINEERING CORPORATION
Correspondence between an owner and contractor is usually numbered N. A. Mayberry, Jr.,
a s shown in item 2. The letter is addressed t o the chief engineer and Purchasing Agent
t o the attuntion of the project engineer, items 4 and 5 . Item 6, the sub-
ject, is described in detail. %h' en tlic contract number is not placed
e l s e ~ ~ h e r it
e , should be included in tlic suhjcct. Example of o Letter to Vendor on Design Dota

AM! Engineeling Corp.

1223 Eighth St.
Letters to vendors concern changes in design and materials, extra fiinc~piu,K. J.
charges, delivery dates, and statcnients of intent. Contract 6-25316-2
Ordinarily vendors are notified of ordcr placement by receipt of a Files 7, 15.
purchase order. Preparation and diatribut,ion of a purchase order is February 16, 1956
time consuming, and when it may delay delivery, a letter of intent, as Robertson Tubing Co.
897 Field St.
in the accompanying example, is written in order to place equipment Portland 6, Pa.
on order beforc the issuance of a formal purchase order.
Subject: Our P.O. 5316-87,
your letter of February 12, 1956
Example of a Letter of Intent Gentlemen:
ABC Engineering Corp,
1223 Eighth St. The stainless steel material substitutions
Principia, N. J.
requested in your letter of February 12 have been
submitted to our engineering department and approval
(1) Contract 6-25316-2 has been granted. Type 309 is acceptable where
(2) Files 7, 15. Type 316 has been specified.
January 2, 1943
Our original specification will be revised and
148 Project Engineering of Process Plants Office Procedure 149
t r a n s m i t t e d ; however, p l e a s e p r o c e e d immediately on gr:u~rs arc trunsuiitted ovcv \Vestcrn Uniuii lincs nnrl tclctype nre-mgc+
the basis of this letter. over telepllone coulpany lines.
Both Western Union (telegram) and tlre local telephone system (tcle-
Yours v e r y t r u l y ,
ABC ENGINEERING CORP. type) will install telcprintrrs or ninrhines over n-hirli nlexlgcs may be
sent or rcceired in any office.
N. A . Mayberry, J r . ,
P u r c h a s i n g Agent TELEGRAMS
Xo chargc is made for installation or u ~ of c the TTestern Vnion tele-
printer, hut a firm must he n-ell knmm or must ha^ sonrr i~:ickgroi~~iil
h transniitt:d letter form is sonicti~ncsu x d for transmittal to outside 1,-liich would inrlicntc its nac. Unless tllcrc is an existing al~urtagcui
firms. machines in the particular area, there is not much difficulty in haring
a t~lcprintrrinstalled.
The keyboard of the machine is almost identirnl v i t h a standard
Example of an External Transmittal Letter typewriter. TIIVoperator sign& thc loi'al i~ffict,,and ~rlicn acknovl-
cilgcd, the message is typed on a continuous (1.11111dlct't. The ~l:l[lcr i5
814 incllcs rvidc, siniil:~r to stant1:trd stntionci.)-. T l i ~ ,nle.2sag<,nl:ty I K
rrlxodurril in ser~,rulcopics. Tllc lilcnl officc wccircs tho mess:lge ani1
Date: C o n t r a c t No. relays it tu :I local officc in tlic rity of dt,stiirntion. If tlic recipient 1 1 : ~
To: L e t t e r No ~
n telcprinter, it is rcprotlnced on l ~ i smnclrine. I f tlre recipient ]la- 1111
File_--_ -- - .-.-- nrachinc, the nrcssagc is usually telephoned and then a copy is muilt~~l.
Gentlemen: \\:lien the rccipient is in a mctropolitan nrca the message may be iidir-
rrcd by incssenger.
We are e n c l o s i n g - . - c o p i e s of p r e l i m i n a r y f i n a l The telegram mrrsagc charge is based on the number of ~vords:mil
r e v i s e d Drawing No. B/M No. type of message. The str:tigllt xirc ~vliieliis ~uostexpcnsivc is trans~nitt<d
immediately regardless of tirnc of day. Other types arc the d:iy I c t t ~ r
F o r approval--
For your u s e and record xviiich is dclircred in sequellee during vorking hours and tlrc night letter
which is transmitted at night and dclirered the follo~vingmorning.
K i n d l y r e t u r n c o p i e s w i t h y o u r a p p r o v a l o r comments
a s s o o n as p o s s i b l e .
Example of o Business Telegram
Yours t r u l y , ABC ENGINEERING CORP. WUX
ABC E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p .
PRINCIPIA, N . J .

Kindly r e t u r n one copy (1) (2)

of t h i s transmittal f o r 2324-832 RELET EIGHT THREE SEND MORE INFORMATION ON
o u r r e c o r d upon r e c e i p t PRICE AND DELIVERY. PREFER ORIGINAL SPECIFICATION
of e n c l o s u r e s . TWO ZERO SIX DASH ONE. LETTER FOLLOWS.
( 3 ) XYZ CHEMICAL MARTIN
Telegrams, Cables, Teletype
The abbrc~iation\YVX a f t r r the company nanre indicates that tlrr
The telegram (domestic), cable (foreign), and teletype are used for
cunil~anylias a teleprinter. Item 1 is a nwnbcring systeni a ~ ~ n e t i n l w
important written communication requiring immediate action. Tele- used for cost accounting purposes. The numbcr 2324 is the aplx'ol~riation
*This letter mas prepared by someone clse but was issued over the purchas~ng nunlbcr as is used by tllc accounting department in charging costs against
agent's signature. tlrc ; ~ l ~ l ~ r o p r i a t i iTlir
~ n . second numbcr, 832, is a c~~nseeutivc
trlegriurr
150 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure 151
number and has notliing to do xvith cl~argesbut may I I uscd~ for filing LOSGDISTASCETELEPHOSE VERSUS TELETYPE A N D TELEGRAM
and reference. The typed com~illinicationprovided 11y tpletypr and telegram is in
Item 2, "Relet," is a word condensation meaning "reference to letter." many instance- tiiorc satisfactory for l~usinessuse than telephonic com-
"Retel" is used to refer to a telegr~m,"Rephone" is o ~ n e t i m e sused for munication. S o recurd of a telephone conversation is ohtained unless
rcferencc to phone messages. Such condensations are conntcd a> m t , recorded by a third party or a machine.
~ ~ o r dThe
. local telegraph office will supply cost data and acceptablr There are times when a long distance call, though more expensive, is
abbreviations and condcnsatione. Nunihers after tlic telegram are spelled preferable. If a pcrsonal or conreraatimal touch is needed to settle some
out since transmitted nurnbcrs may be changed or mixed in sending and problem the teleplionc is superior. Hcaring a person's voice often gives
spelling numbers eliminates the possibility of such error. better insight into the particular situation. Unfortunately some em-
Cables are similar to telegrams, but more attention sliould be paid to ployees abusc this privilege and carry on rcunions and personal conver-
phraseology of cables because of the h i g h cost per word. Regardless ~ a t i o n sx i t h distant employees before getting to tlie business of the call.
uf cost. however, the niesmge of a tclegrani or cable should be clear.
Saving the cost of a vord and sacrificing clarity may mean sending another Style of Written Correspondence
wire or cable. Corrcspondcnce functions as a inlxtitute for conversation and should
be as natural as the dignity of tlrc subject permits. Ponipous and liack-
TELE~PE neyed phrases should bc avoided, and letters should be eliort and to the
The t ~ l e t ~ y pteleprinter
e is similar to tlie W c ~ t e r nUnion teleprinter point.
except the prorednrc is different. The operator signals tlic local teletype 11ost people compose lcttcrs that arc rclnscd and easily understood
office giving call letters and number of distant party desired. The oper- when they dictate sur.11 letters ~ I :aI scretary, or better, to a dictating
ator then must wait until a connection is made with the distant office macliine. Aftcr an cr~gincerpractice$ the art of dictating, his dictated
hefore a message can be transmitted. Teletype messages can be trans- icttcr sounds ni~uchless stereotyped and more eon\-ersational tban a letter
mitted only to another ~nacliine. These machines opcrate ~lluclithe same he composcs on papcr.
as telepl~onic communications. No relaying or transfer of messages The use of a dictating machine has many ndvantagcs. Tl~ouglltscan
occurs. Keys struck on sender's macliine type tlie message on sender's he recorded as they occur ami the secretary need not be interrupted.
and recipient's machines simultaneously. T y l ~ e dconversation may be The transcription of dictated uiaterial, liowcrer. requires an above average
carried on since transmission is instantane~~ur.
I
! secretary; one who can spcll, punctuate, and paragraph accurately.
Chargcs for messages are on a time basis similar to long distance toll 1
calls. A nominal monthly charge is made for teletype macliincs regardless Secretcrrial H e l p
of service. A cmipetent secretary is a necessity for the smooth operation of a
Teletype form may be varicd to suit the ~ c n d e r . The number of vords project engineer's officc. 4 n intclligcnt pcrsm prcfcrably with some
affects price only as it affects tlie sending time. A message can only be background in science or related fields as ell as a good knowlcdgc of
transmitted after connection is n ~ a d cwith recipient's receiver, thus thc English usage is required.
addrcss or salutation can be simplified. If n firm has several branch The quality of correspondence is largely governed by her ability to
offices the teletype is extremely useful in transmitting identical messages ! transcribe dictated matcrial ~vitlineatness aml accuracy. This must he

-1
to all connected receivers sirnultaneously. done with minimum rlisturhance of other staff mcmbers. h secretary
with initiative will prove inralual~lein catching errors. In addition to
all these qualities tlic sccrctary sl~ouldbc pleasant and neat in appear-
Either teletype or telegram systems offer continuous or instantaneous ! ance since she ri~ustalso serve as receptionist for the project engineer
service by means of leased wires between points. If a leased wire is ob- and his staff.
tained, the machine instantaneously operates connerted machines. The
cost is high, since this amounts to continuously holding a line. The leased
i FILING SYSTEMS
wire may prove economical, lion-ever, when the number of messages per h filing systeni for :my typc of lnwinese operation can hecome extrenicly
day to a given office is very large. 1 cuuil~erso~nc unlcss it is kept in a consistent and logical manner. Thc
I
1
152 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure 153
funilm~entalpurpwc in keeping files is to p~.ovi<leu rwo1.11; thc inlpor-
2.0104 P u m p . PI!-iti~cIliq~luccnicnt.
tancc of records varies, of course, ~ ~ i tthe
l r type uf business.
2.0105 Turbines, etc.

General File Thc only information which should hc filed in the General File is that
Any engineering organization should maintain some type of general which may be useful in establishing general policies. .is an illustration
file x-here policy and other general matters applicable to all operations assume that a certain type of pipe or plate mxtrrial specification is heing
may be reconled. The folloxx-ing is a typical filing system used for a discontinued becnusc of n~anufacturer'spolicy I t should be of imme-
proccss plant project general file. The numerical dcsignutions arc used t o diate interest t o all persons concerned that the partirular specification
has hecome obsolctc. A general letter 77-odd be eirculatcd to thc intcr-
indicate filc categories mi :dl c o n i n ~ ~ ~ n i r a t i oson sthat filc clerks nced
not be rcquiscd to decide on the proper file. ested department heads; a copy of this information [Link] he filed in
2.04. T h e actual filing of data in some ,single l m a t i m sue11 as a general
1.00 Ihginecring, l)cpartmental Policies. file enables anyone intcrestrrl in the l~istoryoi tlrc various policies t o
1.01 Process Ihgineering. find wanted information aithont disturbing a particular depart~nent.
1.02 i\Icchanieal Engineering. Hcnce, thc gcnernl file has some features of a library.
1.03 General.
2.00 Design Data. Project File
2.01 ;\lechanical Equipment. Any firm engaged in contracting services should establish some single
2.02 Electrical. t,ype of filing system xs-hich shoilld be used lox all projects. Such systems
2.03 Instrumentation. have the dccided advantage ol being familiar t o all pcreonnel, and the
2.04 Vessels. training of clerical personnel in filing hecoulcs a minor task. If each indi-
2.05 Piping. vidual establishes his oxvn private system of filing, there x~-illresult as
2.06 Structural Steel. many systems as there are individuals, cnch of which xill be completely
2.07 Foundations. foreign t o all other persons cxccpt those directly involved.
2.08 Architectural. The following project filing system is simple and easily learned.
3.00 Specifications.
3.01 l\Ieclranical Equipment. 1.0 Contract.
3.02 Elcetrical. 1.01 Estimate.
3.03 And utllcrs. 1.02 Contract Extras.
2.0 Design Instructions ( M a y he in loose leaf hinders).
Tliesc files can be extendcil as much as desired. Additional sections 2.01, 2.02, 2.03 (Divide the sanle as for general file).
might be, 4.00 Material Listing; 5.00 Construction Operations; 6.00 l'ro- 3.0 Correspondcncc t o and from Custonier ( E x r c l ~ t1.0 and 6.0).
curement; 7.00 Contract Pdicics. The n(lvnntng? of thc clecin~alsyst,eln 4.0 Correspondence t o and from construction Department.
is apparent. As an illustration, 2.04 could bc subdivided: 5.0 Progress and Cornmitnrent Reports.
5.1 Engineering, 5.2 Procurement, 5.3 Conutruction.
2.04 Tcsscls.
6.0 Accounting Correspondence.
2.0401 Forged Chan~bcrs.
7.0 Procurement.
2.0402 Plate Vesscls.
7.1 Shipping, Traffic, I':xpediting, 7.201 (Divide same as General
2.040'3 T l ~ i nP l a k Tanks.
File 2.00).
2.0404 Bins.
8.0 Conference Xotes.
2.0405 Elevated Storage Tanks, Water; etc.
9.0 Daily File (copies of all outg<~ing correspondence filed according
or, 2.01 l\leclranicnl Equipuient, cxtmded:
t o date).
2.0101 Pumps, l<cri))rocilting.
2.0102 Pu~r~lrs, C(t,!ltrif~~gill. The last file, 9.0 is important since it ])rovides a pmitivc means of locat-
2.0103 P u ~ i q ~Rotary.
s, ing a letter when only the approximate date of vriting is linox~n.
 Office Procedure 155
154 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2. H o ~ d l ,A . C..I l n ~ r l h o o k of English in E , t g b w r i n g I!soyr. 2nd Ed.. Johu
IVi1e.v 6- Suns. S c , w 1-ork. 1940.
HUMAN RELATIONS AND PERSONNEL MORALE
3. brrvkes. F.. and R , IT-infrry, K,poi.l PI-epncolion,Iona S t a t e C a l l ~ pPress.~ 2nd
The office functions that 11avr 11ern di~cuascil:rnd most of the technical Ed., .4rnes, Iowa, 1851.
phases of thc project engineer's duties all inrolvc contact v i t h other 4. Kobc. I<. A , . C h c n ~ i c a lEngineering Reporls, 3rd Ed., Hernplrills Rook Store,
.instin. Tpxai. 1950.
people. High personnel morale, and skillful human relations niake the
5. Mills, G., and d . Walter, Technical Il.,.ifing, Rinellart Broa.. S p w York, 1954.
many personal contacts in an ofice pleasant and profitablc. 6. 5Yci1, B. H., The 2'ech,~ical I<ryol-I, Keinhold, S e w T o k , 1954.
Few individuals can ignore the fact that nearly every function in life
is based on relations with others. An cnginccr may be extraordinarily
capable in lris field and yet be completely unsuccessful or limited in his
usefulness because of his inability to work x i t h others. There are doubt-
less as many approaches to the problem of human relations its there are
personalities, and tlierc is no sirnplc solution for all situations since no
t v o persons nor groups of people react in the same pattcrn. It is certain,
hori-eyer, that few people are callous to a ronsistcntly pleasant personality
or to thouglltiulness on the part of another inriiridual.
Organization moralt? is affected by many iactura. I t may be produced
by salary inequities, poor working conditions, incompetent executire per-
sonnel, or a lack of inccntire for advancement. Salary problcnls arc
always difficult ior thc engincer who sometimes ieels that bargaining is
unethical.
Altllough working conditions are often not as important to the engineer
as to other types of personnel, any environment wliiclr is pleasing to the
individual sliould improve his general attitude and thus his production.
The usual complaint of the young engineer is the feeling of being
"buried" in a large organization. The group leader who consistently
takes over all details or iails to distrihutc responsibility is only creating
a bad mmale problem 1vhic11 oftcn results in higll labor turn-over. Many
times the intcrest o i younger personnel can be held by added responsi-
bility. Bottle-necks in engineering organizations can often be traced
directly t o a single individual, who fails to undcratand the advantage
both to himself and the organization, of maximum work dist,ribution.
The engineer's admirable faculty of becoming absurbed in a particular
prohlcm oftcn results in misunderstandings. Thus engineers sometimes
gain the unfortunate reputation of being oblivious to everything but their
work. They become accustomed to rcducing everything to somc factual
or logical basis. Huulan relations, holvevrr, arc seldom factual or logical.
Cnless the engineer makes an effort t o ~ w r dunderstanding the require-
ments of compatibility hc may find liimsclf isolated by his personality
regardless of his technical ability.

REFERENCES
1. Crouch, W. G.,and R. I,. Zrtter, A Guide Lo l'ech,iicnl li7riling, 2nd Ed., Ronald
Press Co., N e w York, 1954.
 CHAPTER 11 the wrx-icv- of :in ~mginec~ring
Contracts and Contractors

:ln,l c ~ n ~ s t r n r t i ofir111
31.e reqnir~(1. An e x p c r i ~ i i ~c ~~ n~tlr n ~ t i norgnni~:~tiong
157
~ i K I I , ~ ne~x-f:irilities
V : I ~ :iln-:i?- (lo n
better and nlore rspcditious jilh of cnpinerririg nnd ~ . ~ ~ n < t r n r t ithan on
engineering an11 cimst~.~[Link] f < w r c s of t l l v oprvatinc I~olll)~:lny i!llil+ lllllst
usually be ha-tily cxll:~niled for :I nvw lilant [Link].
l y 11y Y O I I I I ~~ I I T I ~ I P is t l I~elirf
E r r o n ~ ~ ~ n sIrclcl ~ tl::~t rontrn<Ting firrn.?
re often i ~ n s ~ ~ r r ~ ~1\I:ij,lr~ ~ l o ~r ~r ~n p. i ~ i ~ ~ c r i n g - c o ~ i sfirnis.
t r ~ ~ ~Iiiwerer,
~tiiln
operate much tllc sinic as any 11t11erlarge hosiness orgnnizntion. Con-
tinucil fnililrcs. nixgligrncr, l n d ci~stonicrrel:~[Link] poor pcrfimlli~nce

CONTRACTS in gcncr;11 \\-oul,l >l~urtlynrin any rontr:~ctnr'sI~[Link]~

is his n i ~ ~ iml~ort:mt
st :~sst.t.
since hi* rrl~utntion

310-t r,riticisnis of cmitr:retors a r r directed t o ~ n r dtlieir c r v i c e rh:~rgr.s.

so(.~ilillic~.ci:~l
AND 0rga11i~:itionr : ~ n O I I C ~ R ~ ~I -v i t l i ~ nprofit.
oi rontr:~ctor's fcrs n-it11 rcqlwt to tli~.productii~nv:~hlr of a n erwti,il
I ~ l a l l trrill iilnnlly sl~on-tlr;~t instvacl of l~cingcsorl,it:mt they :lri, in
t (~'c~~i~icl~,r:~tiu~i

~.~,:iiity Inore likrly to 11c ~ i i o ~ i ~ . s:It . large percentagc~of prorFss 111:lllt.-

CONTRACTORS arc, ,i~,.ignt~ilto pay-out their totnl cost in from three to five years, inrlrl~l-
rig n r ~ r e: : i c e i n t i r i i n t n : ~ n e e . Hon-ever, fen. plants art, curr-
t t ~ n c t ~nliic11
d (lo ]rot c~~iitinlrc to olwrntr with niinor ~nodification- i o ~ .
tv11 to t ~ w n t yyears. It xronl~lw ~ n 111oi.c i cquitnblc to consider tlrc con-
I n simple terms a contract is a n agrccnicnt bctrreen t ~ or o more tractor's fee over tlic life of the lllant rather thnn ns a lump sum e:ll~n~d
pnrties hy ~ ~ d i i cthey
l i legally tlind tl~eniselvest o do certain things. The i r i 18 or 24 months. JVliru S ~ , Y I W I ov1.r t h r n ~ a n yy ~ : i r sof nornial o111,r:i-
forin of contrnct used varies v i t h different firms and with the type or rion the f i seenis ~ s ~ n ~inilcrd.
ll
r ~ v q ~ofe scrvi(.c rcipired Cnntr:~cts can be made for engineering services
only or for cunq~lctccngineering and construction including the 1111rchasc SELECTING THE CONTRACTOR
and creetim of materials. A contract may he a sirnple instrument i r ~ e l ~ .i nunihcr of statutt,s :ire in effect in rach state gnverning the method.;
:IS a purcliasc order or it may he a lengthy and extensive doculnent. I n of letting contracts when pul>lic or govcrnmrntal funds arc involved.
all cases tlic documents become effective when fornially signed by officers These methods arc not nsually f ~ ~ l l o w eind lrrivate industry, but tlie prac-
of each firin. tice of receiving hiils 11s prul~osnlrin the f o r ~ nof estinmtes for work or
T h e purpose of a contract is t o protect both parties and to assure tlint services is follu~vedby l~racticnllyall firms. l ' l i t ~ sclcction of a contractor
crrtain duties x i l l be performed in a prescribed n a y . It is a corntnon ~111)uld be based on an analysis of propnsed prices ol~taincdI I issuing ~
crror on the part of the l a y n ~ a nt o assume t h a t construction contracts inqnirics and on tlic contr:irtor's 1 . ~ ~ 1 ~ u t n tor i~m
o r - I in certain
re prilnarily for tlie orner's protectim a p i n s t tlic cuntractor. Contracts types i ~ f~ r o r k .
niny be w i t t e n to favor either party. An agrecrnent of any kind, 1 1 0 ~ - Tlrc preparation of rlntn to he w e d in ol~t:~iningp r , ~ l r o ~ a from
ls con-
ever, is binding on all parties to the ttgreemcnt. tractors is usu:~llyn rostly i~ndcrtakingfor the owncr since the i n f ~ ~ r n l a t i o n
n-ill beco~uethe h r i s f ( ~thc r ~.ontmctor'sproposnl, an11 tlicreforc must he
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION FIRMS (CONTRACTORS1 :I.? complete as possillle t o avoid misunderstandings. T h e best ~ a t oy
:rssure colnpletcness is for expcriencril design engineers to prepare thc
The construction indoitry i? :r niost irnport:mt :ind nrcesmry part of
ilata. Enough i n f ~ ~ r n i a t i oniust
n he g i r m the contractor ti1 design the
tlir natiunal uconuniy, :ind renders a uniq~reservice to induslry 2s a
type of plant desired in tile nlanner preferred hy the osvner.
\\-hole by maintaining staffs uf higlily developed specialists in every
l l n n y process f i r ~ n sh a r e extensive nieclianical and process specifica-
field of engineering.
tiinis ~\-liicI~ liavr heen compiled to provide a, ccrtain uniformity in pur-
' ~ majority
1 ~ of process firms have found it advant:igeous t o cngngc cliwing :ind cngineering dcsign of eolnnionly used equipruent. In i u c l ~
IS6
158 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Contracts and Contractors 159
cases copies of tlicsc s110uld be given t o the contractor prcparing a proposal investigate by visual inspection similar installations built hy the con-
so that they may be incorporated into his preliminary design and estimate. tractor. I)iseussi(~nsn-ith otlipr owners are also advantageous. For the
I n addition romplete descriptions of tlie o~vner'sand cimtractor's dutir.~. major projrtt the owner should make every effort to deternine tlie con-
the proposed plant site, transportation facilities. utilities, al-ailahle ratv trartor':: lin~[Link] financial hackground, the condition of his equip-
~natcri:rli, and processes t o he used should bc provided ment, and his general busincss and labor relations. Financial status
The extent of process information required will m r y ~ i t the h project. sliould also be ci~nsideredin the selection of c o n t r a h r s for major projects
In some cases the contractor will act as a licensor and provide n cornl~lete since the contractor m w t usually make fixtensive expenditures before
process design. Often. lio~verer,the process firm has developed its own reimbursement is forthcoming.
process. I n that, casc the process firm ~ i i u s teither supply tlie runtractor Althongli contracts niay be relatively simple or extrc~nelylengthy,
nit11 a coniplete process dcsign or furnish enough process data so t h r it is doul~tfulif the length or rcstrictivc terms of a contract h a r c much
rantractor can make a preliminary design. cffect on the general type of work a contractor p e r f o r m The hest insur-
Contractors must prepare a preliminary design in ordcr to make an ance for the oxner is tlie intcnt and integrity of the contractor, a s proven
estinlatc of the r o d for use in their proposals. Tliis proposal should hy past performance. It can probably be shonn that most of the prob-
contain the following information: lems bct~veenoTvners and contractors are the result of ineptitude on the
part 11f either tlic owner's personnel or tlie contractor's pcrsonnel which
a. General description of tlic project.
lead to unresolved misunderstandings and finally become iilajor issues.
b. Scope of the contractor's ~ i ~ r k .
Thc contracting organization, just as any other group, is sullject to the
c. T)cscription of each portion uf the plant with nccompunying f l o r
couuiiun frailties and human errors. Reliable firnis, liowever, will alri-ays
iliagranls and plot plans.
make every effort ~vithinrcasun t o satisfy their cnstmicrs since their
d . Estimated utilities.
rej~utationis a t stake. Furthermore, unless tlic contractor is completely
e . Auxiliary equipment t o be constructed (warehouses, shops, etc.).
incapable, basic design and construction will always be within the limits
f. List and brief description of major equipment (punips, vessels, heat
of tlie various national codcs of practice.
exchangers).
g. Ilechanical specifications to bc follo~ved.
h. Statement of product quality and production rate.
i. Propseii cost and fees. 1 THE A S O F A CONTRACT
Contracts may be entercd into for the development, cnginccring. pro-

Tlicse are some of thc major items. All information necessary to

i curcmcnt. and construction of a process plant or for only one of these
pllases. Contracts n~;lyhe h e h e e n an owner and a contractor or bctrvecn
a primc contractor acting as an agcnt for an ulvner and many subcon-
describe tlic proposed design and thc contractor's intcnt sliould he in-
cluded. Clear, uncomplicated illustrations, charts, and schrmatic flow tractors. The bases for contractual agreements are practically uliliniitcd.
diagrams arc invaluable. Executives who must examine proposals are The following dcscriptiuns of various services arc those gencrally used
busy and greatly appreciate such aids t o rapid comprehension. for process plant design and erection. All are assunied t o be betu-ccn
Contrerts shuuld never be awarded on the basis of prire alone. Price an operator or owner and contracting firm or contractor.
proi~osalsfrnrn the larger process plant constructors are usually ~vitliin 1. Contractor as a consultant; contractor performs consulting or super-
n few pcrcmtagc points of each other for a given installation. The owner visory services only with cnginccring prncurement and construction 11y
sliould use extreme care in accepting a luw proposal from a n unknown others.
firm. Although the contractor may be sincerc in his offer, inexperience 2. Owner t o perform all engineering and procurcment, rontractor to
can cause errors which later may result in an untenable situation. p e r f o m erection serviccs only; this may bc varicil to 11xvc erection per-
In~rpericncedowners so~netinicsmake the error of assuming that any foruled 11y several contractors.
contractor is qualified t o construct any plant, if he has had construction 3. Owner to pcrform it11 pri~ressdesign furnishing data t o contractor;
erpricnce. Contractors are also sometimes guilty of the same t,liinking. contrnctur t o perform all detailed engineering, procurement, and ereotion.
Before selecting an unkno~vn contractor, tlic owner should he certain 4. Contractor to perform primary researrh and devclopmcnt, engincer-
of the contractor's ability. Hc should obtain from the contractor names ing, ~~rocuremcnt, erevtion, and initial operation: this is s(~nietiniescalled
and qunlificati(~nsof personnel who will be assigned t o the contract, and it "tom-key" contract.
160 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 161
tllc owner is cxprrit~ncertin cngincering and constrnrtion operations, there
TYPES OF REIMBURSEMENT (Contract Classification)
is littlc possibility f i ~ rcxccssire costs because of the cost-plus feature.
Tlrc rlassification of contract2 in accordance ~vitllthe mode of reim- 11tiny of thc: larger proccss firms prefer the cost-plus contract t o other
I~ursementis tlrc most familiar method and tlic most important from a t,ypes since it gives them m u r l ~more freedom and control over the con-
legal and business point of rien.. Cmtracts are. in fact, uiunlly named tractor. T l m c is c o n d e r a b l e advantage t o thc owner in tlic cost-plus
according to the reimburmnent policy. A hrief description of tlie rriilre rontract d l r n proccss drzign is incolnplctc or many rhanpes art. to hr
important of these contract forms is given below Reference to Fonle nr:irlc, in the origina! design. I n reality, tlle cost-plus contract, if prup-
detailcd works in this field2,3,"" will prove valuablc to those reqni~ing crly cxecutcd and if placed with a reliable contractor, can he as effective
more informatiun, but thc nced for legal advice on all such n~atter::s l i ~ ~ n l ~ l :ind 3s econon~icalas the lump-sum, or guamntecd maximum (ir other
bc obvious. ty11c- of fiscd price contracts.
Experienced c ~ ~ n t r a r t o rho~vcvcr,
z, generally prefer a fixed-pricc :ur:ln:e-
Cost-Plus Conlract mcnt, sincc this form of contract, after rpccifications arc accepted. permits
Tlie term cost-plus simply m e m s that tile contractor is to he reimbursed tlic contractor more irccdom. I n the case of a cost-plus operation a nrrlcll
for all costs al~l~licable t o the contract plus a perccntagc of thcsc costs stricter accounting of costs is necessary and thc contractor's pcrsonnt.1
for his overhead and profit. Usually the pcrcentagc varies m-ith each arc in some respects only in the employ of thc owner. Thc cost-plus
type of contract and service. Tlrc reimbursed costs for cnginccring contr:ict, ho~icvcr,is gcncrally the only satisfactory mcthod of operation
services may bc 21s nnlch as 215-2207~,or more, of the cost of engincering [Link] the work cannot be specifically anticipated or l i ~ a n yconstructim
lahor. Other costs suclr as travel, communications, reproductions, clerical px111len1s exist which are difficult or inipoesihle to estimate at, the start
labor, arc gcncrally in the order of 105 t o 1151: of thc actual cost. The of thc job.
higher percentage on engineering labor is based on the sale of contractor's
knom-11or~-and thc cost of thc contractor's kcy pcrsonncl. Cost-plus with Fixed-Fee Contracts
Construction cmts include skilled and common labor m g e s at 110 to
Thc cost-plus contract with a fixed fee is similar t o the regular cost-
125C/o, construction supervision charges on a siinilar basis as for cngineer-
plus form except that the contractor can only earn a spccificd fee. All
ing, and heavy construction tool charges hazed on fixed rental rntcs for
othcr payments arc reimbursement for direct costs only. There arc many
m:%ohinc.~. Actual cost plus a small llercentage is usually charged for
possible variations of the two cost-plus type contracts.
s n ~ a l ltools and otlrer expendnhle equipment.
If the contractor prucrrw all plant inatcrials and cquip~nent Ire
charges a t a pcrcentagc bctwcen I05 and 115% of tllc actual purc1l:i~c Lump-Sum or Fixed-Price Contracts
pi-ice to cowr purchasing costs. If the onmcr pays for a11 l~crsonnclcosts The lump-sum contract allows nothing over or under a fixed singlc sum.
in procarcmcnt, the percentage based on tllc cost of materials or cquil~. Thc contractor agrces t o perform certain services which are sperifitxl in
nlent may he much lower. detail by the owner in an inquiry or by blre contractor in a proposal. I f
The usual criticism of the cost-plus contract is that sincc the con- any changes arc made by tlie owner after the contract is in effect, an
trectur's l~rofitsincrpase directly ~ i t l rhis costs, tllc 071-ncr I I W no r m t ~ o l adjustnient may or may not be made, depending upon contract tcrms.
over the costs and thc contractor accordingly incrcascs his rusts ns 11111rir If costs are increasd, however, the contractor usually can demand an
as possible. This idea is erroneous. Under tllc cost-plus contract tlrc extra payment. Such contracts often cause bad relations between tlic
owner's auditors and engineers have continuous access to all the ron- partics because of conflicting interpretations of original specifications
tractor's rccords. I n addition t l ~ cm n c r cstwisri :~nthorityover all tlw or drawings.
curlll.:lr~t~w's pcr~onnrl:~nd111r i~ctivitivbr ~ l a t dto Lht. runtr:%ct. 111 i:~(,t Tlie fixed-price contract for the process plant requires the preparation
the cuntractor acts alrriost as a division of tire customer's cu~npany. uf a detailed estimate. Prelinrinary data uiay be furnished hy the owner
For these reasons nnlcss the oxner's personnel arc cumpletcly incxl~cri- or contractor. Owners sonletimcs rcqnest contractors t o accu~~iulate
enced thcrc is littlc possibility f t ~ rextmordinary curt euccires. The on-rrcr their own data for the proposal, or t o employ other firms t o prepare data
usually also retains full control of nll coniuiitn~mtsor dishursemmts, t l ~ u s for inquiry purposes.
the owner nctually is nlure responsible for coats llian tlrc contr:rctor. If Thc contractor's proposal or the owner's inquiry for the lump-sum or
162 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 163
fixed-price job must be in much greater det:d than for other typcs of produced ccrtain standard pllrases ~ h i c h]la\-e [Link] immune to inisin-
contracts ~vllichhave ~ ~ r u v i s i o nfor
s contingencies. terprctation and, Iicncc, are strong protection to both parties.
[Link] other f o r ~ n i the
, lump-sum contract is suhjert to criticimr. S i n w
the contractor is limited to a fixed price, all p s c i h l e savings increase Typical Cost-Plus Contract for Engineering Services Only
his profit. Thus the contractor m a y be acc~isrdof cfferting savings a t
the expense of quality. Generally, lio\i-ever, sperifications for the various
parts of the process plant are very complete, and there is little possibility This Bgreement entered into this day of
for extensive change from t h e original proposal. by and bctrvcen XYZ Company, licensed to operate in , her+
inafter designated [Link] and PIX) Chemical Corporation, a Drl:~~r-are
Corporation, with its principal ofices in Chicago, Illinois, herrinafter designated
Guaranteed Maximum Contracts CUSTOMER.
T h e guaranteed maximurn cost cr~ntractis similar t o the lump-sum WITXESSETH: That it is agreed by and between the parties hereto as
contract exccpt t h a t the guaranteed price m a y apply to inaterial (and follows:
cquiprnent) only, or iahor only. Escalation on either material o r labor
Article 1 . Scope of Work
m a y he permitted or the contract m a y he ~ v r i t t e nt o exclude all escalation." The CONTRACTOR shall perfor111 all the nccessary engineeri~igand drsign
Guaranteed maximum contracts are oftcn x r i t t e n to alloff t h e con- as requirrd in the preparation of dl clrawinza: the listing of all niateri;ila:, the
~ ~

tractor a bonus d e p ~ n d i n gon the amount of cl~nryerunder thc niaxi~nnm.

~~

preparation of all specifications; i i ~accordance with the [Link]'G

T h e owner participates t o a considerable extent mith t h e guaranteed- proposal, nttachcd hrreto as Exhibit I.
maxinium c m t r a c t since hc must hc continuously alvare I I all ~ costs. Article !. Timp of ( ' o ~ ~ ~ p l e t i u n
T h e contract types t h a t h a v c been discussed represrnt t h e most c m m o n The COSTR.4CTOR agrees t,o proreed ~r-it11thc ~ o r kimmediately and T O
types used for process plant projects. M a n y others which incorporate diligently esecute and pr,rform the vork witli the utmost disp;rtcli. Unless prr-
features from several of the common types a r e used. vimted b!- circrirnstancrs hcyond his control as described hrlow, .Article 13b of
1':irt 11, Gcneml Conditions, tlic CONTR.4CTOR proposes to complete tlic ~vork
wthin t~vclve(12) months after start.
THE CONTRACT FORM
Article 9. CONTRACTOR'S Compensation
T h c most conventional type of contract consists of two parts. T h c The CUSTOMER will reimburse the CONTRACTOR for all dirrct costs as
first part is called the agreement. I t includes a n outline of the general shown below under Direct Costs, Articles 1, 2, 3, and 4, of Part 11, General
scopc of work. usually by references to a proposal or specifications and Conditions.
dranings, the contract price or terms of paymcnt, and the rieccssary
formal signatures \vitncs& and notarized. T h e signatures m a y some- 11. GENERAL CONDITIONS
times be on the last page of t h e document,. T h e second part consists of Article 1. Direct Costs, Labor, and Laboratory Services
general conditions. Such items as completion date, cancellatinn, sub- a. Salaries and xvagcs of ail personnel engaged in the ~vork,inclnding, b11t not
contracts, insurance, and m a n y other terms are discussed. A third part limited to, engineers, designers, checkers, draftsmen, tracers, m:~teriol listers.
vari-type operators, requisition typists, reproduction machine operators, strnog-
m a y also he added t o include exhibits, certifications, and special deacrip- raphers and otlms of thc COXTRACTOR'S personnel ~vhoengage in xork on
tions of rfrtain items included in t h e second part. this specific contract.
Rather than attempt a detailcd discussion of contract fcatures, more 6. Sdnrics and wages of CONTRACTOR'S Laboratory Trclrnicians and direct
can be learned b y actually studying typical contracts. T w o contracts costs, as spproved by CUSTOAMEIl for use of CONTRACTOR'S laboratory
typical of thosc used for cost-plus process plant projects are given belom. equipment and/or laboratory services.
Contrary to popular belief, engineering contracts'are not difficult t o Article 2 . Direct Costs. .Ifaterials
understand. They must necessarily be wordy so t h a t no misunderstand- a. Materials used in reproduction operations.
ing is possible. M a n y years of legal experience and court decisions have b. Rental costs for spr,cial equipment.
*Escalation is a clause in a contract that pernlits s change in unit price for Article 9. Direct Costs, Miscdlnneous
material, equipmmt, ot. labor after a specified fixed period of time. .I cuntrart signed a. Comrnuniration costs including trlelrhrnir, teletplx, teh-grnph, rnhle, postage.
in January, for instame, may allow incrcnses in costs niter that datc up to a c e h i n b. Traveling and living espemr.5 of COXTRACTOR'S pmsoimrl diem travel
percentage of the original quoted price. is requested and authorized by CUSTOMER.
164 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors I65
c. Ilixella~ieous insur:mce cust. incurred by COSTRACTOR d e l y nr :fi for snhstantiation of costs. All such recorrls shnll be kept in acronlanrc ~vitli
rrsrdt CIS this contract. ~ n r t l ~ o :~ccq>t:~ble
il~ to CUSTOMER'S auditors, and he nmrle avniln1,lr to tllr
d. Conrultin: service costs, \\-hen authorized b>- CCSTOhlER.; as costs for CI,.STO1\IEK for noditin: us required. COSTRACTOR sh:~llnot hr rcimbursrd
labor, nlnterinl or equipnlnit rental. for eusts i n c u r r ~ din the 1ircp:~rationor ~uaintcnanceof such revorili.
Articlr, 4. Direct Costs. Pius Percentage Artirle 3. CO,\-TRACTOR'S Estimatps
The [Link] hilled thc CUSTOMER bv COXTRACTOR for salnrics and n:iac- Estimntvs prclxlred by C O S T K C T O R for CUSTOMER nrr r~ndrrqoodto
shall be inere:~sedlry fixed percentagrs aceonling to the schedule of ri~ct-I I I I , ~ ~ , ~ hr COSTlt.iCTO1t'S beat analysis of iwrk ro bc clone or completc~iduring t h ~ i
Ikhibit IT, rscept for overtime hours as discussed under .irticlc 10e. h r t 11. nest trr-o 12) cunrtwtire monrhs as based on his nornul xhedul,. of the work.
.ill other cost- slin11 br increasrd by a pcrccntage according to the Schedule US The [Link] does not rcprcscnt that such e;timatcs are to be con.:iderrd
Coats nnder Eshibit 111. exact n-ith respect to amounts billrd to the CUSTOMER.
Article 7 . CO.\-TRACTOR'S Billing Proccrlrue Article 0. C'O.\'TRACl'OI1'S Persoimel
a. .ill invo~eessubniitted to the CUSTOMER by the COSTR.kCTOI1 shall a. The [Link] -1inll nislgn a project engineer or project n~gincer-
be d a t : ~ n t i : ~ t e dby reference to rprrific pa>-rolls for labor costs; and by refer- to the nark :~ceepti~ble to and as :igrt:eri upon n-ith thr C'CSTOAIKR. Pcr-ounrl
ence to rrnilor in\-oiees for m:rteri:ils. so :wi:ned sl1:1Il not be rmmwed from the work nor ;rs;i:nrd utlicr ihitie- by till
b. D~lplic:~tcs of insurance certificates shall be submitted for C O S T R A W O R ' S COXTRACTOR ir-ithmit :ipprovnl from the CUSTOMER.
r c i ~ ~ ~ b u r s c mofr n tinrliranee premiums. b. The COSTR.4CTOR chall provide the CUSTOlIEK rvith :Llist of a11 key
c. Expense nccounts for ernployecs shall be suhctnntiatrd by hotel statementi, ]lrr-<mnrl to h,iiseil on CUSTOMER'S ~vurk, The list sl~allincluila the qruli-
nwiprs, travel ticket stobs, or other tmnsport:~tion recripti as proof of csprnir. iic:~tionsrif c:lch pwmn nan~ed.
d . On or before the 5th day of each month, COSTR-iCTOR nil1 fl~[Link] c. The CIS'SO1lEIL nlay a t any titnc llpnn writtrn rrqwst to thr COX-
CL7SSOhlF.R nn estimate (in q ~ ~ a d r n p l i r a t rof) totnl c r p e n m on hlmr nnrl TH\(:TOR nwlmi. an!. : : I COSTILiCTOR'S r r e from CITY-
nl:itrri:il (liitrd scpnrtltely) for the nrxt t ~ follnrring o months. One of thesc TOhIER'S ivorh.
n~rinthsshall be for the month in which the estimate is tendered. The estim:itr d. The CI'STOMER re-rrrcs the right to control COSTKA(IT0R'S :wign-
shall inclr~demanhours in the categorips, engineering, drafting, and clcricd ~ i t h ment of personnri, below thc lcvrl of key ilwign personnel nit11 r e q r e t to the
estimated totnl dollar cost itemized with manhours. of permns used in CUSTOMER'S w r k a t any time. The [Link]-
111111ibrr
e. On or before the 5th day of each month, CONTRACTOR ihnll in\-oiw TOR chdl redrice his per~omielas requcstcd within one 11-orking <la)-nltrr rcccipt
CUSTOLIER for costs incurred in the previous month. Inroiecs sh:~ll Lir ,3111)- of notice f n m CTSTOMElt for pcrsonnel employed in CON'I'[Link]'S hrmc
mittetl in qundruplicate :lnd separately for each category of cost: lal~or,n~:~tcri:~l, I . Salnrirs or wages rrf CONTR.4CTOlt'S prrsonncl on asi:n~nent for
co~iununirations,t r a w l mpmsc, and insurance. .ill such costs s l d l bc computed CL-SWMEIt awry from COSTR.~CTOIt'S lio~nr oflice .ilinll be to CUS-
:icwrdiug to the Schrdule of Costs undcr Exhibits I1 and 111. l'O\lt:R'S :~rccnlntu p to time of return to [Link]'S ho~nculliec
A~ficle6. CUSTOMER Paywzents Article 10. 7'[Link].d Explmses, Ilolida~s, Vucation I'eriods, COS1'12ACT011'S
a. When found t o br: in accordance with the terms of this agreement CES- 1'ei swt,iel
Thc CCBTOM3f. n-ill reinibi~rrcthe [Link] for out-of-puckrt es-

by the COSTRBCTOR.
~ ~

-~
TOMER shnll reimburse the CONTRBCTOR for a11 billed costs, un or beforu
the 5th dav uf the month follomine the month in r7-hich invoices lire submittiid
~
pcnx: of prrsonnel living away fnun homr, trn~eling,or nthe~n-ise~ni~lrrgnin:
espewe st the requwt of the CIISTOMEK, u p to thr :lnlorint; ileccriliid in
~~. .
b. The CUSTOMER. if he elects to do so. mav withhold from . nxvnients
"
COSTR.~CTOR 5% oi billed lnbor costa u p t o completion of contr:ictetl iiorl;
to Scht,dule of (losk, Eshibit 111. The travel timr for suclr COXTRACTOR'S
percunncl shall be fro111 tinic of departure from COXTRACTOR'S home <dice
:in11full neccptnncc by CUSTOMER of [Link]'S ~ o r k . If the CCTS- cil)- l o linw of r r l u r ~ lto point of ilcpnrliire.
TOMER elccts to pay CONTR-4CTOR in full 3;. inroicrtl, within the i n t c r ~ n l
for payment specified above, CUSTOMER shall he allowed a reduction iu hillell Articlr 11. Iloiirlays. T'acutio,~ I'eriuds-C'O.\~TRAC1'011'S 1'[Link]
lnbor costs of onr-half (%) of one per cent (1%) on labor charges. All monirs a. The COSTHICTOH n-ill :il~iUhall enst; ill c o n n ~ d o nxith paid holid:~>-s,
rritlrheld h r the CCSTOMER shall be due and ~ a v a b l ethirtv 1301 d a r s aftcr rlr \:w:ition p e r i d s nonn:~llyn l l a i d CO?;TK.\CTOR'S per-onncl rmployeil r n
recell~t of -final regular bllhng from C O N T R ~ ~ C T Oand
by CUSTOMER.
R ac"ceptnnce narkof CISSO\IKIt'S work nhrn such periods frill rrithin the dnratirin of tbis contract.
b. The CUSTOME:R may reqwat of the [Link] that ccrtain per.
so111d be wurked o w r neek-ends or on hulida:-s. When n ~ n t ~ ~ sngreed lly with
Article '7 L'O'V7'RACI'OR'S Labor and Cust Accoanli~igI'roced~ire tlic COYTK.iCTO11 the CUSTOMER shall rcimbursr the COXTRACTOR for
CONTRACTOH h l l i ~ ~ a ~ ~ ldiiily t : i i ~records
~ of time rxpendrd by COX- such costs according to the personnel polieirs of the COYTRACTOR, and such
'I'KACTOK'S huwly rated pcrsonnel and weekly records of time expended by pxynlrnts shall be handled according to overtime or premiuni paymentc.
monthly salaried personnel. CONTRACTOR shall maintain sepnratrly records uf c . The CUSTOMER may request the [Link] to postpone vacation
:dl rwts ap111iwblr to t l i ~cvntr:~ct including ~xryrolla,n1ntrri;il invoicri, eslrw-~. pr4o<lsfor rrrtain 1,ersontirl: lio\revrr, the CUSTOMER will not br rc?pon?ible
nccuiinte, cunmli~nicatiunrecords, :lud any other records [Link] iir:ry bc ruqiiirtrl for vnc:~tion [Link] 11:1y111lnuto COX'I'lLACTUll'S personnel in the evelit all
166 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Contracts and Contractors 167
rmplo!-rc's vacation is postponed, unless and escept mutual agrrrmmt is reached
for s ~ m i f i cimplo?-rrs between COXTRACTOR and CUSTOXIER. involved for transfer to CGSTOXIER. T l ~ cperiod of time requirrd for turning
l X P T m r l ~r c ~ o r & I I ~data shall in no c:w escrrd thirt!. i30l h\-iirnln dnte
Article 12. Empimyrnent of A'l'pir Personnel. Severance, and Twmination Pay-
ments, COKTRACTOR'S Personnel
a. -411 [Link]'S prrsonnel shall be consirlrrrd to be in the employ
of the COSTRSCTOR and the CUSTOMER accepts no wspunsibility for pay-
~ n e n t ito iuch prrsmind :~ccorrlingto COSTRSCTOK'S policies if terminated
by the COSTR-iCTOR.
b. Khere COSTRACTOR rmplo5-i personnel according to COSTRACTOR'S such as may be espccted for n~atcrialsor labor in connrcrion iiith the tninsier
estimate of rrqnirrd u~ork,CUSTOUKR a?sumes no rcapr~nsibilityfor duration of data to CUSTOMER.
of such work nor in any TT-ayacrepts an). obligation to [Link] or prr- e. Plus-percentages shorrn in Schedulr of Costs, Eshibit 11, for s11:iries and
sonnel 3s 10 length of [Link] or m~ploymrnt. wages shall not be applied to labor costs for manhours espmdeil :xftcr COX-
c. [Link] hall have complete freedom as to employment of persr~nnel TRACTOR givrs or receives notice of cancellation.
according to his past policirs, excrpt CUSTOMER d l not aceept incwnses in f . COXTRBCTOR may cancel contra(.t by ( 1 ) giving CUSTORIER initten
~ w s o n n d131m1. r:itrs orer average rates shown for various cat~eoriw
" of ner- notirr of such action thirty (30) days in advance and ( 2 ) iu the t:\,.n1 only of
&m.l in schrdulr of costs, Exhihi 11. failurr on the Elart of CUSTOMER to f~dfillhis part of this agreement. Such
d. Chanpes in ratrs of COSTKACTOR'S kev nrrsonnel. if mut~rallvanreed failme may be considered to be in effect if the CUSTOMER refum to r e i m h ~ r i e
rlpon bet& CIETOMER and COKTRACTOR, may be acrepted by CCS- thr CONTRACTOR promptly, or fails to n h h m r s e the [Link] aitcr
TOlIER; l ~ o i r v r ~ tlii
~ , CUSTOMER r i w r w s the right to rcjcct any and ;a11 receipt uf COXTRACTOR'S invuices wilhiu tlii ugrci.,l perincl of tinli,.
re-classification.., rate ch:mges, or any changes in rate structure, which would g. Tn the event of rancellation by t h i COSTRACTOR, d l fonni s h l l apply
tend to increase custs. as written imd(,r this Brticle I1 as applicable for cancrllntinn b y thi! CVSTOlIER,
Article 13. Completion of 1rol.k. O r c h m e escept that t 1 1 ~im~cellationnotice shall he given to thr, CCSTOlIER by the
a. COKTRACTOR shall make every effort to complete work as early as pos- COY-TR-\CTOK thirty (30) <la?-sin advance of such nitinn
sihlc. CTXTOMER shall not hold COXTRACTOR responsihlr for work hold-up
Article 16. COIfTRACTOR'S Drawings. Calc~rlatio~~ Shrcts, Dnta
clue to lack of data to be supplied by or through efforts of CUSTOMER. CON-
TR-iCTOR accepts all responsibility for nccnmulation of data or the rspeditiug a. All drawings, sketches, tracings, rrpmductions of any Orawing or tracing
of data from manufncturers for eqnipn~mtlisted in proposal under Exhibit I, used in the work urr the propert.y of the CUSTOhlER nu11 i11:ill be turned orer
as ile~-elope~l and/or designed b?- COYTRACTOR. to the CUSTOMKR a t any time upon receipt of mitten demand by the CUS-
b. In the event actions beyolid the COSTlLICTOR'S control, strikes, firm, or TOMER.
an?- other occilrrmcea not thr result of COXTRACTOR'S actions 81ffert CON- b . .411 calculatione, copies of calculations, rough drafts, or other data ~ w r din
TRhCTOR'S work to surioudy delay completion of the work, thit. ;xgrrcment the iwrk prepared by the CUSTOMER for use of the COSTR-\CTOK or pre-
may be r:mrrlled I1y mut1~11 cmsent of both parties. pared by the CONTRACTOR are the prolirrty of the CUSTOXIElt : ~ n dsliall
c . [Link] may ~ w r kcertain personnel overtime hours if it is mutn-
be turned o w r to the CUSTOMER a t any time upon receipt of n r i t t m demand
ally agrerd iipon by both parties that such rvork is necessJry. COXTRACTOR by the CUSTOMER.
c. All material list?, hills of material, or othrr rr4:itive data are the proprrty
r i l l nnt lw rt%nhurird for excess manhours nor overtime pay to personnel whew
prior conseht is not obtained from CUSTOMER; ho\vrvrr, COSTRACTOR of the CUSTOMER and bh;ill br tunled over to the CCSTOLIER upon rwi,i~>t
may, if he so desiri.d, n-ork personnel overtime hours up to n rnnximmn of 10% of written dcmanrl by the CUSTOMER.
of normal vorking hours, with such excess hours and preluinm costs charged d. Crmcellation of the contract by the CUSTOMER or thr COSTILICTOR
to his own account. shall constitute a request for the return of all data covrwd in the :ibove parn-
d. COYTRACTOR agrees to work prrsonnrl ovrrtirne hours as requested by grapla a, b, and c of this Article 15, of Part 11, of this agrerment and the CON-
CUSTOMER ,lp to :r ~nasimumof 20% in exmrs of normal hours per week prr TRACTOR shall proceed irnn~eiliatdyactwrdingly [Link] as follo\vs under e.
employee. Thc COKTRACTOR shall be rcimburied by CUSTOMER for all e. In the event the CUSTOMER fails to reimburse the COSTR:\(:TOR
rrs~iltingrosts far overtime work. \~-ithinsixty (GO) da>-s zfter prrsmtation and receipt of CONTKCTOK'S in-
e . Plus-pe;rcentages s h o ~ min Schedule of Costs, Exhibit 11, for salaries and voices COSTRACTOR may withhold all data, drawings, and othw pertinent
rrages ~11nllnot be npplic,l to premium payments to CONTRACTOR'S personnel parts of the work drscribed in this Article 15 up to such timi, as CCSTOlIER
for overtime hours. meets his obligations or some mutnal agreement is reached by br~thparties.
Arlirle 14. Cancellation of Contract Article 16. Insurance
a. ('USTOMER may canr1.1 this agreement a t any time upon giving the CON- The CONTRACTOR shall provide insurance coverage in acconlmce with
TRACTOR written norir~!t m (10) working h y s in ndvimce of such :iction. instructions from the CUSTOMER: (a) for all records or data, or an?- of the
b. In the evrnt of cancellation, the CUSTO.\IER will allow thr CON- CUSTOMER'S property located on the CONTR.4CTOR'S premises or in his
TRACTOR a reasunable period of time to prepare records or any of the data possession; ( b ) for any automobile used in CLTSTO\IEIt'S n-ork; i c ) f i r any
employee of the CONTRACTOR traveling a t the request of the CUSTOhIER.
168 Project Engineering of Process t'lontr Contracts ond Contractors 169
The CYSTOAIER sgrccs tu reimburse the COSTHACTOK for all such insurance h t i c l c 20, Assig~inie~it
of Co~itract
premiums. Irirlwr p;lrry rhnll aizign this Agreement in rrhole or in part \I-ithont the con-
sent of the other.
Article 1 7 . Patents. Royalties
a. The COSTRACTOR agrr- to save the CUSTOMER harmless from all or
nn!- costs ariein~from patrnt infringements in any desipn ntilized by tllc COY- T h e above paragraphs include most of the terms ordinarily ft!und in
TRICTOR except for proerss design initiated b?- the CUSTOMER or (leii~n contracts for engineering services. Tlic policies of the organizations
in aceordance vith CVSTOhtER'S explicit, instrnctions. in\.ulved a n d scope of the contract affect the t e r m and conditions.
b . The. COSTRACTOR will irnmcdiately bring to the CUSTOMER'S a t t i w One of the i ~ a s e sfor a n y agreement must be some statement of intent
tion drsigns req~~ested by CrSTOMER xhirh in COKTR-4CTOR'S opinirm
on tlie part of both parities. If either p a r t y can show t h a t the intent of the
wor~ld constitute infringement.
c. The CUSTOMER ~villnegotiate for and be responsible for the payment of otlicr was fraudulent a n agreement can usually hc dissolved. .Inother
all royalties, fec?, nssewments, or other costs arising out of use of licensed proc- rcquirenicnt of a n y contract or agreenient nlurt b e a n understanding
esses or ~nrthodsor materials the use of which require lirensing. or "meeting of the ininds," a s i t is sonietinles called, ~vliichis essentially
Article 18. CONTRACTOR'S Qualification, Engineering Design undcretmding bet~vccnt h e parties of t l ~ c i robligations.
a. Thr COYTRACTOR represents that he is a qualified designer of the equip- Generally most contracts include statements, sucli a s tbc [Link],
melrt and processes for which he accepts responsibility in Exhibit I, Proposal. to indicate the general understanding and intent.
h. Thr CONTR4CTOR accepts full responeibility for all basic mcclianic:il,
strnrtuml, end elrctrical design rnrthods used in engineering vork performed Article 31. Intent
bv him. The COKTR.4CTOR and the CUSTOMER mutrlall:- agree that these docu-
c. The COXTRACTOR accepts full reqmnsibility for process designs inclndcd m r n t s form tlie b:~.+ of a wurking agrrmrnt vhereb)- the [Link] is
in Exhibit I. t o perform ecrtain aerricrs diligently and as ccnnoniicnlly SI: possible and the
CUSTOMER is to reimburse the CONTRACTOR for a11 normal and rmsonablc
Article ID. Guarantee. CONTRACTOR'S Liability costs plua a percentage xvhirh constitutes the CONTRACTOR'S overhead and
a . Thc CONTRACTOR guarantees all equipment basically designed by him profit. It is further agreed that neither COXTRACTOK nor CUSTOMER shall
against failure from fault.? design for a period not to exceed one (1) year from prolit from errors in nor omissions from these documents resulting in interpre-
datr of first use in operation, rvhen such equipment is erected and usnl in the tations <lifferent from the basic intent.
service for which it was designed and intended mechanically or proccss-rr-i:e. In
the event equipment is not put into operation the CONTRACTOR'S time goar- 8rticIe 92. General C7~derstanding
antee is limited to eighteen (18) months from date of completion of work or C04TRACTOR
- ~- ~~ - - and CTTSTOPVIER.
~ - , bv
. execution of these documrnts,. reure-
.
from receipt of equipment a t point of erection, n-hichever may first, occur. a r n t , ~ n c hthat thry h:~w rxamined tlie contents iir detail and undrrstnnil f111ly
b. The CONTRACTOR'S guarantee is limited to equipment designed by him- the seopc of tlie obhg:itionr hcrrin and are in eoml~lctcagreement vith ;(I1 the
self. Equipment designed or manufactured by others is limited by the gnarantee ternis nnd r:onditions.
of the designer and/or manufacturer, except that the CONTR.4CTOR will pre-
pure specifications for such equipment to obtain the best possible guarantee in Exhibits
every respect for the CUSTOMER'S best interest. Refermcc \\.as made in the contract t o several exhibits. T h e follo~ring
c. The COSTRBCTOR'S liability in the event of mechanical failure of equip- rill serve t o illustrate o r outline t h e more important requireulcnts.
ment designed by himself shall be limited to replacement or repair of any such
equipment vithout cost to CUSTOMER.
d. The COXTRACTOR'S liability as to process production shall be limited to Exhibil i-Proposal
A proposal for a n engineering contract such a s this is usually divided
into t ~ r uparts consisting o l (0)Process and ( h ) .\lccl~anicalq ~ r r i f i c a t i m i .
proposal attachcd hereto as Exhibit I. k'rocers sperifications ~lescribe t h e pruccss in detail including r:t~v
e. The CONTRACTOR d l not he held liable for CUSTOMER'S loss-of-profit
or for cost of raw material, operating labor, and other production costs in thr material and finished product specifications, lieat a n d rl~aterialbalances,
event of process failure. and necessary flow diugmms t o describe the prucess graplrically. If parts
i. The maximum liability with respect to costs absorbed by CONTRACTOR tlit: prucers nrc dcsigned b y others, t h e proposal should clearly s t a t c
under the above paragraph d of this Brticle 19 shall not exceed fift>- (50) per the responsibilities.
eelit of the total of sums paid the CONTRACTOR as fees and/or profit o w r
T h e ~neclianicalsperifications list and describe all equipment b y means
2nd above direct costs according to the schedules of costs under Exhibits I1
i l f rkctclics ; ~ n d1vrittt.11 deacri~~[Link] specifications for purely
and 111.
170 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 171
n~crli;mical q u i p m c n t , such a s pumps or compressors, a r c inrluded in
sufficient detail Lo enable nlanufacturers to estimate prices. If possihlc
n~anufncturcr'snamcs and catalog numllers a r e included so t h a t identifi-
cation is fised altliougll the specificiations m a y not he coniplete in all
I t a i l Prclinlinary plot plans showing the scope o i r o r k , skctchcs of
pressure vrsseli., and specification sheets for heat-exchange equip~ncnt,
a s ~vellas specifications for various parts of the work such a s t h e struc-
tural, piping, electrical, and instrumentation phases a r e included.
[Link] of tlie specifications included in a proposal are not complete
since n considcrable part of cnginecring which mill follow upon signing Overtime Payments
of the contract cimsists of t h e development of specifications. It is n o t Salaried employes, or employees not paid on an hourly hasis may reciive
uncommon f o r a C U S T O M E R t o prepare complete detailed specifications overtime payment for hours w-arkcd up to a m:~simr~m of 30% of normal
or 1l:rvc tliem prrparrd h y a11 engineering firm for tlic CUSTOAIER'S use monthly sular?-. Such owrtinlc is ralc~ilntnl on the ixlsis of Irours o w r 8 per
in obtaining bids from other firms. day or 40 per veek. The rate per hour for monthly salaried persnnncl is e m -
T h c degree of completeness uf specifications usually depends upon the puted by multiplying the fixed monthly salary by a fi~ctor,0.006. This is
e;;;rnti:illy equal to the nominnl hm1r1~-rata the COSTRACTOII shidl br rrinl-
trrlns of thp contract or types of bids or propos:ils t o be obtained. F o r burard for such overtime pay on the. basis of rat1.5 noted ;iborr n-ith r c p w t to
l ~ c t - p l u smntracts, such a s thc one described above, mecllanical i;pecifica- the culnilation of plus percentages. Hourly ratrd, nrrkly paid rmplo~-~,cs are
tioris niay be brief ~vliile fixed-price contracts ~ e q u i r edetailed speci- paid for :dl honrs worked over X per day or 40 prr ~ w e k :it
, :i r:rtr rrf 1% times
fications. If coiupletc specifications are supplicd b y the custonicr, the their fixed hourly rate. COSTRACTOR shall be rrinrburml for :ill premium
plrrascology in the bcginning o i the contract is somewhat different. I n t h e wages paid snrh miployees; hin~wrcr,the ;ihorr plus percentages qh;~l!he applied
a l ~ o v econtract, for instance, Article 1 of P a r t I would he changed, where only to hours worked at the fired homly r n t w As an illustr:~tion,niwme a per-
son in category 8 earning $2.50/hour \\-urkrd 44 hours. COKTR.\CTOR'S
t h e wordu "CONTRACTOR'S proposal" appear, to read "Specifications." billing to CUSTOMER would bc 46 x 2.50 or 66115.00 plus (44 x 2.50 X 1.10)
or 8236.00.
Exhibit 11-Schedule of Costs, Labor
Prrsomnel Sal:ir!- or \Tage Range Exhibit Ill-Schedule of Costs Material o r Services
Billed Plus Percentage
1. Project mun;lgcr 600-700/month Paid wages plus 150% 1. Comrnu,cications. c t u a l costs of telegrams, eablrs, teletype, local ([Link]
2 . l'ruject e11ginet.r 50&600/1nonth Paid vages plus 150% chargeable) and longdistnnce telephone calls, plus 10%. Equipment 11-1. or
3. Spci:ilt?- engiurer 5W00/month Paid wages plus 150% rental rosts shall not be included in costs tn CIJSTOILIER. COSTKACTOR
4. lIe?ign engiucer 50&600/'month Paid rr-ages plus 125% shdl maintain accuratc records of 311 such costs in acconhnce 11-ith CfiS-
5. %tion iradrr 3.l.'+3.45/11our Pnid wagrs plus 12576 TOlfER'S requirements
6. T)c.;ignrr & l n y u t 3.0&:1.?5/hrn1r Paid r\-ages plus 1257& " , Parcel Post. Air Alazl. Alr Pared Post. Actual costs of all uleh
2 Puataoe.
7. Srnior draftimm 2.85-3.1.i/honr Paid wages plus 110% charges plus 10%. Records shall bc kept as above for 1.
8. I)r:~ftsmnn 2.50-2.85/hour Paid wages plus 110% 3. Telephone SFIU~CP. Where CUSTOMER requests telephone 5rrrice or instal-
9. Tracer, B. [Link] lation of tclrphones or other communication cquipment, COSTHXCTOR shall
opemior 1.50-175/hour Paid wages plus 50% be reimburird for all such costs plus 10%.
10. Sperifieation writers 2.8Kll5/11our P a ~ dwages plus 110% 4. Ofice Space and Equipment. COXTRBCTOR agrees to furnish ofice space
11. llntcrial lister 2.6%!2.85/hour Paid mges plw 100% together ~vithall necessary office furniture rrithout churge, for t ~ 12) o of the
12. Variable-typewriter CUSTOMER'S engineers. Secretarial or strnographic assistance labor shall be
operator 1.25-1.50/hour Paid wages plus 100% reimb~~rsablc in accordance xith item 14 in Exhibit 11. Snch perionm'l assigned
13. Ty~,iit-s~~[Link]~~s to CUSTOMER shall be understood to be in thr employ of the CONTRACTOR
r ~ hills
r of material 1.15-1 .?5/hour Paid wages plus 50% and shall observe all common rules and practices as required by COXTR-ACTOR.
14. Strnogmphic-clerical 1.1&1..50/ha11r Pnid wges phis 50% 5. Siqplies. 411 necessary supplies, except as included belo\\- under A, [Link]
15. I'rocnrcll~wt personnel, Paid wage. plus 50% for the work shall be furnish~dbv the CONTRACTOR and no costs for such
buyers, clerical 1.3&1.05/hour shall be billed to the CUSTOMER.
16. Isboratory technicians 2.85-3.15/hour Paid wages plus 125% .
6. R~oroduction Services. CONTRACTOR shall be reimbursed for :dl eoits
incurred in preparing or printing, blueprints, blur-line prints, photocopir, ditto.
For all orlm prrsrn~nelin ellginerring rntegories rewiving monthly salarim mimrograph, either vhen performed by himself or by an outside firm for CTS-
reimbursement sl~allnut be lras than paid salary plus 110%. For all other per- TOMER'S requirements. Such costs shall be in accordance ~vithstan~lanlloc:rl
172 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts ond Contractors
com~nerclalpractice- ~ ~ 556. l u Labor cubts for blueprint or other ~n;iehinrnper- IXDEX
stors shall hc reimbursed in accordance \\-ith item 9 of Exhibit 11, whm snch
Genrral .4crecment.
prnonnel are workrd overtime a t CUSTOMER'.i: reqneit. When CUSTOMER Ilefinitions.
e l r ~ t ihr
, mny nrrrjit charges for all matpriali [Link] in rrprodiirtion and reimhi~ri-r
COSTlt.\CTOR for lnhor w n l in t h e operarioni nc notrd ahorc in item 9 of r t I. Scope of Work.
Exhihit TI. [Link] shall br rrimhur?cd for costs of all mntrrinls wril Srtirlc IT. Contractor's Costs and Terms of 1'a)ment.
,,I,,* Artielr, 111. Dirrct Costs.
?..-.~ - ,,,. Articlc IY. Cons,~ni:~ble Cunstruction Supplies, Fidd Pureh:~-in:.
7. Cu~rsultationService. [Link] rhdl be reimbursed for an>-srrvices
Article V. Construction hhterials and Tool:, Field Purchasing.
rtquirrd of ontsidc firms as 3:rred upon with CTSTOMER. Si~cbro51s sh:111
I,,. Idlnl to Cl-STOMER liluq 5%. Article VI. Construction Labor.
Article VII. Transportation.
S . Lnborntory S w z ' i c p . Kherc COXTRACTOR provi<les [Link] servicr..,
Article VIII. Completion of Work.
w i t s for such s~rvicei~ h n l lbr agrerrl upon prior to start of work. Such cost. Article IX. C:~nccllationof Contract.
,sIr:ill include all charprs and no plus percentnpes d l be added to the agreal X . P r o t r h o n of Xetcrials and l'roperty.
Article
lipon cost. Kherr CCSSOMER requests special lnbor:~tory s r r ~ i e r hilled , r:~t~-.
lor personnel shnll hr computcd according to item 1G of Exhihit IT. .\rtirlr XI. Insurance.
!). T r a w l ('osts. CUSTOhlER [Link] reimburse CO?;TR.\CTOR for out-of- . \ r t i h X I . Guar:~otccs.
Srticlr XTII. .iisiqnmrnt of Contmct.
pocket t r : ! d costs of COXTRACTOR'S prrsonnel tmrcllin: a t Cl~STOXIER'S
Article XIT'. Siirplns h-laterials.
rrquest np to a n~aximumof 512.00 per day for employees who rcrnoin iu o -in:lc~
location for 30 dnl-a or morc contin,mn4y. For personnel mnking oi-r,rnidit or .
short trips the rates shill1 br rrnsonably greater; hoiwrer, in no ewe ~h:111li\-inq Exhibit 11. E-timite.
r q e n i c s billed to CUSTOMER exccd 815.00 prr day.
Exhibit 111. Enginrering and Other Labor.
.illovcd rxpenx items sh:rll inclod<-paymmts for first c l : railroad
~ farrz plrrz
Exhibit IV. Cmztruction 2lateri11l and Labor.
~~ullrr~;rn, nir travel, bus, or taxi or any public carrirr fares, laundr>-, and other
nurm:!l living expenses. Receipts for cxpenFe items, hotel bills, tickr,t stubs, nnil GESERAI, AGREEMEST
any other subetmtiation of pnyment shall he obtained as far as powible and held
on filr by COSTRACTOR for CIJSTOMER'S inspection mhm req~icstnl. Fisrd This Agreement m;dc and entered into tlrL-ila>~ of
rate? .specified above shall apply to t r w e l within the continrntal lilnits of tht. by and betweerr ARC Chen~iealCo., (arldrrss), hereinafter referred to ns ARC
U. 9. For foreign tmvel per diem rates shall be adjustrd to m w t local ronditiims. and XYZ Encinccring and Construction Co., (:~ildresi),brrrinnfter rcfrrred to
Telephone or other communication costs shall be r~~imhursnblr; h o w n r thr as COXTRACTOR, &tnecseth that:
ernployre shnll use collect calls if possible so that records m:~? be kept of thrse Whereas ABC desires CONTRACTOR to i,rrform rrrt:iin servicci; more coi11-
costs. pletcly described in the hercto attxhctl, listed, or referrnrwl ilrnn-irxc :iml sprci-
.Automobilr tmvel costs hen insurance requirements are met shall hr reim- fications undrr the Scopr of Work Article 1 ;
hursable a t 80.10 per mile. 411 costs incurred by CONTRACTOR for travelling Now therefore, for and in consideratiml of the paymcnt,s 11rwin;[Link]
expense shall be reirnbursnble according to the above plus 5%. to be made to thc COXTRACTOR by ABC, :inJ in consideration of tlie terms
lierei~li~icludedthe parties hereto do agree as follui~s:
Typical Engineering a n d Construction Contract DEFIKITIONS
T h e complete engineering a n d construction contract is usually similar 1. Contract Documents. 811 papcrs, dmwings, documenk altncllrrl hereto
t o t h e form of contract for engineering serviccs exccpt t h a t it includes or includcd here\\-it11 by rrfrrenee constitute the contract documents an(\, if ;irp:i-
additional clauses undcr P a r t 11. rate liereto, arc to be con-iclrred :IS part or 1l:irtj of tbis ugrrnuent th? -:1111l, :I-
if ntt:~checl h r x t o
T h e following contract is similar t o those prepared for cost-plus with 2. Contjactor. P:irly to :~gr,:rn~ctir, XTZ Engiurrring Coml~:tny,its eseou-
fixed-fee contracts. T h e first page of t h e documcnt consists of a title: i tive ofiicers, enginrrr, constn~ctioniupcrintendnit.
3. ABC. P ; ~ r t yto agreeniant, S13C Chemicnl Co., its executivr officers,
Agreemont between project engineer, inspectors, field cowtruction enginerrs.
ABC Chemical Company and XYZ Engineering Company 4. Place of Worlc, Construction. The expressions "jobsite," or "field" are
Including Engineering, Procurement, and nnderstood to mean the placc of crretim of incilitiea. Albrrt County, Statr of
Const,ruction Services Colorado, .4BC Chcmicnl Co., Colorado Pl;mt. (\I:d :iddress .shuulrl be included.)
At The Colorado Plant 5 . Place of Work, Engineerirly. Coatrxtor's lmne or hraneh ofierr. (%hi1
addres or addresses should be included.)
T h e second page, or pages, consists of a n index similar t o illat Eollo~ving. 6. Wori:. The tern) work shall hr underitowl to incln<le labor or mntcri:il
Inrlcxes a r e most belpful for t h e longer contracts. or both.
174 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Controcfors 175
7. L o r d Laws. Tllr I;in-- of thr place or building shall gorem. ings, sprcifirations, labor, material?, and [Link] as arc rrrluired to prucurr,
8. Jobsite. The trrm juhsite slinll be undcr~toodto mean place of erection fahriwtr, w e t , inml in>tidl, ready for 11-e or oprmtion, :(I1 etjuipmrwt to l>ro\.iilp
or [Link] as desienatrd ahore in 4. the facilities awl prrirrses herein dwrrilx4 in :~rcor~lance rr-it11 C:OSTR.\i:TOR'S
9. Drawings. Dr:iir-in:; iir 11rinti ihall be undrrstood to mean reproductions proposal :itinched licrrto :ri Exhihit I .
from drni1-ing. prrp:irnl hy eirlier party but identified by written matter as a
part of the w ~ r k( v r G a h o w l . Tracingi shall br, nndcrstood to mean original Article I I . [Link]'TOR'S ( ' o s t s mid T m m s of Pn!ilizmt
drawings from ivliich reprod~~ced cupivs or prints hare bcrn obtained. Dram-ings 1. ARC shall rrirnburse COSTKA('TOR for nll rmsts indicatrd :IF direct rosts
may be wid to he identifid ir-lien their idrntifying numbers are included in the as described hrlox ,-dus tlie prrcvntagr; indimted fur the 7-ariiriir [Link]; of the
contract ilonnnmts or :idilt,niia thereto. work.
10. Supplies; ('[Link](~~i ifoti'i~iols.a d .llnteriuls. (a) Supplies are under- 2 . CONTRACTOR'S fee dinll hc cmnputed n- n summntion of thr plns per-
stood to mean those m:itrr~:il. of a eo~l.~u~~:ible nature exclusive of tools, such rentages :~dderl to COSTRSCTOK'S direct ro+ and d ~ n l lnot crrrnl right
ns m e r y cloth, ~:indpaper,drinking cups, [Link];rl supplies, fuel?, lubricants, and hundred, and fift.y thorlsand dollars 1S830,000.001, exet'pt as notcil brlmr.
any other such i t ~ n lvhieh
l :ire nrcrssary for construction but do not necesiarily 3. Estimated Selling Price: the [Link] eitimatcs the cmts rlf labor
enter into the ~~rmrmnent plant or remain as :I part of the plant after construc- and material and rynilxnrnt to [Link] the faditie; derrribrd in Eshihit I,
tion is complete: ( b ) conrtnxtion materials :Irr: the h ~ a v i e rmatwi:~lswed in plus the above fre to br nrit more than t.i?lit niillion, six h~udrcil:mil tiventy-
[Link]:tion sucli :is scafioliiing, form lun~her,f o m ~tics (but not reinforcing five t11ou;;ind dollar. lSS,R.25,(H)[Link])in ;icer,r,lmw nith the detailed e-timate
rod) : constrwtion buildingi togcthrr with all thrir parts including electrical included herein an Exhihit (1. ('OVTRAC'TOK dues not en:mntee ertimntr hilt
lighting, plumbing, lmting or ventkiting rquipmmt ; trmporary electrical service agrtw that the fee in itrm 2 abovi. ~Ii:dlbe n niauim~imvhen the estim:~triltotal
connections for electricaily driven ron.~tri~ction eqnipn~[Link] piping, cost is equal to or ruweds t h :nnount
~ :~hol-e.
and miscrll:~neous bnlk material; i ~ fall kinili used for constn~ctionbut removed 4. Fee Increasc rlr Cliangr,. The C'OSTl(ACTC)R'S fee in itcm 2 iibii~eshall
after crrnrtruction i; complrted; (c) uintrri;~liare generally ~lnilrrstoodto mean br increased or changed only. ( o ) TThm :,nil if thr :~huvrestim:~tml total selling
permnnrnt materials -ilrli ai the eiilnl~oliiwt of concrete, or stone, sand, and prim: exceeds thp actual coits of the ~ o r k the , [Link]'S fee >hall b r
cement; brick, mortar, niiscrllancous fill m;itcrials, n-elding rod, rivets, miscel- [Link] by an :nnonnt q u n l to t w n t ? per cent (XI':) of tlie differrmrr between
laneous bolts. [Link]'S cstinl:lte and a r t i d total mst. This increase shall he nnder-
11. Co~zstmctio~i Tools. (o) Smnll tools, ronsumable: icren-drivers, pliers, pipe stood to be a bonus p:iynient; ( b ) d ~ e andn if the scope of xork hcrein shall bc
and other wencher less than cighteen in. (18") in length hack r a m , hack saw increased by ARC by additions or c h a n q s increasing COSTRACTOR'S vork or
blades, chisels, h a ~ n n ~ r r welding
r, sots, ~vrlding (oxyncet>-lune) hoses, etc.; ( b ) equipment or materiulr in mutonlly :tpreerl upon c11:1nges,the CONTR-iCTOR'S
hand tools: hand took are gmrmlly unrlcrstood to nleari the larger tools such fee shall he increased by an a~nounteqnal to ten prr rent of thc artnal costs of
as axes, shorcls, s p n i l y wheel l>:irroi~-s, rnnent buggies, dollies, sledge hammers, such increases or chnnges. .ill such extrxs shdl he kept separate from total
etc.; ( c ) driven tmls: electric or pneiinx~ti~:, drills, grinders, hammers, rivet- costa of original estimate and shall not affect the honr~spaymrnt above in sec-
puns, r:inlking tools, inip:ict 77-rrnches, e t c : Id) m:rhinr tonlr, smill: portable tion a ; (c) when and if the scopi, of ivork herein shall be r r h : e d hy .4BC as
electric or pneun~ntir:1i11i-t~, pipe and conduit bmiing and thre:~iIing machines, changrs or modific:itions, the actn:il cost rduction sh:ill be conlputed as a per-
portablr air compresmrs, ~wlilingmachines, etc.; i e ) ronstrnrtion tools, large: centage of the above [Link] belling price item 3 and COSTRACTOR'S
steam or electric drivm hoisting mginer, guy, :ind other typesof ilr:rricks, inelnd- fee ilia11 he red~wcdhy a likr l~erccntage. Thr n~arimrtmred~~ctinn in COX-
ing cuhlrs, sheavci, Iirioks, slings, sidfdrir~ncmnee, grading machines, tractors, 'TR.4CTOR'S fee d m to reilnrtirm in -rope uf w ~ r kshall not eucrrd one hunilrtvl
trucks inchding a11 their :1lil,urtrn:mrw IIeavy rn:~chinetools installed (fixed mil eight~yfivethowaml dollars (SlS3,000.00), t w e p t in the e w n t of cnncelia-
base) for use during conotruction inrh ;IS 1;1thw,drill 13WSWS, metal P:I\VS,etc.
12. Security. The word recurity sh:ill be lirnd~mtourl to mean ARC'S plant,
security or protectiun organization, or the organization prtwided by CONTKAC-
i tion under Article IX.
5. Accounting :ind Billing l'roceilure.

TOR to police the riin.<tmction areas. ( N o t e : See Articles 5 a n d 6 of t h e Exnniplc Engineering Services Only
13. Premises. Prrmises shall be understood to Incan :illC's property either Contract. T h e hilling pri~eedure f o r a n y contract \vli~,reo ~ v n c r p a y s
the immediate constmction area or :idj:icent, or other ;arcns owned by .4BC or direct costs plus n percentngrx consists in prescntntion of t h e contmctor's
usrd by ABC. invoice plus substantiating dnte in llie form of attached papcrs or refcr-
14. Trade Names, Terminology. W r r e tr:~denanies are used in descriptions cnce t o t h e contractor's rccoriiu. Generally for labor charges copies of
or specifications, t h ~ yshall be as tipplic;~bleas form:~lrlrseriptions. I t is nnder-
stood that the contractor is ~xpcrirmrtdin tlie type of w r k to be performed and I
actual payrolls lilust he included. V s ~ i n l l y papcrs such as vendors'
expressions connnon ti, thc tmde sh:111 :~gpl?- and be nccepiable. invoices a r e held b y contractor since obtaining sufficient copies for o x n e r
15. 8quip,ntwt. TYliere tlie wurd equipnirnt is included herein it is under-
stood to mrnu proecs.* or pcrm:~nenLplant equilmrnt s s installed or erected or
purchased f i r ubc of ATiC
Article I. S r o p e of [Link]
j a s ~ v c l as
l contractor is w ~ n e t i m e sdifficult. I n order t o prove a n expendi-
ture f o r equipment t h e contrartor ordinarily h a s three instruments:
11) contractor's purcliast. order, 12) a ficld irceiving report, a n d ( 3 ) a
ropy of t h e vendor's invoirr. Thcse a r e sufficient in most cases since if
The CONTRACTOR s h d furmsli d l nccrrsarj- denlgns, instructions, dram- t h e contractor ackno~vledgcst h a t h e h a s t h e vendor's invoice he is com-
 178 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 179
regulation?, orders, dirrctirrs, or statutes npplic:~hIc to wage and emp1o)-ment 2. Unlcre prevented by r;i~i;cs he>-onrl his control COVTR.\CTOR proposes
practices, and to act in accord311(~1'vith the poliric>sof ABC on matters which to romplrtr all the fncilitie,+hwcin inclnrlcd not more t l ~ mc~izhteet~ n m n t h ~aftm
affect area practir.c? and n-llirh nlizht tend to set prrwdent.. Constructi~nlahor rzerwtion rlf thi* n~rrc~ment
wage rates in Exliib~t ST- form the hasis for [Link]'S estimate in 3. [Link] agrees to schrdnli hi? rr-ork for cnrnpletion in arcortlnnrr
Exhibit IS. The COKTR.\CTOR will nut enter into agreements with various ~vithtlir prere<lrnw : ~ g r e dupon with :\li(' nml ilr~scri1)mlin Eslnbit I .
lahor organizations nnplo:-ril in tlip ir-ark iihicli tmd t o increase such rates 4. TVlicnrvcr any l n r t of the n-01.6 .s11~11l x complctml :and r c d y for uperation
withont previous notificntion to A13C. ARC may tzkr over thnt fartlity : ~ n dopernte it: [Link], thr takino over or
2. The COXTRACTOR r i l l n1nint:iin si~it;~hle temporary sanitan- and shelter operation of ;in>- part of thr completr,il n-rrrk rhall not necrs;arily constitute
facilities for use of its rrnploy,e;. C0STRACIY)It'S empl~yecssha.11 not trespass acceptance on thr part ~f SHC, ;1n0 [Link] shall lir obligated to
on nor usr sanitary or other of .iBC's plant facilitiiw. complete any unfinirhcd parts of the f:~cilit~- and s11;ill he rrslmn.~il)lefor error?
3. The COXTR-iCTOK rrill employ n c o m p e t ~ ~ ~t
registered nurse and provide nr omissions discovered aftcr onerntion bv ABC the samr a . if the facility had
suitnhle cxamin:ition and first-aid facilitiw contiimo~ldy at the jobuitc during not brrn put into opei-a t'Ion.
constrnction. Pro\-isions d l alio be m:ide for prompt mrdic:rl aid and hospitaliza- 5. When all "arts of the ~ o r :irek comulrtnl to the sati~S;rctionof ARC, then
tion in the nrarest facility for snrh servicri. BBC shall proLvide COSTR.4CTOR \rich an :i~~thorizedaccept:lncr at rrhirh
4. COSTR-iCTOR'S rrnpli)y~csirhrn on A1IC's plrmises shall rumply with time 1111 frinils or paymenti due :ind/or ~ ~ i t l ~ lsliull
~ d i lbe due and piy:~hIc to
,211 general rules and regnlatii,ns :is reqnired b\- ABC. COXTRACTOR'S em- COXTRACTOR.
p1uyee;i shall not 1m1-c COSTI{.\CTOI1'S n-<irk :Irw slor risit r~thcrparts of
Ant's premises n-ithollt prrmission, in nrmrssar>- ~lltholity,unless in the line A r t d e I X . Ca~icellationof Contract
of duty and/or n-hcn :~ccrirnpmiedby an mmplriyr of .iIX 1. This agreement m l y hr, rxncellcd by .\nC nt nny timr npon giving COX-
5 . Disrrgar~lfor rides mi practicw ns rcqriired b:- ABC by an employee of tho TRACTOR written notice ten (10) < l a y in nilranci of s w h actiun. The
COXTRACTOR ?11:111he sufficient jnstifiriitii,n for disn~i,-sal. [Link] shiill h ~ nllo~~-ed
: n re:~soll:~ble timr: firr transfer of all parts of
6. Employers ilid~iirpc~d for r:nl.e hy [Link]:TOH or by ABC's rrquest the m r k in his posse-+ion to .iBC:. The [Link]<l of tnne nlloived niter noticr
shall not br: re-empla?-t,il [Link] for work nndrr this agreement. of eancelintion shall h,k n o i r ~as~ i l ~ C
r S C E I . I , . \ T I O I period. In no r:isc shnll
7. COXTR.\CTOR'S ~ ~ m p l o y cs11:ills he prorcssed for idrntification and he tho CAXCELLATIOV period excerd thirty (30) days from date of rcccipt of
provided xith identifiration b:idgcs nrcrptable to ABC. The processing of notice of cilncellation.
COSTRACTOR'S prrsonnrl to meet smurity regnlatims shall be carried out 2. If cancellation is rffectcd after CONTRACTOR has made commitments
in st,rict acrordanrc with instn~etions from .\BC. The COSTRBCTOR will for morc than fifty per cent (30%) of the eitini;ited value of m;itr,rials :~ccording
maintain a t the johsite a srpnratr file on vnch employee regukirly employed in to CO?JTR.\CTOK'S e h n n t e as s11o~l-nin Exhibit 11, thru COXTRACTOR'S
COSTRACTOR'S r o r k or intermittently visiting thc jobsite. All employees fee, eight hnndred and fifty thousand ilull:rrs (S8.50,000.00) shall be due and
visiting the jobsiti: s11:ill fiillon. initmetions with reg:iril to secnrit,y and ident.i- payable within thirty (30) days after noticr: of cancellation is rwrived
ficntion tha same as i f reg~dnrlyenililr~y~d at the jobqite. .Any of ABC's security 3. If cancellation iz rff<.ctcdbefore C0XTR:iCTOR hns in:~derommitlnents 11p
officers m:by at any lime requcst pmprr identifiration a l ~ d i o rthe employme& to fifty per cent 0 of the eitim:~trdm l r ~ e of m:rtrri;di nccorrllng to
history oi any per,xmnel. COXTRACTOR'S estimate as shown in Exhibit 11, then C:OXl'R:\CTOIt'S fee,
8. Certain of COXTRACTOH'S personnel may be prmnitted to bring personal eight hundred and Eft\- thollsnnd rlollnrs i~S.i0,000.00) shall hi. rri111rwl to the
nutornobiles within ARC'S pl:~ntprtwi>cs. Infractims of rules or rceulations nrtud plus percentn~eon I:ihor nnd rnnterinl enrnrd ,111 ti, the time of c:~nrdl:itinn.
with regard to us? of anti~molilesd l automnt,icnlly rerokc any such pcrmit. 4. COXTRACTOR shall continllr to fnrnish all [Link]:lry per3onncl and m:rke
In gcnrml all construction per,mmnel sh;~lluse thc ABC plant gate desigmted even. effort to expediently transfer dnt;i and other for~uq,drnxinps, opecificntion?,
for COKTRACTOR'S entranci:. T h r n other entrances are used COXTRAC- ordrrs as prepared Ear :xnd used in the work to .\ti(:. [Link]
TOR'S personnel nmrt obtain a special pass from wcurity. shall be rrimbursrd for a11 such costs in aiirmlnnce vith thc srheilr~lesof costs
9. Tendor's reprtwntntivcs or other pr7sons visiting COXTR-ACTOR'S officrs and plus-pcrrcntages :~pplic:ihle tlicrrto ,113 to timr of nutire by .\KC to
for business purposes shall romply ~vithAAC's plant regulatiol~swith regard to CONTR.4CTOR of completiou of eancelintion and tr;insfrr of dntn :~ndmnteri:~ls
visitor3 and m s t bc identified by delegated COKTRACTOR'S personnel. The to ARC.
COXTRACTOR shall be responsible to ABC for such persons. Unlcss special 5. I n the event of cancellation AllC shall h r c the right to imme<liatrly enter
permission is obtained such persons are not to be allowed access to any part of npon the premises a t any timc aftcr noticr of r,:incellntion and t:ikc over a11y
the work except COXTRACTOR'S ollices. part or parts of the ~vork it so chooses. togetllcr with all m:~terinls, tools
ARTICLE VII. Trarrsportation either on-ned by itself or by COSTRAWOR, anil con~plete the ~vork. The
CONTRACTOR shall route all rn:~t~,rials over carriers designilted by AUC by COKTRSCTOR shall be paid rt,;~wnnblermtnls as agreed upon 1~1thABC for
means of traffic maps 11rovidcd for the COXTRACTOR. use of his tools or if he so rlccts lie may n w o r e such tools from ABC's
provided (a) the remov:d of such tools d l not affect conlplction of
Article VIII. Completiu~rof Work work; (b) such removnl is :~greenhleto AUC: (ci rnrh rtmornl is charge11 to
1. CONTRACTOR agrees to diligently prucecd ~ r i t hall parts of the work for the CONTRBCTOR'S crict. COSTR.\CTOR'S tools wed by B C for conl-
ABC's best interest. plrtion of the work mill be disn~nntlerl,loaded and/or o t h e r ~ ~ i sprepared e for
182 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 183

Exhibits for Engineering a n d Construction Contracts Lump-Sum Contract Forms

S e ~ e r a Exhibits
l have been referred t o in tlre above contract. The dis- The lump-sum or fixed-price contract is much less involved, and a
cussion a t the end of the engineering rontrart has described a typical typical form for such contracts has not been included. Since a fixed
proposal in some detail. For such a contract as the above, the proposal price must be established, the original specifications: descriptions of the
mm~ldbe in greater detail, describing in addition to the process and work, and types of equipment are described in detail in the contraetor's
process e q u i p l e n t all facilities, types of architecture, and any points proposal or owner's inquiry. The contract then need only carry the
r ~ h i c hmay be peculiar to t,he particular installation. standard general clauses.
Exhibit 11, the estimate, would in this case be quite detailed. The
follo~vingform is sometimes used. The first part of such a n estimate 3r CONTRACTS A N D ENGINEERS
summary and the esti~nat,efor unit A is included below. The contract phase of project engineering requires a competent legal
Exhibit 11-Estimate, dollars
department. Men who are trained in both engineering and law are ideal
members of this group.
Combined Estimate
All project engineers, however, should have a n understanding of con-
Englneermg
Facil~tles and Cler~cal Material Lab01 Total tracts since it is their duty t o execute many of t'he terms of a contract.
3,996,000 I n developing this understanding, the engineer should avoid an over-
2,303,000 critical attitude toward the legal phraseology. It shuuld be rememberd
615,000 that the long sentences, big words, and hackneyed legal exprc:<' w o n s are
Power srrviees 6,000 112;000 33,000 151,WO part of the conservatism of legal practice which have proved their
Genrnd utilities 12,000 207,000 48,000 267,000 durability through decades of legal decision.
Plant buildings 18,000 340,000 85,000 443,000
- - - -
ETHICS AND THE CONTRACT
Subtotals 320,000 5,855,000 l,G00,000 7,775,000
Fee 850,000 There is never any intention among reputable contractors or owners
Total combined estimates and fee 8,625,000 t o deceive through fine print or confusing terminology. The cont,ract
Estimate--Unit A should be thought of more as a written agreement between gentlemen.
Materials Labor Total It is nritten because memories are poor, and written records do much t o
Foundations 95,000 115,000 210,000
Structural steel and building 154,000 126,000 310,000 preserve friendly business dealings. Legally the contract contains pro-
Process equlpinent 1,890,000 230,000 2,120,000 visions for cancellation and penalties for failure in performance, hut
Pipmg 619,MX) 226,000 846,090 these actions are costly t o both parties in both time and money.
Electr~cnls 96,000 59,000 155,000 Above all, the mtegrity and technical cornpetence of the personnel of
142,000 48,000 190,000
- - both organizations are the only criteria for successful project plant
projects. The contract protects against willful negligence and illegal
801,000 3,830,000
Eng~neeringand clerical 166,WO acts. It cannot protect either party from unethical practices or in-
Total, Material, Labor, Unit A 3,996,000 competence.
.
[n actual nractice estimates arc much more detailed. The above REFERENCES
estimate for Unit. A is condensed. The item "process equipment'' includes
1. Eshbach, 0. W.. Handbook o f Engineering
- Fundamentals. 2nd Ed.. John
all mechanical equipment, pressure vessels, tanks, heat exchange, and
Wiley & Sons, Inc., k e w York, 1952.
condensing equipment and insulation. Estimated costs of each of these 2. MeCulloush,
- . L. B.. and J. R. McCullouah.
- . The Engineer at Lnlu. Vol. I . Iowa
would be shown separately. General items such as supervision and State College Press, Amps, Iowa, 1946.
clerical operations for construction are also separated in the usual estimate 3. Sadlcr, W. C., Legal Aspects of Engineering, John JVilcy & Sons, h e . , Yew
exhibit. York, 1940.
4. Sadler, W. C.. The Specifications and Law on Enaineerlna Works, John W i l w &
T h e various exhibits attached t o a cost-plus contract usually include
Sons, Inc., New ~ m k 1948.
,
much detailed information on construction craft rates, consumable sup- 5. Simnson, L. P., and E. R. Dillavon, Law for Engineers and Aichitecls, 31.d Ed.,
plies, and contractor's tool rental rates. West publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn., 1946.
 DETAILS OF
ENGINEERING DESIGN
AND
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
 CHAPTER 12

order to participate intelligently in selection of equip

I N
ment and design of process facilities, foundations and
structures the project engineer must understand to some
extent the details of engineering design and equipment
selection.
VESSELS
The design and fabrication of the many sizes, shapes and types of
vessels required in process plants is a complex task requiring the co-
operation of process and project engineers, vessel designer, and fahrirator.
Vessel design requires the skill of an experienced engineer who specializes
in the field. A working knowledge of the various cudes, fabrication
properties of materials, and procurement problems requires full-time
attention to this one field. The greatest need is for project and process
engineers to familiarize themselves sufficently with hasic design and
fabrication procedures so that an intelligent exchange of ideas with the
vessel designer can be effected.
The purpose o i this chapter shall be to develop background information
which will aid the project engineer in directing the design and fabrication
of process vessels. It is not possible to develop all the details of vessel
design and nu attempt will be made to repeat information that is now
prcsented in various codes and standards which are available to anyone.'

VESSEL FABRICATION

The Shell
Pressure vessels and tanks for process plants are usually of cylindrical
shape. Bending rolls are used to form the cylinder.
'The codes referred to in this section, unless otherwise stated, are the API-ASME
and the ASME codes for "Unfired Pressure V e ~ s e l s . ' ' ~ . ~
I87
188 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 189
A bending roll is shown in Fig. 12-1. The top roll imposes the bcnding i~rcl-entoxidation. Arc nelding can be ~rlanualor automatic. For large
forces on the plate and the distanec b e t w e n the top and bottom rolls longitudinal and circumferential seams automatic welding mael~ines
controls the diameter of the cylinder. The rolling may be done cold on p r o w particularly advantageous. For circumferential seams the cylinder
thin plates of smaller size. Prior t o rolling, the ends of the plates are is mowd :ind t l ~ ctorch remains stationary. The opposite procedure is
shaped t o the desired radius in a press using a radius-forming die. B y fnllo~veilfor longitndinal seams.
this procedure, perfectly round vessels can be made. After rolling, h c e t y l ~ n egai ~veldingis common, especially for welding thin plates
the edges of the plates are planed t o prepare them for welding. and small attachments. I n addition, acctylenc welding is a necessity in
:my vessel fuhri~xtions11op fur n l m y utility purposes. A few of it.
uses are: f1:nne haril~ming of small 11art5, cutting, and tack-~vcl~ling
.ccti,in~ l~riorto antonlatic arc ~vcliling. Gns \velding is alsu used ill
brazing n.hic11 is the joining of metals with a nonferrous filler without
~nelting the base metal. Other welding procedures such as atomic-
I~yilropcu, flaA resistance: thcrmit, and submerged-melt xvelding are
use11 for sl~crialtypes of work. For a detailed discussion of welding
t c c l ~ n i q u ~tbc
~ s , rwdcr is refcrred to standard n-urks on t b r subject.
TT-clrling of vessel -rams generally requires the application of ~ c v c m l
luyers of ~vcldmaterial. It is necessary that great care be exercised in
making surh "multipass" ~vclrls. The surface of each weld pass must hc
tl~orouglilyclcanr~land cxainined hefore proceeding r i t h the next pass t o
insure good penetration nnd freedom from cracks, slag inclusion, and
other n-cakcning dcfccts. A faulty weld can be disguised by a satisfactory
final meld pass.
The wider's torch has also l ~ c c o ~ na en invaluable tool for cutting metal
to any desired shape. 3lechanically guided cutting torches are used cx-
tcnaivcly and job.: that xvonld bc tedious when handled by ordinary
mecl~aniralmethods can be done a i t h case when a cutting torch is used.

Fig. 12-1. Bending 1.011s:241 inehcs long, 96ineh OD shcll being rolled from %-inch Shell Plates
plate. (Courtesy uf Lulicns Stccl Company.) Plates for the fabrication of vessels are usually ordered by thickness.
Plates made by a sliearcd-plate nlill are preferred because they are of
Welding I ~ r t t e rquality and are available in a greater number of sizes. They can
Welding bas bccome the most common means of joining metals. Burst- I I obtainul
~ in n rvidc varicty of thirknrsses, the most comiuon being
ing tests invariably prove the weld t o bc stronger tlian tllc shcll itself. f r ~ m in. to 1 in. in increments of in., 1 in. to 1y2in. in increments
Such welds, however, must be made by compctcnt welders. Elaborate i ~ %
f in., an11 1y2 in. to 4 in. in increments of % in. Lengths up t o 800 in.
tests t o qualify welders arc given in the various vessel codes.l.2 are produced in the thinner plates. The maximum width obtainable is
A number of very excellent weldinc- nrocesses are in use. Shielded arc around 195 in.. although widths over 100 in. carry a n extra width charge.
. If both the circumference and length of a shcll are greater than 195 in.,
welding is perhaps the most common method used in vessel fabrication.
An arc is produced between a metal electrode and the base metal. The it b c c ~ ~ m cnecessary
s t o employ two or more plates to fabricate the vessel
heat created causes melting of the electrode and portions of the base (Fig. 12-2). Since extra charges on w i d t l ~start a t 100 in., it may prove
metal near the arc. Tlie weld is formed by the fusion of the metal from economical t o use more than one plate in certain instances for sizes re-
the electrode and the base metal. The welding rods (electrodes) are quiring plates ovcr 100 in. wide. A comparison b e t ~ w e nplate width
coated with a flux which, when heated, produces an inert gas blanket extras and tlle additional costs of fabrication with ~nultiplcplarea iunst
around the arc and deposits a protective coating of slag ovcr the weld to be made.'"
190 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels

Vessel Heads
1de:illy. a splirriral-shnprd prrssurr w s w l is the niost desirable sinre
it withstands higher l~ressuresfor a given nietal thickness. Spherica!
vessels are used in the dorage of volatile liquids and gases, but they are
not suitable for the construction of tlie usual process vessels. The cylin-
drical-rliaped vessel is the next best design and is u w l most extmzively.
The heads for sucli vessels ilia? be flat, cllips~~idal(elliptical dished),
dished, hemispherical, or conical. Examples of such designs arc given

Fig. 12-2 Shell fahrieat~dfrom more than one plate.

in Fig. 12-3. Flat heads can he employed economically only on small

vessels ( 3 ft rlr less) or on vessels operating a t low pressures. Flat lieads
may he welded to the vessel or installed as blind flanges on smaller vessels.
Heads other than flat heads are manufactured by pressing or spinning
large flat plates to the desired shape. Sizes from twelve inches t o twenty-
one ft in diameter can be manufaeturrd by spinning. Pressing is more
generally confined t o smaller heads and is only economical when there
is a deniaud for a large number.
Often the process requirement,s dirtate the style head t o be used. A
conical head, for instance, would be used for the bottom liead of a settling
drum. If no certain style is dictated, however, the choice between
licmiapherical, standard dished, and ellipsoidal heads is a question of
economics. As the thickness required to withstand a given pressure in-
creases in the order hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and dished, the cost of
forming decreases in the same order. A l t h ~ ~ u gith is difficult t o generalize.
i t may he said that in the range of low t o nioderate pressures the standard
dished head is used. At higher pressures (above about 200 psig) it proves
t o he more economical to employ tlie ellipsoidal (elliptical dished) head
with 2 : 1, ratio of major to minor axis. A ~ ~ i assortment
d e of standard
heads is manufactured, and it is always desirable to use these whenever
192 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 193
possible. The use of a nonstandard liead requires the nrannfacturc of shu\\-ing (he trusrez for support and bubble cap assemblies is given in
additiunal dies needed in the forming process, and thus entails additional Fig. 12-4. Grid and perforated plates are becoming popularl and their
expensc. support is even less of a problem because of the lightweight of such trays.

Nozzles
All process vessels require nuzzles for the fluids t o enter and leave the
vcasel. for drains, l~andhi~les,and uinnholcs. Tlicrc, nozzles may be fabri-
catcd of pipe, pipc couplings, forged steel nozzles, cast steel fabricated
plate, or other suitable material in accordance xith tlic code requircn~ent.
.UthougI~ thc codes'.? permit the usc of both fusirm rveldcd or threaded
attacliments, the usc of tlrrcaded attachnicnts is gencrdly avoided.
Cutting of holes into tlie chell of tlic vessel for the installation of
uozzles !wakens tlic vessel; and, thcrcforc, reinforcement around tlic
nozzlc is required. Detailed rules for such rcinforce~ncntare given in the
codes.',"orged strcl [Link] necks of lengths sufficient t o protrude
hcyond vcsscl insulation are mars-pruduccd by scvcrnl manufacturers.
The lengths uf such nozzles have been standardized, and it is customary
in designing vcssels to adhere to standard lengtl~s,whethcr tile nozzle he
purcllased ur fabricated from pipe. So-callcd melding-type nozzles arc
also available. These arc made x~it11integral reinforcing necks and do
not require tlic additional reinforcement necessary for wclding neck
nozzles.
Connections for srnall drains and vcnts one inch and under are usually
made x i t h pipe couplings. A hole s~nallcrthan the inside dianlcter of
tlic pipe coupling is drilled or cut into thc vessel and the coupling is
w l d e d to the surface of the vcssel unly. The urc of nipplea instead of
couplings is ronaidercd poor practice, since tlie tlircads are constantly
exposed during installation and can easily be daniagcd.

Vessel lnternals
A large percentage of process vcssels requires certain internal elcments Fig. 12-4. Bubble t r y . (Courtesy of Frite \V. Gliisch & Sons, Ine.)
to eflcet the changes in the materials passing through thc vcssel. T h ~ s e Key:
include bubble trays, packing, and packing supports for distillation 1..idjoetablc ~ e i seal
r plate. i 6 7.4. Periphanl tray rlnmp8.
to\\-en, lirating bundles, baffles, agitators, and othcr simililr ilrviccr. 2. Trapezoidal minor blvsa. 8. Removable cap and riser :~ssrmhly.
I'sually, the vesrcl intcrnals are not manufactured by thc vrrsrl f;lhri- 3. Channel-shaped minor truss. 9 6 S.i..Hold-down meclhniw ior
cator, since nlost such items are of special design t ~ n drcquire a tcchnicnl 4 9r 4.4. Top-type [Link] liangm.s. internal tray mnnlr.:tya.
5. Thermal expansion joint hrlwrm 10 6 10.4. Downromer clamping hst.s.
know-how peculiar to a particular organization. Bubble trays and calls tray floors nnd supporting ~[Link]. 11. Adjustuble ~reirs.
represent a typical example of vessel intcrnals wllich arc purchaseit fro111 6. Intepml minor support in truss. 12. Fabricated stlvctuml majot. l m ~ m .
n ~r~anufacturer specialiaing in tlicse items. T h e vessel fabrieatur, lio~v-
ever, provides the tray supports. I t is dcsirahle for all vessel internals to be designed so that they may
Lightweight alloy steel plates and bubble caps are in extensive use a t bc removcd from tlie nlan\\.wys in the vessel. Large pieces of equipment
this time, and the support problem is 1nuc11 less t h n in the day uf the must be arranged so that they may be taken apart and removed in
heavy rvmt iron tray. A typical modern-type bubble tray arrangeuieiit sections.
 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Vessels 195
194
ciency. I t is particularly advisable to radiograph the Iargc longitudinal
External Appurtenances and circumferential aeams of all important vcssels.
I n a&lition to the nozt,ler, inanholes, and liandholes that m u d he con. Shop and Field Fabrication
nected to the average process vessel, certain other exterior atta(.li~l~ent?
are usually rcquired. These includc angles for the support of insulatim. Because of the superior equipment and working conditions in a fahrica-
lugs and various brackets for the support of platforms and ladders which tor's shop, field fabrication should he kept to a minimum. Large dia~neter
are to be ~ t t a e h c dtu the vessel, and skirts for tlie support of the tower vessels (20 t o 30 f t ) , however, must be field fabricated. Rolled sections
a t the required elevation. Thcse items are supplied by the vcssel fabrica- (arcs) of the shcll 7 to 8 f t wide are shipped t o the jobsite. V h e n plan-
tor and ~velriedto the vessel prior to shipment. Structural grade steel ning any vessel over 10 ft diameter by 35 f t long, railroad agents should
is normally employed. be consulted. Sizcs above this d i i c h can be shipped depend largely on tlie
railroad facilities scrving the area. Lengths up to 60 to 80 it have been
handled using special cars, but such shipments must be carefully planned
Stress Relieving
early in the job.
Residual stresses are produced around the wclded seanis of vessels.
Such strcsscs weaken the vessel a t these points, particularly in thicker Vessel Inspection
ressels (above 1% in. tliicki. I n these instances and in all c a m where The vesrcl codes require inspection by somc puhlic inspertnr, such as
liiaxiniuro safety is rcquired, the wssel 1s stress-rclieved t o eliniinate state, municipal, or insurance company inspccturs. before the [Link] can
surh residual stresses. Tlie codes',2 permit a higher joint efficiency if he certified as romplying nil11 llw mdcs. Prior to this inspection, the
stress relieving is used.* purchaser should havc inspected the vcsrcl during all phnses oi its
Strcss relieving is an annealing or heat treating process which relieves fabrication. This includcs inspection of the plates and heads as they
residual stresses. The operation varies, depending on the material of arrive a t tlic fabricator's shop, study of mill test reports,' and thc
construction. For instance, carbon steels are heated t o approximately follo~vingof all operations including the final hydrostatic test of the com-
llOOF and then cooled slowly. Most austenitic stainless steels are pletcd vessel.?
heabed to around 2000" F and then cooled rapidly in order t o prevent
carbide precipitation characteristic of these metals in the range of 800 t o THEORY OF PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
1600" F. Precipitation of the rarbides in stainless steel destroys the Rules for the design and fabrication of rmfired pressure ressels h a r e
currosioo resistance. been carefully outlined by two major codcs whir21 arc used by tlie proccss
A mell-equipped vessel fatxication shop has large electrically heated industries. These are the ASME and the API-ASXIE codes for unfired
furnaces capahle of receiving almost any size vessel that can be shipped pressure vessels.l,2 They are based on the judgment of experts. A11
in one piece. 1,arge vessels that must be welded in tlie field can be stress- process vessels should be constructed in accordance with tlic rules of onc
relieved around tlic rvclds using gas fired portable furnaces. Several low of there codes.
temperature strcss-relieving processes are also used. These employ Before proceeding with a discussion of design equations a hricf
special oxyacetylcnc torches which apply heat to the area a t the welds, theoretical background is desirable. The formulas given in the codes
followcd by n water spray. for determining the minimum shcll and ticad thicknesses are very simple
Because of the widc differences in physical properties of metals, it is and easy to use. Many occasional users, therefore, forget the limitation
imperative that the propcr stress-relieving procedure be outlined by a and the basis of these equations. Such indiscriminate usc, which has
compctent metallurgist. been encouraged by the large numbers of so-called rapid vessel design
calculation charts, lead t o poor design.
Radiographing
* M i l l test reports give the physiral and e h e m i ~ a lproperties oi the piirticul;lr stpel
When the greatest confidence in the soundness of a construction of a that was used b y t h e steel mill in ~rrnnufaeturingthe platcs being used f u r the vessel.
vessel is desired, radiographing (X-raying) of all welds is done in urder t o i Vesscl~are hydrostatiealiy tcsted t o on?-and-a-half timcs the maximum working
prewurc. A t this test pressu1.c all neklrd joinis are subjertcd t o impact by hammer.
detect defects. Hecnuse of the greater kno\vlcdgc oi weld quality, the
the weight of whirh is equal :ipp~.uximatel>-t o thc t h i c k n w ui the shell in trnths of
codesl.2 permit a lower safety iactor in the form of a higher joint effi- a n inrh. A numhrr oi variations of t h r e t w t s nre possihle depending o n the vcssel
size, thickncm, material, and athcr siruilar iiicturs.
* S e e Table 12-1.
196 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 197
. and K ,arc equal 111K thc r:dius of thc spht:n,.
I n the r.ast3 of :I s p h ~ r eR,,,
Thin-walled Vessels
and hecause of this symmetry 110th S, and St arc the same.
Thin-TT-alledvessels as defined by the ASJIE Code have thicknesses
less than one-half of the inside radius.' Such vessels constitute the Ilence,
niajority of tliose encountered in process plants although high prebsure
operation, such as tliat necessary for ammonia synthesis reactors (10,000
to 12,000 psi!, rcquirc thicker walls and the usual analysis for thin ~ ~ a l l s
is not applicable. For thin-mlled vesscls equal stresses along the entire

I n like m;rnucr. wing thc s a ~ n cgeneraliz~~rlequation. Den IIart(1: l ~ a i

ilemonstratrd Biezcno's classical construction of a pressure v c s ~ c lhead
of .?ur:lr currature tliat the ur~nlbranes t ~ ~ s r are
e s the s:urrc urer I~otli1111'
Iicad and [Link] and the tliicknrssee ;\re constant. I t is [Link]
t o note that the popular 2 : 1 elliptical hc;rtl very nearly approachc: this
i i l ~ x lshape.

For a cylinder I?,,, is infinite and R Lis equi~l10 lhe ritdiuh of 111~1ryli~rdcr.
Hence
S-,
= +St I'
=

S , = -I'R
=f - I'D,"
2t
thickness of the \\.all enn be assumed. The 1,ressurc a~,tiiignitliin snch a
cylindrical vessel produccs longitudinal and circuinferential or tangential
The ni~ridionalstress, 1vhi1.h in the case of a rylindcr is caller1 the lougi-
dresses as shown in Fig. 12-5. These stresses can be ealculatcd by
t ~ d i n : ~strrss
l (S,,),is ohtained 11y considering the shell in the ~lirertionof
[Link] rquilihriun~between tllc opposing forces. The derivation for
th~~ t m t r line.
r From Fig. 12-5 it is seen that the t,otal stress :it the en11
thc riiiil~leryiiniler is familiar t o inany and is givcn in :my standard work
of t h cylinder
~ is aD,,,lS,. Opposing this is the pressure acting in the
on strength of niatcrials. I k n Hartogs has presented a iiiost cnliglitcn-
lorigitudinal direction, 1'aUm2/'4.
ing gcner;tlizcd derivation frolu which equations for any slrcll produced
by rerolntion of a n clement can readily he deduced. His gencml cyuation
is 3s follo~rs:
-S +
, -= S, P
R, R, t
n-here S, = meridional stress, the stress in a plane v i t h the center line of 'l'l~us t l ~ ct;~ngcntinlstrrss is the, larger ;1ni1 nwil 1 1 the
~ only on,. [.on-
rohtion for the membrane and acting perpendicular t o t'lic -i~lerctl in calculating the wall tl~ickncs,*rcquircd fur ;I tllin-w~tllcd
ccntcr line rylinder to \vithrtnnd a givcn internal Ilresture. TIE tangential stress
St = tangcntial stress, acts in a tangcnt t o the circular cross section in a cylinder is often referred to a s the hoop stress.
perpendicular t o the center line
I f 1 = uormal distance between the center line and a point on the Codes
shell (for a cylinder, the radius) Some very excellent rules and regulations governing the design and
X,,= ladius of curvature in meridional plane, infinity for a cylinder fabrication of [Link] vesfiels and tanks liavr l w n pulilisl~ctlin the for111
P = internal pressure, psig of codes. The folio!\-ing is a rcpresentativc, hut not romplctc, list of rob
t = thickness of shell wl1i1.11I I Z ~ C i:orui11l:11(~~I
: I I I I ~ i~r~gaiii~:itionr [Link] ves~1.1:mI t:mk 1~111-
' Thc Al'I-ASME Code specifies one-tenth of iuaide dimnrter. stl'ucti(1n.
 Vessels 1W
198 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ence t o the ASXIE code and thus avoids repetition of these regulations,
\[Link] Code; Unfired Pressure Ywseis for Petroleum Liquids and Gases. I t is not surprising that certain differences have developed between the
S M E Roiier Code Section VIII; Rules for Constmrtion of Unfired Preszure two codes. many of which are minor and result froln differences in wording
l~esiels.
American Petroleum Institute; Specifications for Oil Storage Tanks, Section that h a w produced variations in interpretation. Perhaps the m0i.t im-
xo. 12-C. portant variation is the definition of qualified inspectors; the ASME.: mrle
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. seems to have improved the system of inspection.
Kntional Board of Fire Underwriters. The ASME code now contains a more complete list of permissible
.\nrerican Factory Mutual Fire Inzurance Companies. materials and a more recent method for calculating thickness of vessels
.\rnericnn Bureau of Shipping Rdps for Clafsificntion and Construction of
Sterl leiiels. subject t o external pressure. These differences are due t o variations in
philosophy that occurred between the groups responsible for formulating
Of thc above named organizations and codes, the code published by the t,he rules.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and that published Situations continually arise in the design and fabrication of pressure
jointly by the ASME and The American Petroleum Institute (API)" are vessels which make int,erpretation of the code difficult. The Boiler Code
the n u ~ s videly
t used rules for vessel design and construction. Knowledge Committee, therefore, accepts inquiries about code interpretation and
of thc historirnl bnrkground of t h e e codes is of valuc in their interpreta- mccts monthly for discussion. Decisions made in these meetings are sent
tion. Samansl' has compared the recent editions of the two codes most
cffectirciy using nn historical approach.
I to the inquirer as well as [Link] s ~ ~ h s e q u e ~in~ tJfechnnicnl
lg
ing, the official publicat,ion of the ASME. In like manner, questions can
Engineel.-

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, between the years

1920-1925. forn~ulntcdthe Boiler Construction Code, Section V I l I of
i he addressed to the American Petroleum Institute concerning the inter-
pretation of the API-ASME code.
~1-1iichappwred in 1925. This section was thc first edition of ASME I
Code for Unfi~erlPressure Vessels. Although it represented t,he first com- ! Working Formulas
plete conlpilat,ion of such regulations, i t was based mainly on practices
existing in thc steam polver and boiler industries. A t about this same ,I The theoretical formulas present,ed above for thin-walled pressure
i vessels have proved reliable by actual test, and are used in both the M I -
t,ime the petroleum industry began its remarkable march of progress, and
the need for vessels that could withstand high pressures and temperatures
hccame mnre and morc common in that indudry. Because of the narrow
/i ASRfE and ASME codes. The API-AShIE simply adds a corrosion
allowance and an efficiency factor for the longitudinal joints and presents
range of temperatures corered by the AShlE code a t that time, en,oineers the formula as follows:
I
in the petroleum refining industry considered the ASME code of 1925
inariequatc for their use. Their thoughts were prcsented before the Boiler
Codc Committee in 1925, and it was agreed t h a t the pctrolcnm industry
should publish its o\\-n practices and mei,hods of pressure vessel design where P = maximum working pressure or design pressure, psig
for thc benefit of both the petroleum industry and all other process in- D, = mean diameter in in.
dustrips. A joint cornmittce of the A P I and the AShIE was formulated. S = allowable working stress, psi (values of S are given in both
The API-ASME rode which they developed was first issued in 1934 and codes',2)
was [Link] by revised editions in 1936, 1938, 1943, and 1951. Since the E = efficiency of longitudinal joint (values of efficiency vary from
issuance nf the first, API-ASAIE code, the AShlE code has been exten- 50 t o 95% depending on type of joint and whether stress
sively revised. Tllc latest 1952 edition of Section 8 contains complete relieving and/or radiographing are used. See Table 12-1
rules for the use of cast iron, nonferrous materials, and high alloy steels for typical values)
3s well as rules for carbon and low alloy steels corered by the API-ASME C = corrosion allowance in in.
code and previous editions of the AShlE code. The API-ASkIE code, in 1 = thickness in in.
fact, now refers to the rules for high alloy steels and clad steels by refer-
The use of a mean diameter instead of an inside diameter is an attempt
*.As hook it w j r lc;+~.nrdthat thr .[Link] C O ~ will
n-tmt ti, prrss P be dis- to more nearly estimate the mean stress value across the thickness of the
rotitinilv,l. It ia lwlirvrd, however, that many o~.ganizationswill continue to use shell. A more convenient equation in terms of an inside diameter can be
it for several years to come.
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Vessels
dereloped from eq. 1 hy ralling

Dm= DI + (Dl + 2 t ) (where D L = inside diameter)

2

Hence t = PD1
2SE - P
+C (2)
T h e A P I L i S J I E code lists cq. 2 and a similar one hased on t,he o ~ ~ t s i r l c
diameter. The .iSJIE approaches the prol~lem of ohtaining n mnrc
accurate mpan stress value by adding [Link] of the thickncss to t,he radius
glrmg the equation,
I'R
t = (3)
SE - 0.W
where R = insidc radius in in.
C:oniliarisun wit11 equation 2 will indicate only a slight difference if
R is cl~angedt o 1 1 , by multiplying nulucrator and dnlrminator by 2.
Similar comparisons between the basic theoretical equations and the
i\-orking quntiuna presented II? the codes can be given for c:lr.l~ of t l ~ c
v e ~ s e lshapes. It is helpful for the project engineer to bccome fn~riiliar
v i t h the barkground rlf each frequently used formula as given by the
codes so that the limitations may be clearly understoo(1.
I n p a r t i d a s it should he rccognizcd that sllell t11ickncs.s formulas girt!
I~ared on the thickness required for the stresses created by internal
e c . I.(~arlingssuch a3 de:d loads (due to w i g h t of vessel anti
~ , o n t t v t ~n-iml
i . ]<lads,tcmperaturc stresses, and otller lo:& I\-hirh 111:iy
owur l ~ i u s he t considered separntely. Often the ~ v i n dload on n high towcr
\\.ill govvln the thickness of the lower courses of the t m e r .
Frequently w e d vrssel design equations are sr~minarizedfor ronvcniencc
in T:111lc 12-2. Users of this t a l h arc ci~utioned against hlinrl usr of
~ I I I I : I ~TTntil . tlw hmis and limitation of tlicw equations 11ccol11(,
familiar t o the user, reference to the original source shnuld Ilc I U : ~ V .
'The fornlulas for [Link] vrsscls w r e tiased rln the assan~ption
t l ~ the
t ~~ivcumfercnti:d stress is unifunnly d i d r i l ~ u t c ~across
l the ~v:.xll.
Tlii. ~ ~ r w n l ~ ti ih onotr ~ true, for [Link]~ivessels. 1-arious e q u a t i < l ~ ~ s
:Ire uacd for de-igning such thick vessels. Perry'" gives a good rerimv
of some of these. Accurate calculation is still not l~nssit~le, howcver. 5in1.c
:dl the fo~111u1:1s ~lcvclope(ltlius f a r are 11:w~lon SOIIIV ervonwua U S N I I I I ~ .
tiun. l ~ ~ x ~ ~ c r i .stu~lich
u ~ e ~ ~UIIi ~thick
d c r s 11eing c o ~ ~ d w tI,? d
c y l i ~ ~ ~ l IW
sevmrl Iwgr cllen~icalcun~panicaengaged in high pressure olieratiuns.
Yerifivation of cnlrulatiun pmcedurcs or derelopl~lentof n e x equatiuns
should rtisult from tllis work. A t present it is necessary t o use existillg
data :m1 c ~ ~ l l ~sizable
l u y safety iacturs tu a l l u ~for the 1i111itedknuwicdge
uf tljick-xxll vessel ,lesigti.
202 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 203
I = moment of inertia, (in.I4 SB = allowable stress for buckling,
TABLE 12-2. Summary of Formulas for Design of Thin-Walled
M = bending moment due to xvind, 2 X 1 0 6 ( t / D ) psi
,
Pressure Vessels (Internal Pressure) lb-ft S o = stress due to dead weight, psi
Purpose ASRlE API-.1SRIE P = working pressure. psig S , = longitudinal stress, psi
P. = wind pressure. p f S,,, = stress due to wind, psi
1. Tliirkness of shells R = inside rndius of shell, in. 1 = thickness of shell or head, in.
(Internal pressure) R, = radius to which the head is 11' = weight of vessel. Ih
( a ) Cxlindrical 1 = PR
SE - 0.6P
+C t = PD1
2SE - P
+C dished measured to centerline a t
thickness of crown plate, in.
a = one-half of the included angle of
a cone a t the centerline of the
S = alloanble working stress (see conical head
(b) Spherical 1= PR
2SE - 0.2P
+C t = p,D1
4Sh - P
+c tables in code), psi

2. Heads T h e calculation of thicknesses for shells subjected t o external pressure

(a) Ellipsoidal (2:l) t = PD1
2SE - 0.2P
+C (vacuum vessels) has been presented in the form of charts in both cotles.
T h e detailed design and application of stiffening rings is also outlined.
(b) Dished (standard
ASME with Shell Stresses D u e to D e a d Weight a n d W i n d Loads
Knuckle mdius
6 % of crown) t =
0.885PRc
S E - 0.1P
+C t =
0.885PR,
SE
+C
T h e codes for pressure vessels state t h a t wind loads and loads due t o
dead weight of the vessel and its contents should be considered in analyz-
ing the stresses d-hich occur in a given vessel, but no sperific rules
(c) Hemispherical t = PD1
4SE - 0.4P
+C t=-+C
PD,
4SE governing tliis are stated in t h e code.
On the x i n d r ~ a r dside of a vessel the stresses due to rvind and internal
( d ) Conical 1=
PD,
2 cosa(SE - 0.6P)+ C t = PDc
2SE cos a
+C pressure (in tliis case, longitudinal stress) act t o produce a tension on t h e
vessel wall, while the dead weight stress produces compression and there-
3. Thickness of cylindrical
shells based on combined fore is opposite in sign. On t h e leeward side: the stress due to wind and
loads weight both produce compression, while the longitudinal stress due to
(a) Combined dead internal pressure is again acting in tension and is opposite ill sign. These
weight, internal two conditions can be expressed mathematically as follows:"
pressure, and
wind loads Windward side Windward : S = S, - Su + S, (4 1
Leeward: S = S, + So - 8, (5)

Leeward side where S = allowable stress

S, = stress due t o mind load
2P,y W PD,
1=- So = stress due t o dead r ~ e i g h t
U D ' S + ZS- 4~ S, = l o n g i t ~ u d i a stress,
l PD,/4t
1. Buckling F o r estimating purposes the allowable stress in t h e ahove formulas m a y
be taken a s the joint efficiency multiplied by t,llc allowable working
Nomenclature stress listed in the codes for t h e material in question.
C =corrosion allownnce. in. D, =inside diameter of a cone a t the I n addition t o the conditions considered thus far, the x i n d and dead
11 =outside diameter of shell, in. point of consideration, in. weight loads can also produce buckling on the leeward side of a cylindrical
D' = outside diameter of shell includ- L), = mean diameter of shell, in. vesscl. T o be on the safe side, i t is advisable t o assume t h a t the internal
ing insulation, in. E = joint efficiency, fraction (see
DL = inside diameter of shell, in. codes) *The ahove analysis is hnwd an the most commonly used and simplest t,heow.
D, = mean diameter of a cone a t the h = distance from top of vessel to the maximum stress theory. Other theories in use include t h e maximum strain,
point of consideration, in. point under consideration, ft maximum shear, and modified strain-energy. Brummerstedt%eviews these theories.
204 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels
l ~ r r s ~ l lisr l ~
ZI~rofor tl~isr a l ~ : ~ ~ h t5inw I I : I ~ i11f'rr;l.w~tile
i ~ ~ n~. I I ~ , , I ,pr?>.llrc Ilence suhst,it,uting in eqs. 4 and 5
stal)ility of a v e s ~ r l . Thc allo~vahleFtrcs. for hnrkling is equal to thc
stres:: due to vind lciad plus that h e to dead \vcight loail ISR = s, + S,,
1,. 11. L)ol~ncll" has 'lone eonsidcrable expcri~nentalrvo1.k on the hurkling
I \ \ ~ i n d ~ ~ -allon
a r d able stress = S =
2lh2
--- - .-
IV
+-PD,
T I ) ' ~ TI),,,~ 4t
of shclls and has dcreloped the following empiric:d equation for cvnlu:~t-
ing t l ;~llo\\-:~hlc
~ rtrt,~.

21',h2 If7 - -
I'D,
Leeward allowdjlc stress = S = -- +
T I ) ' ~ nL),,i 41
whew l sh~,lli hirkncss
=
I< sll~!llr:~(lius
=
I:' = m~ululusof ~,lasticiLy
S, = yield point,
.Jnrgmsen7 has simplified this formnls for the usu:~l carhon steel shcll to
S H = 2 X 106(i I>) ~r-hichW:IS d ~ r i v e using
~ l a factor of si~fctyof 4 on this
stress ralrul:itnd from 1)onnell's formula.
r .
1 he :~llm\-ahlcstress formulas can he further cxpanrletl as folio\\-s:
.111)'12 (Imsed on the \veil-kn~nvn hcnding stress The above three formulas and that for the. rircumfcrential stress sl~onlrl
\\'ind lo;~d= S,, = -
formnla, l~cn~ling
momentsection modulus I
21 he used to determine the controlling thickness. Since the operating weight,
of a vessel depends on the thickness finally chosen, the m i g h t must first
where '11 = Ijcnding moment be assumed. Several short cuts t o this estimate have been suggested.
P,,
=
=
( 1 , 2 ) P , X (D'j12)h2lb of force-ft
unit wind pressure, * psf
+
.Jorgensen7 has developed a formula: TI' = [Link] 0.1G3h112 for in-
sulat,ed towers having cast iron trays. Nelson%uggests calculating the
D' = outside diameter of slicll in in. Inrlu~lesinsulation and 'or w i g h t based on the thickness t and height h, using a metal density of
other projections 0.283 lh!cu in., and then increasing this value by 18 per cent. Lo allox for
h = distanre from top of vessel to point, lwing considered, f t liquid, insnlation, trays, etc. Employing this procedure eq. 8 for the
I = moment of inertia xindward side becomes
= approximately a ( D ' ) W 8 , (in.)'
1 =
2P,,.h2
-
TI)'
- - +
PI),, '4
1 = thi~,laessof shell in i n S +
411 (11)

Hence eq. 9 for thc lee11 an1 side becom~s

2fJ,,RhD.
' - PI),. ' 2
48 P , D ' h ' V P-
,h2 t = (12)
- - - S - 4h
24a(Df)'t TD'~
Dead load: and cq. 10 iur buckling 11rc111nt.s

where TV = weight of vessel plus i n t e n d s and liquid Eq. 11 through 13 provide a method for estimating thickness for
I), = mean diameter of shell in in. typical to~vers. Eq. 8 t l i r ~ ~ u g10,
l ~ howrwr, should he u s d whcn nrorc
*The unit wind pressure is related t o thp wind velocity by an empirical formula accurate information is reqnirrrl and the thickness ran t h ~ nhe rletm-
dercloprd hy tlic TJS. Weatlier Bureau. 100 mph wind is [Link] e q u i d e n t n ~ i n d11y succwsivc al)prmiiootiu:~of t l ~ rweigl~t.
to 30 psi; a 125 mph \I-ind, to 40 psf. In c x t r ~ ~ n c tall I ) I I P C ~ 011 the internid p r e ~ u r e
l y t o w w the thick~~rils
i
206 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 207
alone is often not adequate to x i t h s t a n d the combined stresses produced others several thicknesses m a y be indicated. Each case must be con-
by wind and u-eight. Sincc there stresses increase from top to t h e bottom sidered separately. Generalizations are to he aroided.
of the tou-er, i t is usually economical to increase t h e thickness of the lower T h e a b o r e principles and c q u a t i m s arc briefly illustrated in the fol-
~~-

lowing example. T h c calcnlations represent only the preliminary thick-

ness calculations in p r e s u r r ressel design. Detailed stress calculations
when necessary lnupt he mndc b y a competent vessel designer skilled in
engineering mechanics.
Item No. T-lo/ EXAMFLE: .I process sketch of a fractionating tower is given in Fig. 12-6.
Service P / m f 8 FeedStob//,rer Prepare the mechanical design assuming a maximum !%-ind velocity of 125
Inside Diameter 7t0" miles/hour (equivalent to 40 psi <rind pressure). Design in accordance with
Length the API-ASI\IE Code. TTse ASTM A-70 Firebox Grade Steel and double-welded
(Tangent toTongent) ~ 3 ~ 0 " butt joints. No stress relieving or radiographing is required.
Operoting Temperature O F 550
Operating Pressure psig /00 THlcKNEss O F SHELLREQUIRED PRESSURE
FOR INTERKAL
Design Temperature O F 600
Design Pressure
l20>,
Corrosion Allowonce 5%
Weir Height 3"oN t r o w From API-ASME Code: E = 0.80
Downcomer Clearance / " o// tmys S = 13,750

NOZZLES

-
No. Size IInches1 -
Service Nearest Practical Thickness = in.
/ /6 Overhead Vopor
COK~IDERING STRESSESAT BOTTOM TANGENTLINE
2 3 Ref/un
3 /'? F e e d /n/et* Estimated operating weight (not including skirt), Dm = 7.05 ft
4 16 Reboiler Pounds
(Make Tongenfio/) Cylinder: (1/12) (5/8) (a) (7.05) (53) (489) = 30,000
5 8 Bottoms
Heads (two a t 1622) = 3.244
-2---

Trays (alloy steel trays 26 psf) (a) (7)'(26) = 15,000

4
3( Des;gn h t e r n o l disfributor to Liquid on trays (base on water and 3 in. depth)
provide even d i s f d u t i o n across
length of troy. ( 1 5 ) [ ( ~(7)2/41(V12)
) (62.4) = 9,000
Liquid in bottom of tower (7 ft)

Nofe: Provde manwoys, ?ope q/oss.

ondlevel control connecfions.
Insulation (3 in. plastic insulation) = 8,600
85.494 1b
Weight of water when full during hydrostatic test = 133,000
Fig. 12-6. Process vessel sketch. Weight of vessel full of water = 189,844t

section of the tower. Fabrication procedures and plate costs must be THICKNESSBASEDON WINDWARD STRESSES AT BOTTOY TANGENT
considered in selecting the thicknesses. Theoretically, t h e thickness of W PD
a tall shell should increase steadily from t o p to bottom. Such a design
S = (13,750)(0.8) = 11,000 =
2 P ha - -
aD't aDt 41
+-
is, of course, impractical. I n some rases a single-:hell thickness equal t o *Volume of 7-0"ID 2 : 1 elliptical head.
the maximum required a t the bottom m a y prove the most economical. I n +
t 85,494 - 9,MH) - 19,650 1 3 3 , m = 189,844.
208 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 209

DEVELOPMENT O F A VESSEL DESIGN

= 0.072 - 0.0292 + 0.232 = 0.2748 in. Setting Basic Dimensions

The size and shape of no st proccss vessels are determined by the
THICRNESBASED
O N LGEWARDSTRESSES
process eugineer. B y training and experience he is the logical pcrson t o
2P,hZ
s=-- + - -IV- PD,
make such decisions. The diameter and height of a distillation toner
sD't sD,t 4s
;ire sct n-ithin limits, by thc distillation design calculation. The rolume
Inspection indicates this not to be controlling. of accumulator drums. reactors, and scttling tanks are similarly dictated
by the process calculation. Anyone n-ho has made such ~.alculntions,
THICKXESS Use reight full of vnt,er ns a-orst ron<lition.
BASEDox BRUCKLISG. Ilorrercr. realizes that tlwre is ronsiderahlc Icc!!-ay possible in thi. final
1,110ice. For cxuniple. nn accumulator drum nus st have a certain rolunie.
hut an infinitc 11un1hi'r of lengtl~to diameter ratios can be cniploycd ti1
= 9500 approximately (based on corroded thickntss, 0.625 - 0.125 = 0.500) give t h a t volume. Other factors being equal, i t is necessary t o choose the
mart economical design. Brunimerstedt~ llnr sho~vnthat a length t o
diameter ratio of 3 : 1 or 4 : 1 is most eronouiical for l o ~ vprcssure tanks in
the range irom 50 to 75 psig, and length to diamcter ratio of froni 4 : 1 t o
6 : 1 is preferablr for prcssllres a l ~ o r c100 11sig. Other fartors. sncli w.+
plant layout, appearnnce, and foundation conditions must also ht: eon-
All of the above ralues are less than the unmrrod~dthickness based nn tho sidcrcd. Ahove all, the process engineer must specify wssels so that
circumferential pressure; hence the 1:~ttcris controlling. standard materials can be employed throughout. The usc of sta~liiard
heads, for instance, rill avoid extra charges for special pattemp.
Design Conditions
T h e prucess engineer ~villdo well to consult with the resscl designer
The allowable working stress t o be used in the various for~nulasis during the early stagcs of vessel planning so that tllc most econmnical
given in tabular fonn in each of the codes. It is t,he minimum tensile
design can be realized Engineers concerned with the detailed mechanical
strength of the particular mctal divided by a safety factor. This factor dcsign and fa1)sication of :t vessel are not in a position to c11:mge basic
is 6 for the A S N E Code u p t o 650" F, and 4 for the API-ASME Code. dimensions, sincc it is asramecl that tllesr d i ~ u c n s i m s: ~ r crcquire~llor the
The allul~-ablestress corresponding to the design trmpcmture should hc process. It is, therrforc, irnpcrative t h a t the basic dimensions ho set in-
selected from t,he applicable tabulation. T h e maximum working prcssure telligently by the pr(~cessengineer s i ~that t11t.y ill fulfill hut11 I ~ r w c s s
or design pressure and the design temperature must be selected by thc rcquiremeiits and tilt: rrquirmicnts of economical design.
vessel designer in cooperation with the project or process engineer. As
spccificd by the codes, thc design prcssurc should certainly not he 1c.s Materials of Construction
than the maximum relief valve settings. It is customary t o use a design Selection of the materials of construction for the vessel must be a
prcssurc of appnlximatcly 20% above the niaximum operating pressure rooperatire effort between thc ~ c s s c lilcsigncr, projcct enginper, and
anticipated. Unusual operating conditions m a y require selection of process engioccr. The ~uctnl:,cuiployrd must rrsist corrosive or crusirc?
higher design pressures. I n a similar manner, the design temperature conditions and must also ]lo.2scss sufiicient strength a t tlic ol~cratinpt m ~ r -
should be chosen a t a reasonable value above the normal opcrating tem- perature and prcssurc t o permit a practiml dcsign. V i s e sclectiun oE
perature, such as 50". Higher margins of safety may be used in processes materials will insure lo\!- uiaintm:mrc costs a n ~ iImv first cost?.
where greater increases in temperature are possible. It should he re-
.4uy attempt t o list recommended materials vuuld bc incnmpletc and
membered t h a t every possible contingency cannot be considered in the niislwding. Selection of materi:rls for rorrosion resistance in particular
design, since the cost would then become prohibitirc. But the vessel
is an euq)[Link] science which depends on the exact conditions of uw
should be designed t o withstand all reasonable possible contingencies, and including even t h r presence of t r a r r irn1)aritii.s in tilt, r r ~ v i r i ~ u ~ l i rsur-
ut
suitable pressure-relieving devices should he installed t o protect the vessel rounding the mctal. Ihginecrs sliould urr so-called "linndy" material
aiid the personnel in ease ol unusual situations.
icli~ctiunr11:uts wit11 r:wticnl. F : s ~ ~ t ~ i ~ ~ results,
i m t a l p r ~ v i o u s~ ) l a u tex-
210 Project Engineering of Process Plants
perience under similar conditions, or the opinion of a corrosion expert
are the only safe guides.

Transmitting Process Specifications \

The most efficient means for transmitting information about vessels and
tanks is by sketch or drawing. The process engineer can make a simple
~ k e t c bof the vessel which indicates the operating condition. the number
and size of nozzles and types of internals required (Fig. 12-6). H e also
s h o d d recommcnd the material of construction (particularly in the rases
involving corrosive fluids) and the thickness of insulation. Any require-
ments which are unique or unusual should he discussed with the v e s d
designer. T h i ~includes the proper c , ~ r ~ o s i oallorvance
n to he used in
determining tlie thickness of the vessel.

Detailed Mechanical Design

After receiving the process sketch, the ~ ~ e s sdesigner
el can procccd wkh
the detailed mcchaniral deaign of the vessel. Tlic design is invariably
based on one of tlie codes (API-AShlE or ASME) ; the choice of code is
usually dictated by tlie industry for which thc vessel is being designed.
If t h r w is no preference on the part of the ultimate user, the designer is
free tu use his judgment. Many states and cities h a r e codes or special
requirenicnts that must be fulfilled, although a large number of thesc
are based directly on the A H - A S M E or A W E codes. A summary of
these reqnirements for thp United States and Canada is cuntained in
Synopsis of Boiler Codes, Rules and Regnlations b y States, Provinces,
and Cities, Kational Bureau of Casualty and Surety [Link]
There is, of course, no rule forbidding construction superior t o t h a t out-
lined by the codes, and in inany cases the ultimate user or the designer
elects to follorr- certain rules in order t o realize a better design. I n such
eases, specifications arc written by the designer, uvhich include appropriate
references t o the code as well as the additional requirements which are
desired.
After completion of the initial mechanical design, which includes cal-
culation of the required tliickness of the sl~elland heads, a preliminary
sketch of the vessel is made which shows the major details including the
size and number of nozzles. Exact location or orientation of the nozzles
is not attempted. This initial sketch can be made in such a form t h a t
it will eventually, after suhsequent revisions, become the final and
complete vessel drawing, or it can be made on a smaller-size sheet as a
temporary working dra~ving. I n either event,, it finds its greatest use a s a
means of transmitting preliminary information t o vessel fabricators for
the purpose of obtaining quotations. Since steel plate and other materials
 VESSEL DATA I

I '
SECT. B-@

9 6" ISOf R F REBolLER T O I

8 1 1" I 3001IRF ( LEVEL GAGE 2
MANUAL WELDING
7 1 2' 1 3 0 0 'RF 1 LEVEL CONTROL
~ ~ . - I I ?

6 12. 150'RF REBOILER RETURN I

5 3 150'RF BOTTOM OUTLET I
I E-2 SPLITTER
SPECIFICATIONS FOR:
4 10' 150XRF VAPOR O U T L E T I
3 2'' 3OOfRF REFLUX I N L E T 1
CUSTOMER:
2 4' ISDXRF FEED INLET 2
1 18 ID. 150'RF MANWAY FURH15H COYEP h, WLT5
NUTS AND GASKETS 2 SECT. A-A
CONN.
SERVICE REMARKS NO.
REq'D
I I I I I
REMARKS: A. W R GENERAL NOTES 5EE OP-545-64A UEVA 3-11-55 ADDED CROSS ANGLE AND NO. REVISED BY
8. TRAY5 TO 8 E V4'THICK CARBON STEEL WITH 10 GA. C5. RISERS AND 12 [Link] 410 ALLOY CAPS.

REV8 3-21.55
-
ADJUSTABLE WEIR TO
WWNCOMER
REDUCED SKIRT HEIGHT
FROM 10LO' TO 5'0:
-
REVC 328.55
-
ADDED NOTES A & 6
REDUCE0 CONN. 2 TO 4'

Fig. 12-7. Vessel drawing, e n g i n e e r i n g c o m p l e t e . (Courtepy of F o s t e r W h e e l e r Corporation.)

 Vessels 21 1
j required for fabrication of vessels often have long delivery timcs, it is
necessary to place the order for the vessel as soon as possible. and it is
not feasible to wait until a final design lms been made. Once the order
has been placed, the vessel design can he developed ti] an extent sucll
Trc rllat t h fabricator
~ can p u r c h a s ~the major material items, such 3:- shell
plate and heads.
ta~ The plant design procee~lssinlultaneously witli the devclopn~entof the
hkl ressel design and as piping dra~vingsare complctcd, tlie orientation of
an nozzles and manholes and exact li~cations of vessel internala can be
shi finalized. The vessel drawing is then completed after being cllecked by
inx the piping designers for orientation and possible interferences, thc struc-
me tural steel designers for location of lugs, the process engineer for process
de requirements, and the project engineer for economical design and process
det requirements.
Vessel dmwings pass through the hands of a number of different,
cngineera for checking and cunimcnts. I t is important that the engineer
who is asked to check such a drawing check only those features f i r ~vllirh
his training and experience qualify him. I t is a waste of tinic for 3 pvocesa
the or project engincer t o concern himself witli a detailed clicck of the mechan-
bar
ical design of the vessel.
USL
An example of a finished vessel drawing is given in Fig. 12-7. I t will
If
bc noted that important information such as design conditions. operating
free conditions, code, and material specifications appear on the drarving. T h e
req I weight of the vessel d l e n both empty and full of watcr should he in-
are !
eluded since this helps the structural and foundation groups plan their
tllc
work.
S!/7
It has been found by most companies t h a t nozzle details and support,
anc
Th,
lint
1I dctails, such a s saddles and tower base plates, are nmst [Link]
standardized. I t is unnecessary, therefore, t o repeat, t h e details on each
1 drawing; instead, a standard drawing is included as an attachment to
clec
cas, I the individual vessel drawings.
Tlic fabricator prepares shop drawings from the vessel dra~vingreceivcd
reft
from the purchaser's engineering department. These shop drawings w e
lies
working drawings for use by thc welders, boilermakers, and machinists.
A
Standard d d i n g symbols, a portion of ~vhirliis shown in Fig. 12-8, are
cul:
used t o guide thc welders in their operations.
ske
It proves worthwhile for the purchaser's engineers to check tlie fabrica-
size
I tor's dra~vingsagainst the original vessel drawings since it is possible for
is r I the fabricator to misinterpret certain features of the original drawings.
it . This checking should be done without delay so that the fabricator can
cox
continue tiis work. Last-minute changes in the vessel design or specifi-
te~r.
cations should be avoided unless absolutely necewary. Even the smallest
me2
change can cause considerable delay, confusion, and expense
the
212 Project Engineering of Process Plants
~. ~ ~~~

BASIC ARC A N D GAS W E L D S Y M B O L S

TYPE O F W E L D

PLUG GROOVE
BEAD FILLET OR
SLOT SQUARE V BEVEL U J

BASIC RESISTANCE W E L D SYMBOLS

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
T Y P E OF W E L D
FLASH WELD CONTOUR
SPOT SEAM OR ALL
JECTION UPSET AROUND WELD FLUSH CONVEX

STANDARD LOCATION OF E L E M E N T S OF A WELDING S Y M B O L

I
F ~ n i s hsymbol Groove angle, n c l u d e d
angle of countersnk for
Contour symbol plug welds

R o d a w n i n g ,depth of Iilbng Lenglh of weld

l o r plug ond r o t welds
P S I C (~c e n ~ e r v t o ~
S z e , w e or strength center1 of weds
for r e i s t o n c e w e d s
Weld a l l
Reference n e around symbol

F ~ e l dweld
S p e c f c a t l o n process
symbol

T O (may beomitted
when reference I S not u s e o )
Arrow connecting
201ic weld symbol reierence l n e to

Fig. 124. Standard wrlding symhols. (R~ilt.:imnhy [Link]?ion, 11'eirling llnnrlb~rni~.

.\n~[Link] \Velding Socirty.)

REFERENCES
1 . APl-AS.\IE Code f o r Unfiied Pirsraii. l'esnels, 8111. Soc, hlech. Engrs.. Smv
York (1951).
XCU. l w k
2. ASJIE Code (01. Cvfii-ed Pressure I~rawla,Am. Soe, h l ~ c l l Engl.~..
.
(1052) and (1956).
 Heot Exchangers 215
Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger
As tlie n a n ~ eimplies, the double-pipe heat
exchanger consists of t ~ v oconcentric pipes.
One fluid flo~vsin the internal pipe and the
other in the annulus hetwccn thc inside and
outside pipes. Such exchangers are m o d con-
veniently arranged in the form of hairpins,
similar to the extended surface exchanger of
Fig. 13-1. Thc usual pract