History

Afghanistan's history spans five thousand years and the Afghan people have contributed to the
emergence of many Central Asian empires. The ancient centers of culture and civilization were influenced
by diverse outsiders such as Rome, Greece, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, India, and China. Great
conquerors such as Jenghiz Khan and Timurlane swept through Afghanistan during the 13th and 14th
century. These rulers brought with them the desire to establish kingdoms, and founded cultural and
scholarly communities in Afghanistan. In particular, during the Timurid dynasty, poetry, architecture and
miniature painting reached their zenith.

The rise of the great Mughal Empire again lifted Afghanistan to heights of power. The ruler, Babur, had
his capital in Kabul in 1512, but as the Mughals extended their power into India, Afghanistan went from
being the center of the empire to merely a peripheral part of it. In the 18th and 19th century with
European forces eroding the influence of the Mughals on the Indian subcontinent, the kingdom of
Afghanistan began to emerge. Ahmad Shah ruled from 1747 and successfully established the concept of
a united Afghanistan.

Throughout the 19th century Afghans fought against British forces. In the 1830s, Dost Muhammad
skillfully balanced the influence of the Russians, British, Iranians, and Sikhs. However, rising tensions
resulted in several wars from 1839 and 1842 and from 1878 to 1880. The twenty-one year reign of Abdur
Rahman Khan was an important period for the consolidation of a modern state marked by efforts to
modernize and establish control of the kingdom. The borders of Afghanistan were established in 1893
through negotiations with the British, and provincial governments emerged, taking the place of clan rule.

ART and CULTURE

Artistic activity in Afghanistan can be traced back as early as 18,000 BC. For centuries Afghanistan linked
the civilizations of Iran, India, and China. In the Islamic Era, the Ghaznavid rulers of the 10th to 12th
centuries and the Ghorids fostered artistic development. Continuing through the Timurid dynasty,
Afghanistans cultural life prospered and flourished through the rulers high regard for men of learning and
artists. The descendants of Timur turned the city of Herat into a center of cultural activity enticing artists
such as Abdul Rahman Jami, Abdulhay, and Kamal al-Din Bihzad to create finely illustrated books and
exquisite buildings.

The Bone Valley

The Bone Valley is a region of central Florida, encompassing portions of present-day Hardee,
Hillsborough, Manatee, and Polk counties, in which phosphate is mined for use in the production of
agricultural fertilizer.

Cupola Roof
 In architecture, a cupola is a small, most
often dome-like, structure on top of a building.[1] Often used
to provide a lookout or to admit light and air, it usually
crowns a larger roof or dome. The word derives,
via Italian, from the lower Latin cupula (classical
Latin cupella from the Greek kupellon) "small cup"
(Latin cupa) indicating a vault resembling an upside
down cup.
The cupola is a development during the
Renaissance of the oculus, an ancient device found in
Roman architecture, but being weatherproof was superior for the wetter climates of northern
Europe.[citation needed] The chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is
used atop a larger structure
Lantern roof
A roof lantern is
a daylighting cupola architectural element. Architectural
lanterns are atop a larger roof and provide natural light
into the space or room below. In contemporary use it is
an architectural skylight structure. The term 'roof top
lantern' is used to describe the lighted
decorative lanterns atop taxi cabs in Japan, designed to
reflect the cultural heritage of Japanese paper lanterns.

The glazed lantern was developed during the

Middle Ages. Roof lanterns of masonry and glass were used in Renaissance architecture, such as in
principal cathedrals. In 16th century France and Italy they began usage in Orangeries, an early form
of a conservatorystructure with tall windows and a glazed roof section for wintering citrus trees and
other plants in non-temperate climates.
Coffered Dome
A coffer (or coffering) in architecture, is a
series of sunken panels in the shape of a square,
rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit orvault.[1] A
series of these sunken panels were used as
decoration for a ceiling or a vault, also
called caissons ('boxes"), or lacunaria("spaces,
openings"),[2] so that a coffered ceiling can be called
a lacunar ceiling: the strength of the structure is in
the framework of the coffers. The stone coffers of the ancient Greeks[3] and Romans[4] are the earliest
surviving examples, but a seventh-century BC Etruscan chamber tomb in the necropolis of San
Giuliano, which is cut in soft tufa-like stone reproduces a ceiling with beams and cross-beams lying
on them, with flat panels filling the lacunae.

PAGODA
 A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple eaves, built in traditions originating in historic East
Asia or with respect to those traditions, common
to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Burma and other parts of Asia. Some pagodas are
used as Taoist houses of worship. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most
commonly Buddhist, and were often located in or near viharas. In some countries, the term may
refer to other religious structures. In Vietnam and Cambodia, due to French translation, the English
termPagoda is a more generic term referring to a place of worship, although pagoda is not an
accurate word to describe a Buddhist vihara. The modern pagoda is an evolution of the Ancient
Nepal stupa, a tomb-like structure where sacred relics could be kept safe and venerated.[1] The
architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details
specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design.
 CELLA
A cella (from Latin for small chamber) or naos (from
the Greek , "temple"), is the inner chamber of a temple in
classical architecture, or a shop facing the street in domestic Roman
architecture (see domus). Its enclosure within walls has given rise to
extended meanings, of ahermit's or monk's cell, and since the 17th
century, of a biological cell in plants or animals.

Palace of 55 window

Located in the center of Bhaktapur Durbar square the 55 window palace, or Palace of Fifty-Five
Windows, was built by King Bhupatindra Malla. However it was not completed until 1754 during the
reign of Jaya Ranjit Malla, who was the last of the Bhaktapur Malla kings. Today the 55 Window Palace
still stands as Bhaktapur's Royal Palace on ceremonial occasions.!

Bodnath Stupa

Boudhanath Stupa (or Bodnath Stupa) is the largest stupa in Nepal and the holiest Tibetan Buddhist
temple outside Tibet. It is the center of Tibetan culture in Kathmandu and rich in Buddhist symbolism.
The stupa is located in the town of Boudha, on the eastern outskirts of Kathmandu.

History of Boudhanath Stupa

Bodnath was probably built in the 14th century after the Mughal invasions; various interesting legends
are told regarding the reasons for its construction. After the arrival of thousands of Tibetans following
the 1959 Chinese invasion, the temple has become one of the most important centers of Tibetan
Buddhism. Today it remains an important place of pilgrimage and meditation for Tibetan Buddhists and
local Nepalis, as well as a popular tourist site.
Monastery complex
A monastery is the building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and
workplace(s) of monastics, whether monks ornuns, and whether living in communities or alone
(hermits). The monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel,
church or temple, and may also serve as an oratory.
Plinth

In architecture, a plinth (from French

plinthe, from Latin plinthus, from Greek
plinthos, brick) is the base or platform
upon which

a column,pedestal, statue, monument or structure rests.[1] Gottfried Semper's The Four Elements of
Architecture (1851) posited that the plinth, thehearth, the roof, and the wall make up all of
architectural theory. The plinth usually rests directly on the ground, or "stylobate". According to
Semper, the plinth exists to negotiate between a structure and the ground. Semper's theory has
been influential in the development of architecture.[2]

Many houses in flood-prone rural areas of Bangladesh are built on plinths ("homestead plinths").[

The word is also used for the base of a cabinet or an audio turntableIn dam engineering, the "plinth"
is the link between the ground and the dam. For the case of arch dams, the term is changed to
"pulvino".[3]
Chhatra

Chhatra (Sanskrit: "parasol")

or chhatraratna (Sanskrit: "jewelled/precious
parasol"; Tibetan: , Wylie: rin chen gdugs[1]) is an
auspicious symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism.

According to Hindu mythology, it is the emblem of Varuna, also considered

an embodiment of kingship. Chhatra is also a deity, yidam andishta-
devata.[citation needed] In various Dharmic traditions it is an accoutrement
of chakravartin. A number of deities are depicted with chatra, and
they include Revanta, Surya, and Vishnu (in his Vamana avatar). The
chhatra is cordoned amongst the symbols that
approachuniversality within the numerous octavalent suites or sets of
Ashtamangala, e.g., in the Digambar Jain tradition, and the Vajrayanatradition.

Fresco

Fresco (plural frescos or frescoes) is a technique

of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or
wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for
the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the
setting of the plaster, the painting becomes an
integral part of the wall. The word fresco (Italian:
affresco) is derived from the Italian
adjective fresco meaning "fresh", and may thus be
contrasted with fresco-secco or secco mural painting
techniques, which are applied to dried plaster, to
supplement painting in fresco. The fresco technique
has been employed since antiquity and is closely
associated with Italian Renaissance painting

Potala Palace
The Potala Palace (Tibetan: , Wylie: Po ta la, ZYPY: Bodala) in Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous
Region was the chief residence of theDalai Lama until the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India during
the 1959 Tibetan uprising. It is now a museum and World Heritage Site.

The palace is named after Mount Potalaka, the mythical abode of

the bodhisattva Avalokitevara.[1] The 5th Dalai Lama started its construction in 1645[2] after one of
his spiritual advisers, Konchog Chophel (died 1646), pointed out that the site was ideal as a seat of
government, situated as it is between Drepung and Sera monasteries and the old city of Lhasa.[3] It
may overlay the remains of an earlier fortress called the White or Red Palace,[4] on the site built
by Songtsn Gampo in 637
The National Museum of Nepal (Rashtriya Sangrahalaya) is a popular attraction of the capital city
of Kathmandu. About a century old, the museum stands as a tourist destination and historical
symbol for Nepal. Being the largest museum of the country of Nepal, it plays an important role in
nationwide archaeological works and development of museums. For the residents ofKathmandu, the
monument serves to relive the battles fought on the grounds of Nepal. The main attractions are
collection of historical artworks (sculpture and paintings) and a historical display of weapons used in
the wars in the 18-19th century. The museum has separate galleries dedicated to statues, paintings,
murals, coins and weapons.[1] It has three buildings Juddha Jayatia Kala Shala, Buddha Art
Gallery and the main building which consists of natural historical section (collection of species of
animals, butterflies and plants), cultural section and philatelic section.

The National Museum is under the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation. The museum has
practical application in portraying and understanding the past and present traditions of the people of
Nepal.