Shade Variation in Dying?

When different components of the same item of clothing seem to have mismatched colors, it is referred to
as shade variation and it is considered a critical defect with the garment. Garments are made by stitching a
number of different pieces of fabric parts together, so when shade variation is found between different parts it
can render the finished piece unsellable, which is why great pains are taken by manufacturers to ensure color
consistency across garment components.

Variations of shade or depth of color (hue) either within or between different garment parts is one of the
most common problems in clothing manufacturing. Shade variation can occur from selvage to selvage, selvage
to the center of fabric width, or from end-to-end across the whole fabric roll and any type of variation can drive
up manufacturing costs because the amount of fabric used to produce each garment may increase as a result.
Whenever fabrics are dyed in multiple lots there is a chance of shade variation between different lots if the
dyeing process is not well controlled.

In the case of bulk fabric, we prepare shade bands and mark and number each fabric roll. To make this process
easier, our fabric suppliers are instructed to supply the shade grouping charts with roll numbers matched to each
swatch. Because we communicate every step of process, our clients with large volume orders that require fabric
processing in more than one batch are aware of and prepared for any be small batch to batch.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMBED AND CARDED YARNS?

Combing and carding are two related techniques for preparing cotton, hair or wool fibers. With respect to
sheeps wool, the two techniques are used for making either worsted or woolen threads respectively.

Combing is a technique whereby fibers (usually cotton or wool) are passed through a series of straight, metal
teeth in order to lay the fibers parallel to one another. The fibers are then placed together in a long line
(combed sliver), which is used to spin a smooth, even thread. In this process, long fibers are separated from
shorter ones (noils) and tangles are removed. At the same time, practically all remaining foreign matter is
removed from the fibers. In general, combed fibers are cleaner, finer, stronger and more lustrous than carded
ones.

Combing process makes its fibers straight and also ensures that the fibers run parallel to each other. Combing
process makes the combed yarn more compact and strong. It should be noted here that, combed yarn needs
higher cost than carded yarn. On the other word, the yarn which is produced by using longest and fiber is
termed as combed yarn.

Carding is a technique whereby two hand or machine cards are used. These cards have numerous wire teeth set
into a paper, leather or metal ground. The teethed cards are used to separate the fibers, to spread them into a
web (but not in parallel lines as in combed wool) and to remove any short or broken fibers as well as impurities.
The web is condensed into a continuous untwisted strand of fibers called a sliver. Carded fibers are generally
used for producing woolen threads.

Carded yarn is a cotton yarn which has been carded but not combed. This type of yarn contains a wide range of
fibre length. As a result, carded yarn is not as uniform as combed yarns. It should be noted here that, carded
yarns are considerably cheaper and are used in coarse and medium counts.

Key Properties of Combed Yarn:

The main properties of combed yarn are in the below:
1. Combed yarn is extremely soft version of cotton.
2. It is more strong than others yarn such like carded yarn.
3. Combed yarn is slightly more expensive in manufacturing than conventional yarn.
4. It is very fine yarn.
5. Combed yarn is perfect for producing linen fabric.
6. It is also used perfect for producing those fabrics which are worn against the skin.
7. This type of yarn is produced by using fine and longest fiber

Properties of Carded Yarn:

Some important characteristics of combed yarn have mentioned in the following:
1. Carded yarn is comparatively less regular yarn.
2. It is comparatively lower strength of yarn.
3. This type of contains neps.
4. It has less lusture than combed yarn.
5. This type of yarns is produced including short fibers.
6. Carded yarn is more hairy than combed yarn.
7. Carded yarn is cheaper than combed yarn.
8. It is one of the lower quality of yarn.
9. It has harder hand feelings.
10. It has comparatively lower strength than combed yarn.
11. Normally, low quality fabrics are produced by using this type of yarn.
12. Dyeing and knitting wastage is very high for carded yarn than combed yarn.

Note: A sliver (rhymes with diver) is a long bundle of fiber that is generally used to spin yarn

A sliver is created by carding or combing the fibre, which is then drawn into long strips where the fiber
is parallel. When sliver is drawn further and given a slight twist, it becomes roving
Hand Screen Printing

Hand Screen Printing is a technique that allows to print, with greater accuracy, large and bright images on any
type of fabric. It is an ancient technique, that has evolved over time and is still one of the most common for
textile printing. Hand Screen printing is made with just a frame, ink and a stencils. The stencil is the negative of
the image you want to print and is in waterproofing material. After mounting the fabric on the frame and
placing the stencil, the ink is spread. The operation have to be repeated several times if working with multiple
colors. In this case, the fabric must dry completely between one color and the next. The technique of Hand
Screen Printing, while being less prone to human error, requires a high level of competence: the craftsman who
makes the press must be familiar with the pigments used and the fabric, to be sure of obtaining a good results.

Madras Checks

Madrasi checks are lightweight cotton fabrics with patterned texture and plaid design. Mostly used as summer
clothing, the fabric has inherited its name from the Chennai city which was formerly known as 'Madras

Madras check fabric is a contemporary fashion used for making shirts, skirts, pants, golf apparel, and kidswear.
These fabrics are available in plaids, seersucker, and patchwork. Madras check patchwork fabrics are made
from cutting several madras plaid fabrics in strips, and sewing them together in squares. Originally used as a
simple apparel in South India, the fabric has created a fashion history.

Absorbency finish :

Although the cellulose fibers like cotton, linen and rayon have good absorbency, sometimes it is desired that
they should be more absorbent. Appropriate application of ammonium compounds modifies the cellulose to
become more absorbent, providing greater comfort and usefulness for such uses as undergarments and towels.

What are differences between Knitting and Weaving?

Weaving
Weaving is the most popular method of fabric construction used. It involves interlacing of yarns as a means to
manufacture the fabrics. Each yarn is called either a warp (vertical) or a weft (horizontal) and they are
interlaced at right angles to make a fabric structure.

Knitting
Knitting is a process that involves intermeshing loops of yarns to manufacture fabrics. In simpler words, loops
are formed using one or more yarns in preceding and succeeding rows. The resultant fabric is called a Knitted
Fabric and it is later used in garments such as t-shirts, sweatshirts etc.
Parameters Knitting Weaving

Method of Construction Converting yarn into fabric by Converting yarn into fabric by
interloping of yarns interlacement of warp & weft

Capital Investment Capital investment is less as The capital investment is higher

compared to Weaving than knitting

Machine Set Up Time Setting up a machine is easy Not easy as compared with
and faster knitting
Productivity High Productivity Less Productivity

Design Modification Styles and designs can be Design modification is difficult

changed easily and faster as compared to in knitting

Elasticity Good elasticity as compared to Less elasticity as compared to

woven fabrics knitted fabrics

Crease resistance Crease resistance is generally Crease resistance is lower than

higher than woven fabrics knitted fabrics

Ironing Ironing not required (crease Requires ironing (crease

resistance is high) resistance is low)

Permeability to Air More permeability to air Less permeability to air

Strength of the Fabric Less stronger fabrics than Stronger fabrics than knitted
woven fabrics fabrics

Feel of the Fabric Feel of the fabric is soft More rigid as compared to
knitted fabrics

Novelty Yarns:

The construction of Novelty yarn is of advanced nature and is varied in many ways. Novelty yarn square
measure sometimes ply yarns of various styles of fibers or of various colors and square measure irregular
instead of swish single strand or yarn of varied colors, sizes of fibers could also be twisted along to create
advanced yarn. Another selection is led to during this quite yarn by varied the stress or speed when intervals of
sure length. Therefore permitting one half to loop or pervert the opposite. Novelty yarns also are created from
straightforward yarn by varied the number of twist. The advanced sort of novelty yarn is employed with 2
objects visible one is to mix completely different fibers eg. Cotton and fabric could also be mixed with or lined
by wool or silk. This lowers the price of production. The opposite objective is to provide a novelty yarn. For the
development of novelty yarns, a minimum of one or 2 single yarns square measure use. One forms the
inspiration yarn called a base or the core and therefore the different, the impact of yarn that is wound or whorled
around the initial one. A 3rd yarn known as binder yarn is commonly wont to fasten or tie the impact yarn to the
inspiration yarn. These kinds of yarns square measure largely used for material, up hoistery materials.

Novelty yarn and and types of novelty yarn is one kind of fancy yarn. We produce it in textile yarn
manufacturing. The use of it is for decorative purpose. Now we use novelty yarns in the art of fashion and
designing textiles.

Here are the types of novelty yarn in textile spinning discussed bellow.
Slub yarn: This is a yarn with thick and thin placing by varying the amount of twist in the yarn at regular
intervals. Basically we find it in drapery and upholstery fabrics.
Flock yarn:The other name of these yarns is flake yarns. This is one type of novelty yarn. These are usually
single yarns in which small amount of fibers either different colors or luster or both are to place by inserting
into the yarn and holding in place by twist of base yarn eg: tweed fabric. This gives a spotted and short streaky
appearance.

hick and thin yarns: These are similar to slub yarns but we make it from filament like slub prepared from
staples. The pressure forcing the spinning solution varies the filament to thick in some places and thin in some.

Boucle Yarn:The characterization of these yarn process by projecting from the body of the yarn at fairly
regular intervals. There are 3 ply yarns. The effect yarns forms irregular way surface and binder ties it to the
base. It has twisted core yarn.

Loop and curl yarn, Gimp yarn: Gimp is same as boucle but the effect yarn is regular semi circular
appearance, while in loop.

Snarl yarn or spike yarn: This the same way as loop yarn using a highly twisted effect yarn, which forms
snarls rather than loops.

Knop (button) yarn/knot/Nub/Spot yarn: This feature prominent bunches of one or more of the component
yarn at regular or irregular intervals. This is made on a special machine that permits the base yarn to be held
almost stationary while the effect yarn is wrapped around it several times to build upon enlarged segment with
brightly coloured fibers added at the enlarged spot.

Seed or Splash: They resemble knops or knot yarns but the knot segments are tiny in seed yarn and elongated
in splash yarn.

Cloud: A two coloured yarn, in which both yarns take in turn to obscure or cloud the other, giving the
appearance of an intermittent color change.

Spiral or Corkscrew : It is made by twisting together two ply yarns that differ in size, type or twist. These two
parts may be delivered to the twister at different rates of speed.

Chenille Yarn:These create special effects chenille means caterpillar in French. The yarn has a cut pile effect
who bound to the core on the loom warps are arranged in groups (2-6) which are interlaced in a cross weaving
manner. Weft need to insert in a normal manner. Need to cut these into wrap way threads.

Metallic Yarn: These are primarily decorative. The plastic coasting on it resists tarnishing but care must need
to take while pressing as pure metals are soft, their thin films use over a core yarn that has replaced gold and
slivers now. There are two methods of pressing.

Comparison between Spun & filament Yarns:

Yarns can be made either from short staple length fibers or from filament fibers. There are two types of yarns,
i.e., spun yarns and filamentous yarns.
Types of Yarns :
1.Spun Yarns
2.Filament Yarns

If filaments are used to make yarns they may be either multifilament or monofilament .
Filamentous Yarns
1.Monofilament
2.Multifilament -> Twisted,Flat
Mono filaments are filament yarns composed of one single filament.
Multi filaments are composed of many filaments.

Comparison between Discharge & resist Print:

Discharge Printing

It is possible to speak of discharge printing, if in the fixation process that follows the application of the printing
paste there is local destruction of a dye applied previously. If the etched (discharge), previously dyed area
becomes white, then the process is called white discharge.

Discharge Printing
If, on the contrary, a coloured pattern has to be obtained in the etched area after the Resist Printing
destruction of the previously applied dye, then the process is called coloured discharge. In this case the printing
paste must contain a reduction-resistant dye along with the chemicals needed to destroy the previous one. As a
result the pre-dyed background is destroyed according to a pattern and the dye, which is resistant to reduction,
takes its place.

Resist Printing
In the case of resist printing, a special printing paste (called resist) is printed onto certain areas of the fabric to
prevent dye fixation. In the case of physical resist the material is printed with a difficult-to-wet resin that
inhibits the penetration of a dye applied in a second stage. On the other hand, with a chemical resist, dye
fixation is prevented by a chemical reaction. Depending on the way the process is carried out, one can speak of
pre-printing, intermediate or over-printing resists. One common procedure
is the wet-on-wet process in which the resist paste is initially printed, then
the material is overprinted with full cover screen and finally fixed and
washed. Over-printing resists can be applied only if the dye, already
present in the previously dyed and dried fabric, is still in its unfixed form,
as in the case of developing dyes.

What is Textile printing & what are its method ?

Textile printing is the process of applying colour to fabric in definite patterns or designs. In
properly printed fabrics the colour is bonded with the fiber, so as to resist washing and friction. Textile printing
is related to dyeing but in dyeing properly the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, whereas in
printing one or more colors are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns.

Methods
Traditional textile printing techniques may be broadly categorized into four styles:

Direct printing, in which colorants containing dyes, thickeners, and the mordants or substances necessary
for fixing the color on the cloth are printed in the desired pattern.
The printing of a mordant in the desired pattern prior to dyeing cloth; the color adheres only where the
mordant was printed.
Resist dyeing, in which a wax or other substance is printed onto fabric which is subsequently dyed. The
waxed areas do not accept the dye, leaving uncolored patterns against a colored ground.
Discharge printing, in which a bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to remove some or all
of the colour.
Resist and discharge techniques were particularly fashionable in the 19th century, as were combination
techniques in which indigo resist was used to create blue backgrounds prior to block-printing of other
colors. Modern industrial printing mainly uses direct printing techniques.
The printing process does involve several stages in order to prepare the fabric and printing paste, and to fix the
impression permanently on the fabric:

pre-treatment of fabric,
preparation of colors,
preparation of printing paste,
impression of paste on fabric using printing methods,
drying of fabric,
 fixing the printing with steam or hot air (for pigments),
after process treatments.

Methods of printing ?
There are seven distinct methods presently used to impress coloured patterns on cloth:

Hand block printing

Perrotine printing
Engraved copperplate printing
Roller, cylinder, or machine printing
Stencil printing
Screen printing
Digital textile printing
Hand block printing
This process is the earliest, simplest and slowest of all printing methods. A design is drawn on, or transferred to,
prepared wooden blocks. A separate block is required for each distinct colour in the design. A blockcutter
carves out the wood around the heavier masses first, leaving the finer and more delicate work until the last so as
to avoid any risk of injuring it when the coarser parts are cut. When finished, the block has the appearance of a
flat relief carving, with the design standing out. Fine details, difficult to cut in wood, are built up in strips of
brass or copper, which is bent to shape and driven edgewise into the flat surface of the block. This method is
known as coppering.
The printer applies colour to the block and presses it firmly and steadily on the cloth, striking it smartly on the
back with a wooden mallet. The second impression is made in the same way, the printer taking care to see that it
registers exactly with the first. Pins at each corner of the block join up exactly, so that the pattern can continue
without a break. Each succeeding impression is made in precisely the same manner until the length of cloth is
fully printed. The cloth is then wound over drying rollers. If the pattern contains several colors the cloth is first
printed throughout with one color, dried, and then printed with the next.
Block printing by hand is a slow process. It is, however, capable of yielding highly artistic results, some of
which are unobtainable by any other method. William Morris used this technique in some of his fabrics.
Perrotine printing:The perrotine is a block-printing machine invented by Perrot of Rouen in 1834 and is
now only of historical interest.

A Perrotine printing block

Roller, cylinder, or machine printing

This process was patented by Bell in 1785, fifteen years after his use of an engraved plate to print textiles. Bell's
patent was for a machine to print six colors at once, but, probably owing to its incomplete development, it was
not immediately successful. One colour could be printed with satisfactorily; the difficulty was to keep the six
rollers in register with each other. This defect was overcome by Adam Parkinson of Manchester in 1785. That
year, Bells machine with Parkinson's improvement was successfully employed by Messrs Livesey, Hargreaves
and Company of Bamber Bridge, Preston, for the printing of calico in from two to six colors at a single
operation.
Roller printing was highly productive, 10,000 to 12,000 yards being commonly printed in one day of ten hours
by a single-colour machine. It is capable of reproducing every style of design, ranging from the fine delicate
lines of copperplate engraving to the small repeats and limited colors of the perrotine to the broadest effects of
block printing with repeats from 1 in to 80 inches. It is precise, so each portion of an elaborate multicolour
pattern can be fitted into its proper place without faulty joints at the points of repetition.
Stencil printing
The art of stenciling on textile fabrics has been practised from time immemorial by the Japanese, and found
increasing employment in Europe for certain classes of decorative work on woven goods during the late 19th
century.
A pattern is cut from a sheet of stout paper or thin metal with a sharp-pointed knife, the uncut portions
representing the part that will be left uncoloured. The sheet is laid on the fabric and colour is brushed through
its interstices.
The peculiarity of stenciled patterns is that they have to be held together by ties. For instance, a complete circle
cannot be cut without its centre dropping out, so its outline has to be interrupted at convenient points by ties or
uncut portions. This limitation influences the design.
For single-colour work a stenciling machine was patented in 1894 by S. H. Sharp. It consists of an endless
stencil plate of thin sheet steel that passes continuously over a revolving cast iron cylinder. The cloth to be
ornamented passes between the two and the colour is forced onto it through the holes in the stencil by
mechanical means.
Screen-printing
Screen printing is by far the most common technology today. Two types exist: rotary screen printing and flat
(bed) screen printing. A blade (squeegee) squeezes the printing paste through openings in the screen onto the
fabric.
Digital textile printing
Digital textile printing is often referred to as direct-to-garment printing, DTG printing, or digital garment
printing. It is a process of printing on textiles and garments using specialized or modified inkjet technology.
Inkjet printing on fabric is also possible with an inkjet printer by using fabric sheets with a removable paper
backing. Today, major inkjet technology manufacturers can offer specialized products designed for direct
printing on textiles, not only for sampling but also for bulk production. Since the early 1990s, inkjet technology
and specially developed water-based ink (known as dye-sublimation or disperse direct ink) have made it
possible to print directly onto polyester fabric. This is mainly related to visual communication in retail and
brand promotion (flags, banners and other point of sales applications). Printing onto nylon and silk can be done
by using an acid ink. Reactive ink is used for cellulose based fibers such as cotton and linen. Inkjet technology
in digital textile printing allows for single pieces, mid-run production and even long-run alternatives to screen
printed fabric
Describe different part of loom and the action they perform

Main parts of a loom are given below:

1. Heald Shaft
This part is related to the shedding mechanism. The heald shaft is made of wood or metal such as aluminium.
It carries a number of heald wires through which the ends of the warp sheet pass. The heald shafts are also
known as heald frames or heald staves. The number of heald shafts depends on the warp repeat of the weave.
It is decided by the drafting plan of a weave.

Parts of a loom

The main function of the heald shaft is as follows:

It helps in shed formation

It is useful in identifying broken warp threads
It maintains the order or sequence of the warp threads
It determines the order of lifting or lowering the required number of healds for a pick. In other words it
helps in forming the design or pattern in a fabric.
It determines the warp thread density in a fabric, i.e. the numbers of heald wires per inch determine the
warp thread density per inch.
2. Sley or lay
It is made of wood and consists of the sley race or race board, reed cap and metal swords carried at either ends.
The sley mechanism swings to and fro. It is responsible for pushing the last pick of weft to the fell of the cloth
by means of the beat up motion. The sley moves faster when moving towards the fell of the cloth and moves
slower when moving backwards. This unequal movement is known as eccentricity of the sley. It is needed in
order to perform the beat up and also to give sufficient time for passage of shuttle to pass through the warp
shed. The beat up of the lastly laid pick of weft is accomplished through a metal reed attached to the sley.

3. Shuttle
It is basically a weft carrier and helps in interlacement of the weft with the warp threads to form cloth. The
shuttle which is made of wood passes from one end of the loom to the other. It travels along the wooden sley
race and passes between the top and bottom layers of the warp sheet. The shuttle enters a shuttle box fitted at
either ends of the loom, after passing through the warp shed. A shuttle normally weighs about 0.45 kgs.
4. Shuttle Box
It is the housing for the shuttle and is made of wood. It has a spindle and a picker. It may also accommodate the
picker without spindle. The top and side of the box towards the sley race are open. The shuttle dwells inside the
box for the intermediate period between two successive picks.

5. Picker
The picker is a piece made either of leather or synthetic material. It may be placed on a spindle or grooves in the
shuttle box. It is used to drive the shuttle from one box to another. It also sustains the force of the shuttle while
entering the box.

6. Reed
It is a metallic comb that is fixed to the sley with a reed cap. The reed is made of a number of wires and the gap
between wires is known as dents. Each dent can accommodate one, two or more warp ends. The count of the
reed is decided by the number of dents in two inches. The reed performs a number of functions which are
enumerated as follows:

It pushes the lastly laid pick of weft to the cloth fell

It helps to maintain the position of the warp threads
It acts as a guide to the shuttle which passes from one end of the loom to the other.
It determines the fineness of the cloth in conjunction with the healds.
It determines the openness or closeness of the fabric.
There are various types of reed such as ordinary reed, gauze reed, expanding reed, V reed etc.

7. Warp Beam
This is also known as the weavers beam. It is fixed at the back of the loom. The warp sheet is wound on to this
beam. The length of warp in the beam may be more than a thousand metres.

8. Back Beam
This is also known as the back rest. It is placed above the weavers beam. It may be of the fixed or floating type.
In the first case the back rest merely acts as a guide to the warp sheet coming from the weavers beam. In the
second case it acts both as a guide and as a sensor for sensing the warp tension.

9. Breast Beam
It is also known as the front rest. It is placed above the cloth roller at the front of the loom and acts as a guide
for the cloth being wound on to the cloth roller. The front rest together with the back rest helps to keep the warp
yarn and cloth in horizontal position and also maintain proper tension to facilitate weaving.

10. Cloth Beam

It is also known as the cloth roller. The woven cloth is wound on to this roller. This roller is placed below the
front rest. It is also known as the cloth roller. The woven cloth is wound on to this roller. This roller is placed
below the front rest.
Types of Motion of Loom
In order to interlace wrap and weft threads to produce a fabric, the following motions are necessary on any type
of loom:
Primary motions of loom :
Shedding: Dividing warp threads into two groups.
Picking: Insertion of weft through the passage created.
Beating: Pushing the newly inserted weft yarn into the cloth fell/ already woven fabric.

Secondary motions of loom :

Let off motion: Causes unrolling of warp from the warp beam.
Take up motion: Causes rolling of the cloth roller and cloth.

Tertiary motions of loom :

Warp stop motion, Weft stop motion, Warp protector motion,Weft mixing motion, Feeler motion, Break
motion, Weft replenishment motion etc.

Primary motions of loom :

Primary motion is necessary for weaving fabric. Without this mechanisms, it is practically impossible to
produce a fabric. For weaving a fabric, three primary motions are required in the loom.
Shedding: Shedding is the operation by which the warp is divided into two sheets so that sufficient gap is
created for the uninterrupted passage of the weft from one side of the loom to the other.
Picking: Picking is the operation to transfer the weft yarn (pick) into the shed from one side of the loom to
the other. In shuttle loom, picking is done from both sides of the loom. However, in shuttle less looms, it is done
from only one side of the loom.
Beat up: Beat up is the operation of pushing the newly inserted weft yarn back into the cloth fell by using
the reed.

Secondary motions of loom :

Let-off motion:This motion delivers warp to the weaving area at the required rate and at a suitable constant
tension by unwinding it from a weavers beam.
Take-up motion: This motion withdraws fabric from the weaving area at the constant rate that will give the
required pick spacing and then winds it onto a roller.
Auxiliary motions of loom :
Auxiliary motions are added to a loom to get high productivity and good quality of fabric. These motions are
useful but not absolutely essential. They are.
Warp stop motion: This motion able to stop the loom when a warp thread breaks or get excessively loosened.
Weft stop motion: This motion able to stop the loom when a weft breaks or runs out of the pirn (weft package).
Warp protector motion: This motion protect the warp threads by stopping the loom when the shuttle fails to
reach, the selvedge side and box properly into either the shuttle box during picking.
Weft mixing motion: This motion able to insert various coloured weft yarn into the same fabric for check and
stripe effect.
Feeler motion: This motion able to indicate whether the weft yarn in pirn is almost used up or not.
Brake motion: A mechanism to stop the loom when a weft yarn breaks.
Weft replenishment motion: This motion provide uninterrupted filling insertion by switching from a depleted
to a full package.
Different Form of Textile dyeing with its advantage & disadvantage?

DYEING

Dyeing is the process of imparting colors to a textile material in loose fiber, yarn, cloth or garment form by
treatment with a dye.

DYE TYPES

For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to decorate clothing, or fabrics for
other uses, the primary source of dye has been nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In
the last 150 years, man has produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors, and to render the dyes
more stable to resist washing and general use. Different classes of dye are used for different types of fiber and at
different stages of the textile production process from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to completed
garments.

Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid dyes,
polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types including vat dyes which are
similar to the ancient natural dyes and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.

PURPOSE OF DYEING

Dyeing can be done during any stage in the manufacture of textile product. Textiles may be dyed as fiber, as
yarn, as fabric, or as garments, depending on the type of fabric or garment produced. Description of various
stages and the reasons for their uses are given in the following sections. Dyeing will occur in the most efficient
stage which will meet the requirements of the intended end uses

VARIOUS STAGES OF DYEING

The various stages of dyeing are as under:

i) STOCK AND TOP DYEING

ii) YARN DYEING
iii) PIECE DYEING
iv) GARMENT DYEING

STOCK AND TOP DYEING

Stock dyeing refers to the dyeing of fibers, or stock, before it is spun into yarn. It is done by putting loose, un-
spun fibers into large vats containing the dye bath, which is less then heated to proper temperature. From 500 to
3000 pounds (227 to 1364 kilograms) of fiber are dyed at one time, and the average is about 1000 pounds (454
kilograms).

Top dyeing is also the dyeing of fiber before it is spun into yarn and serves the same purpose as stock dyeing-
that is, to produce soft, heather=like colour effects. The term top refers to fibers of wool from which shorter
fibers have been removed. Top is thus the select long fibers that are used to spin worsted yarn.The top in the
form of silver is dyed and then blended with other colours of dyed top to produce desired blended heather
shades.

FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

 Fabrics have soft, heather like colouration.
Easiest dye penetration.

LIMITATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

Most costly dyeing method.

Dyeing long before season begins carries risk of fashion changing.
High percentage of fiber loss from dyeing and later yarn spinning.

TYPICAL DYED FABRICS

Cheviot
Covert
Melton
Tweed

YARN DYEING

Yarn dyeing, as its name implies, is the dyeing of yarns before they have woven or the knitted into fabrics. The
main reason for the dyeing of yarn is for the ultimate production of multi coloured designs such as plaids,
stripes, and checks. Some typical yarn-dyed fabrics are multi coloured gingham, madras, brocade, and multi
coloured weft knits. Yarn dyeing ia also used in special cases for solid-colour fabrics. Yarns may be dyed in
different forms:

Skeins
Packages
Beams

FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

Used for fabrics with stripes, checks, plaids, and other multi-coloured patterns.

LIMITATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

Second most costly dyeing method

Dyeing before season begins carries risk of fashion changing, but less than or stock dye.

TYPICAL DYED FABRICS

Chambray
Gingham
Brocade
Jacquard knits

SKEIN DYEING:Skein dyeing consists of immersing large, loosely wound hanks (skeins) of yarn into dye
vats that are especially designed for this purpose. Soft, lofty yarns, such as hand knitting yarns, are usually skein
dyed. Skein dyeing is the most costly yarn-dye method.

PACKAGE DYEING:In package dyeing, yarn is wound on a small perforated spool or tube called a package.
Many spools fit into the dyeing machine in which the flow of the dye bath alternates from the center to outside,
and then from outside to the center of the package.
BEAM DYEING:Beam dyeing is a much larger version of package dyeing. An entire warp beam is wound
onto a perforated cylinder, which is then placed in the beam dyeing machine, where the flow of the dye bath
alternates as in package dyeing.
PIECE DYEING:The dyeing of cloth after it has been woven or knitted is known as piece dyeing. It is the
most common method of dyeing used. The various methods used for this type of dyeing include :

Jet dyeing
Jig dyeing
Pad dyeing
Beam dyeing

When heavy or densely woven fabrics, or tightly twisted yarn fabrics, are pieced dyed, sometimes the dye does
not penetrate into the centre of the yarn material. The condition, known simply as poor penetration, leaves the
fibers in the center of the yarn, or at fabric interlacing, lightly coloured or un-dyed. It can be recognized by
taking some yarns out of the fabric, untwisting them, and observing the non uniform colour of fibers in the
twisted yarn. There is no problem with inghowever, fabrics such as uniform clothing, childrens wear,
upholstery fabrics, and other fabrics subjected to hard use take on a faded appearance at points of wear, and
white, un-dyed fibers shift towards the fabric surface. For this reason, many high-quality, heavy-weight, and
densely woven fabrics, especially furniture though more costly, eliminates the problem of poor dye penetration.

FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

Least costly stage for dyeing of fabrics.

Adaptable to all fabrics woven and knitted.
Dyeing is close to fashion season; minimal colour risk.

LIMITATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

Limited to solid colours(except for cross-dye).

TYPICAL DYED FABRICS

Batiste
Broadcloth
Challis
Corduroy
Satin

JET DYEING: In the jet dying process, the fabric being dyed is circulated in a rope form through a closed-
system dyeing machine on a jet flow of the dye bath. The fabric is moved by the fast moving dye bath. Since no
pressure and little tension occurs with the material, even delicate fabrics can be dyed using this process. Most
jet dyeing machines can be pressurized and are capable of achieving dyeing temperatures exceeding the boiling
point of water.

JIG DYEING: The jig dyeing process involves treating fabric in an open width. Fabric is not immersed in a
dye bath, but rather is passed through a stationery dye bath. Upon completion of the first pass, the fabric
reverses and is passed again through the dye bath. To produce darker colours the fabric must pass through the
dye bath more times than when a lighter shade is desired.
PAD DYEING: Pad dyeing is accomplished with a machine called a dye pad. Its appearance somewhat
resembles a giant clothes wringer. Fabric in open width first passes through the dye bath, and then through the
rollers where the dye solution is squeezed into the fabric.

BEAM DYEING: Beam dyeing for piece dyeing is practically identical to beam dyeing used for yarns. Fabric
is wound on to a perforated cylinder where the dye bath is forced through the fabric layers. The fabric remains
stationery.

GARMENT DYEING: Garment dyeing is the dyeing of completed garments. The types of apparel that can be
dyed are mostly non tailored and simpler forms, such as sweaters, sweat-shirts, T-shirts, hosiery, and pantyhose.
The effect on sizing , threads, zippers and snaps must be considered. Tailored items, such as suits or dresses,
cannot be dyed as garments because the difference in shrinkage of the various components and linings distort
and misshape the article.

Garment dyeing is done by placing a suitable number of garments (usually about 24 sweaters or the equivalent,
depending on weight) into a large nylon net bag. The garments are loosely packed. From 10 to 50 of the bags
are placed in large tubs containing the dye bath and are kept agitated by a motor-driven paddle in the dye tub.
The machine is appropriately called a paddle dyer.

FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

Choice of colours closet to fashion season.

Elimination of material (yarn and fabric) waste from prior processing.

LIMITATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

Limited to garments of simple construction.

TYPICAL DYED FABRICS

Hoisery
Pantyhose
Sweaters
T-shirts etc.

Discuss the Different type of aesthetic Finishes

What is finishing?

Treatments on fabric after it been pretreated and colored (dyed or printed)

Most finishing processes performed in same plants as dyeing or printing

Aim of Finishing

To improve attractiveness or serviceability of fabric

How to Finish?
Physical

Use moisture, heat, & pressure

Chemical

Deposit chemicals on fabric surfaces

React chemicals with fabrics

Aesthetic Finishes Finishes

Which change appearance, drapability, & handle of fabrics

1. Calendaring: to improve fabric luster by pressing the fabric with rollers under high pressure and temperature

2. Shreinering : similar to calendaring except the upper heated roller is engraved with very fine lines (e.g. 300
lines per inch). The shreinered fabric has luster similar to that of mercerization

3. Embossing: fabric is embossed by passing it through heated engraved rollers. Embossing produces a raised
relief design which is permanent on thermoplastic but temporary on cotton

4. Napping (raising): fabric passes against rotating, bristled, wire-covered brushes. Fibers raised from fabric
face Napped fabrics have softer handle & better heat insulation (e.g. blankets, sleepwear, & winter clothing)

5. Shearing: to cut off surface fibers on fabrics (napped) to provide uniform pile height. The fabrics then have
an attractive surface resembling a pile effect (e.g. corduroys)

6. Sueding (emerizing): to sands off uneven & protruding fibers on fabrics to produce a soft chamois-like nap.
The process involves sanding of fabrics by passing them through a series of sand-paper covered rollers

FINISHES ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO TYPES

Basic finishes
Functional finishes
Basic finishes
The basic finishes are further classified into two classes,
Finishes that appeal to the eye
Finishes that appeal to the touch
a. Finishes that appeal to the eye
 Bleaching : If the cloth is to be finished as white or to be given surface ornamentation, all
natural colours must be removed by bleaching. This is also necessary if discoloration or stains
have occurred during the previous manufacturing process. Bleaching can be done in the yarn
stage as well as in the constructed fabric. Suitable bleaching agents are used to remove the
colour from the fabric namely oxidizing or reducing bleaches. Bleaching is done for the cotton,
woolen and silk. Man-made fabrics do not need bleaching, as they are naturally white. The
kind of chemical to be used depends upon the kind of textile fiber of which the fabrics is
composed.
Mercerizing : Mercerizing is an important preparatory process for cotton fabric. It is also used
in the finishing of linen. The process consists of holding the fabric in tension while treating it
with a strong solution of sodium hydroxide at a temperature of 70 to 80 F. Mercerizing causes
the flat, twisted, ribbon like cotton fiber to swell into a round shape and to contract in length.
The fiber becomes much more lustrous than the original fiber, and its strength increased by
20%. Mercerizing is done to improve the dye pick up.
Shearing : Pile-weave fabrics and fabrics that have been napped are usually sheared to give
an attractive smooth surface to the cloth. Shearing levels all surface irregularities caused by
the plucking action in the napping process. On the other hand, patterns may also be cut into
the pile fabrics by shearing to give a 'sculptured effect' of a design having high and low surface
levels. Shearing is done by a machine which has rotating cylinders and helical blades. Its action
resembles that of a lawn mover. After shearing, the fabric is automatically brushed to remove
the sheared ends of the yarns.
Singeing : Singeing is one of the first essential preparatory processes that impart smooth
finish to fabric. Singeing burns off lint, threads, fuzz and fiber ends and leave an even surface
before the fabric passes through other finishing processes or a printing operation. Singeing is
accomplished by passing a gray goods rapidly over gas flame, usually two burners to a side, at
a speed of 100 to 250 yards (90-225m) per minute. After the cloth leaves the burners it is
pulled through water and then it is dried.
Beetling : Beetling is a common finishing process for linen. The yarns are flattened by the
impact of wooden mallets. This hammering actually closes the weave and gives the cloth a
firm, flattened, lustrous appearance. All table linens under go this process, but dress linens are
never beetled. Beetling differs from calendering.
Tentering : This process is applied at various stages of finishing. Usually, the fabric is wet
when it is run into a tender. Drying and evening of the fabric width are the primary purpose of
the tendering. The tender frame consists of two endless chains carried in rugged rails with a
distance between them that can be adjusted. The chains are equipped with clips or pins, which
grip the selvage of the fabric and carry into the heated housing where a blast of hot air
removes any moisture. Pin frames are mostly used on woollen or knitted goods; clip frames
are favored for cotton. The tiny holes or marks are sometimes noticeable in the selvages.
Calendering : Calendering is essentially an ironing process that adds sheen to the fabric.
The method varies according to the type of finish desired. Calenders are heavy machines made
up of at least two rolls. One is usually of chilled steel; the other, a softer material like wood,
paper, cotton fiber, corn husks or combinations of cotton and corn husk. The rolls are
supported in vertical frames. Plain rolling calenders may have as many as seven rolls, four steel
rolls and three horn husk or cotton rolls. The steel rolls may be equipped to be heated by gas
or steam. The textile material is passed through the calendering machine rapidly between the
gap formed by the rollers. This is done at an average rate of 150 yards (135m) per minute, and
under pressure of 40 to 60 tons (550-827 MPa); the goods are then wound up on the back of
the machine.
Moire finishes : Attractive, lustrous wavy designs known as moir can be produced by a
process of minute surface embossing or pressing of a fabric with crenellated, or ridged, rollers.
The best moir results are obtained on fabrics that have rib effects in the filling. The pattern
is imprinted on the raised filling yarns by rollers. The luster is formed by the divergent
reflection of light on the impressed lines of the design.
Pressing : Mostly pressing method is used for wool fabrics to remove short hair fibers present
on the surface of the fabric. This pressing method is similar to calendering.
Embossing : The process of producing raised figures or designs in relief on the surface of the
fabrics by passing the cloth between heated engraved rollers is known as embossing. The
process can be applied to the fabrics made of all types of fibers except the wool. To preserve
the embossed finish of such fabrics, they should be washed in lukewarm water with a mild
soap, never be bleached, and ironed on the wrong side while damp.
Crepe and Crinkled effect : Permanent crepe effects are obtained by using hard twisted yarns
in the weaving process. Another method imprints a crinkled effect by means of engraved
rollers, but the finish disappears in repeated washing. In another finishing method, caustic
soda is impressed on the cotton fabric in the form of figures or stripes and the fabric is then
washed. The part imprinted with the caustic soda shrinks, and the other part puckers.
A permanent crinkle may be obtained on a fabric that can melt, such as nylon. The fabric is
put through a hot roller on which there are raised figurations. The contact of the fabric against
the raised hot surface helps it to melt and pucker at these points.
B) Finishes that appeal to touch
Some of the changes given to the fabric for softness, weight, crispness and warmth are known
as finishes that appeal to touch.
Napping : Napping is chiefly used to obtain a relatively deep hairy surface, but the degree of
depth depends upon the technique used. The fabric is passed under a roller that has fine steel
wires with small hooks on the ends. The hooks scrape the surface of the fabric pulling up fiber
ends out of the yarn. The fuzzy finish, produced by napping makes a soft fabric that holds
warmthness.

Weighting : Silk may be treated with tin salts to increase the weight of the fabric and improve
its hand and drape. The weight and body of the fabric, is increased by immersing it in a
solution containing metallic salts. The salts permeate the yarns and become a permanent part
of the fabric but cannot be detected by handling. If excessive metallic salts are used in the
weighting, it may weaken the fabric.
Starching : Glue, wax, casein, starch and clay are used for cotton fabrics to give weight,
stiffness and shiny appearance. Starch is applied on the fabric and passed between two rollers.
Wax and oil are mixed together to the starch solution to give the shiny appearance to the
fabric. Starching is a temporary finish.
Sanforizing : Fibers spun into yarn are under constant tension during the weaving process.
The yarns are made to assume a final condition by shrinking the fabric in a preparatory
finishing process that minimizes subsequent shrinkage such as immersion in cold water. The
factors that control the shrinkage are the stability of the fiber and the construction of the
fabric. Construction is based on the type of the weave, the yarn twist and the yarn count.
The piece of fabric is taken and measured and then immersed in the water and the
shrinkage of the fabric is calculated. Then the fabric is passed through the machine to make it
shrink as to a desired measurement. This is known as sanforizing.
Functional finishes
Special finishes imparted to fabrics, keeping the functional use of the fabric is known as
special or functional finishes.
Absorbency finish: Although the cellulose fibers like cotton, linen and rayon have good
absorbency, sometimes it is desired that they should be more absorbent. Appropriate
application of ammonium compounds modifies the cellulose to become more absorbent,
providing greater comfort and usefulness for such uses as undergarments and towels.
Wrinkle resistant finish: These finishes are also sometimes referred to as 'crease-resistant'
or 'Wash and wear' finishes. DMDHEU namely Dimethyl Dihydroxy Ethylene Urea is used to
impart wrinkle resistant finish on the textiles. The purpose of this finish is to prevent
deformation of the fabric by undesirable and unintentionally introduced folds and rumples.
Some finishes are more wrinkle-resistant than others, but fabrics treated with any of these
finishes tend to smooth out when properly hung after wearing.
Flame retardant finish : A wide variety of flame retardant chemical finishes have been
developed for application to fibers and fabrics. Carbonate and ammonium salts are used for
flame retardant finish.
Antibacterial finish: Chemical antiseptic finishes using Chitosan, impart a self-sterilizing
quality to a fabric. The appearance and the feel of the fabric does not change and no chemical
odour remains. Dry cleaning does not impair the finish.
Prevention of mildew: Cellulose fibers are particularly susceptible to mildew. Silk and wool
are also susceptible, but to a lesser extent. Such untreated fabrics will become stained,
malodorous and eventually deteriorated by the fungus if allowed to remain in a moist
condition for a period of time.
Shower curtains or other fabrics may be mildew proofed at home by soaking the material in
soapy water, then, without rinsing, dipping it into a solution of boric acid and carbolic acid,
which prevents rapid growth of the mildew fungus. The most effective mildew proofing agent
is 0.05 per cent solution of phenyl mercuric acetate in water.
f) Water repellent finish: The fibres in the fabrics become covered with a film of synthetic
resin. This repels and delays adsorption and penetration of water through the fabric. This
finish allow air to permeate the fabric, and its comfort is largely retained in contrast with the
water proof finishes.
Most of the original water proof finishes, produced by the application of rubber, waxes and
oxidised oils, have been replaced by applying impervious films of polyvinyl chloride - PVC
plastic. The low cost of this type of application, associated with the very light weight of the
water proof fabric produced, compensates for the lack of comfort in the garment produced.
g) Waterproof finish: For a fabric to be truly waterproof, it must be completely sealed with a
substance that is insoluble in water. Modern waterproofing materials include the vinyl resins,
which do not oxidize and crack as readily as rubber.
CONCLUSION
Textile Finishes enhance the feel and drape of fabrics involve the addition of sizing, weighting,
fulling, and softening agents, which may be either temporary or permanent. Thus finishing is
used to improve the serviceability and durability.