Open Channel Flow - General
Hydromechanics VVR090
Open Channel Flow
Open channel: a conduit for flow which has a free surface
Free surface: interface between two fluids of different density
Characteristics of open channel flow:
pressure constant along water surface
gravity drives the motion
pressure is approximately hydrostatic
flow is turbulent and unaffected by surface tension
1
Water Supply
Aqueduct, Pont du Gard, France
Water Power
Cross-section of
power plant
ITAIPU power plant
2
Zola dam, Aix-en-Provence
Spillway,
ITAIPU dam
Transportation
Panama Canal
3
Flow Control and Measurement
Flow Phenomena
Tidal bore, Hangzou, China
4
Flooding
Yellow River, China
The History of Open Channel Flow
Main periods of development:
ancient times (river cultures)
roman times (aqueducts)
renaissance (first theory)
17th century (experimental techniques + theory)
18th century (rise of hydrodynamics)
19th century (split between hydraulics and hydrodynamics)
20th century (boundary layer theory)
5
Ancient Times
Centers of early civilization around the large rivers
The Nile River
The Nile Delta
The nilometer on the
Island of Rhoda
6
Indus civilization
Public bath
Drainage pipe
Yellow River
Levee construction
Sediment-laden
river water
7
Roman aqueducts
Aqua Claudia
Construction of
an aqueduct
Characteristics of Aqueducts
8
Reservoar
Top of aqueduct
A Roman
fountain
Frontinus (40-103 A.D.)
Vitruvius (55 B.C. 14 A.D.)
Renaissance
Leonardo da
Vinci (1452-1519)
When you put together the science of
Water flow the motion of water, remember to
include in each proposition its
application and use, in order that these
sciences may not be useless.
9
Experimental Techniques (17th century)
Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642)
Evangelista Torricelli
(1608-1647) barometer
Rapid developments in mathematics
Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662)
Gottfried Leibniz
Isaac Newton
(1646-1716)
(1642-1727)
10
The Rise of Hydrodynamics
Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782)
Experimental Hydraulics (18th Century)
Italy: Poleni, Venturi
France: Pitot, Chezy, Borda
England: Smeaton
Pitot tube on an
airplane wing
11
19th Century Developments
Main efforts:
collect experimental data
formulate empirical relationships
derive general physical principles
Split into hydraulics and hydrodynamics
Hydraulics:
Germany: Hagen, Weisbach
France: Poiseuille, Darcy
England: Manning, Froude
Hydrodynamics:
France: Navier, Cauchy, Poisson, Boussinesq
England: Stokes, Reynolds
Germany: Helmholtz, Kirchoff
12
Navier-Stokes Equations
u u u u 1 p 2u 2u 2u
+u +v + w = +P+ 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z x x y z
v v v v 1 p 2v 2v 2v
+u +v +w = +Q+ 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z y x y z
w w w w 1 p 2w 2w 2w
+u +v +w = +R+ 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z z x y z
Increased gap between hydraulics and hydrodynamics
Bridged by the introduction of boundary layer theory
by Ludwig Prandtl, the father of modern fluid
mechanics.
Ludwig Prandtl
(1875-1953)
13
Flow Classification I
steady unsteady
uniform non-uniform
varied flow (= non-uniform):
gradually varied rapidly varied
Flow Classification II
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Flow Classification III
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow
Characterized by Reynolds number:
UL
Re =
L taken to be the hydraulic radius R=A/P
Re < 500 laminar
500 < Re < 12,500 transitional
12,500 < Re turbulent
Flow Classification IV
homogeneous stratified flow
depends on the density variation
subcritical supercritical flow
characterized by the Froude number
U
Fr =
gL
L taken to be the hydraulic depth D=A/T
Fr < 1 subcritical flow
Fr = 1 critical flow
Fr > 1 supercritical flow
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Gravity Wave I
Celerity of gravity wave:
c = gL
(denominator in Froude number)
Movement of impermeable plate
Gravity Wave II
Continuity equation:
cy = ( y + y )( c u )
(coordinate system moving with velocity c)
Simplifying:
u
c= y
y
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Gravity Wave III
Momentum equation:
y ( y + y ) = cy ( ( c u ) c )
1 2 1 2
2 2
Simplifying:
u g
=
y c
c = gy
Gravity Wave IV
Interpretation:
1. Subcritical flow (Fr < 1): Velocity of flow is less
than the celerity of a gravity wave. Gravity wave
can propagate upstream. Upstream areas in
hydraulic communication with downstream
areas.
2. Supercritical flow (Fr > 1): Velocity of flow is
greater than the celerity of a gravity wave.
Gravity wave cannot propagate upstream.
Upstream areas not in hydraulic communication
with downstream areas.
17
Channel Types
Natural channels: developed by natural processes
(e.g., creeks, small and large rivers, estuaries)
Artificial channels: channels developed by human
efforts (e.g., navigation channels, power and irrigation
channels, drainage ditches)
Easier to treat artificial channels.
Artificial Channels
1. Prismatic (constant shape and bottom slope)
2. Canal (long channel of mild slope)
3. Flume (channel built above ground)
4. Chute and drop (channel with a steep slope)
5. Culvert (pipe flowing only partially full)
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Definition of Channel and Flow Properties I
Depth of flow (y): vertical distance from channel section to
water surface
d
y=
cos
(d = depth of flow measured perpendicular to the channel
bottom; q = slope angle of channel bottom)
Small slopes:
yd
Definition of Channel and Flow Properties II
Stage: elevation of the water surface relative to a datum
Top width (T): width of channel section at water surface
Flow area (A): cross-sectional area of the flow taken
perpendicular to the flow direction
Wetted perimeter (P): length of the line which is the interface
between the fluid and the channel boundary
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Definition of Channel and Flow Properties III
Hydraulic radius (R): ratio of flow area to wetted perimeter
A
R=
P
Hydraulic depth (D): ratio of flow area to top width
A
D=
T
For irregular channels: integrate and use
representative values for above-discussed
quantities
Definition of Channel and Flow Properties IV
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Governing Equations
Flow is turbulent in situation of practical importance
(Re > 12,500) => Laminar flow is not discussed.
Description of turbulent flow:
u = u + u
v = v + v
w = w + w
Average in time: Average in space:
1
T
1
A A
u= udA
T 0
uT = udt
Statistical Quantities
Root-mean-square (rms) value of velocity fluctuation:
1/2
1 T
rms(u ') = (u ') dt
2
T 0
Average kinetic energy (KE) of the turbulence per unit mass:
KE 1 2
( 2
= (u ') + (v ') + (w ')
mass 2
2
)
Reynolds stresses:
T
1
u ' v ' = u ' v ' dt
T 0
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Energy Equation
Bernoulli equation (along a streamline):
u A2
H = z A + d A cos +
2g
Small values of q:
u2
H = z+ y+
2g
Fundamental Equations
Conservation of mass:
Q = uA
Conservation of momentum:
F = Q(u 2 u1 )
Conservation of energy:
u2
H = z+ y+
2g
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Correction of Momentum Flux
True transfer of momentum:
u dA
2
Average transfer:
Qu
Momentum correction coefficient:
u dA u dA
2 2
= A
= A
Qu u 2 A
Correction of Energy Flux
True transfer of energy:
1
2 u dA
3
Average transfer:
1
Qu 2
2
Energy correction coefficient:
u dA u dA
3 2
= A
= A
Qu 2
u 3 A
23
Properties of a and b
equal to unity for uniform flow (otherwise greater than 1)
a is more sensititve to velocity variations than b
a and b used only for complex cross-sectional shapes
(e.g., compound sections)
Boundary Layers
Consider flat surface: boundary layer depends on U, r, m,
and x. Laminar boundary layer thickness (Blasius):
5x u
= at = 0.99
Re x U
Transition to turbulent boundary layer:
500,000 < Re x < 1,000,000
Turbulent boundary layer thickness:
0.37 x u
= at = 0.99
Re0.2
x U
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Observations Regarding Boundary Layers I
The following relationships exist:
x , , ,U
x , , ,U
Boundary layers can grow within boundary layers (e.g.,
change in channel shape or roughness)
Observations Regarding Boundary Layers II
25
Observations Regarding Boundary Layers III
Boundary layers classified as hydraulically smooth or rough.
Hydraulically smooth: laminar sublayer cover the roughness
elements
Hydraulically rough: roughness elements project through
the laminar sublayer
ks u*
0 5 smooth
ku
5 s * 70 transition
ku
70 s * rough
Resistance Estimate
Chezy equation:
u = C RS
u* = gRS
ks u g
0 5 smooth
C
ksu g
5 70 transition
C
ksu g
70 rough
C
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