Seismic Acquisition

Seismic Acquisition

A Century of Exploration
with Seismic Data

(left) Weight drop apparatus and (right) seismic signal from 4000-kg weight drop by L. Mintrop,
1908, in Gttingen, Holland.

1
A Century of Exploration
with Seismic Data

First seismic reflection survey

Arbuckle Mountains, southern Oklahoma
Acquired July 1921 (after earlier testing in
June)
Dr. J. C. Karcher and others from the
University of Oklahoma

A Century of Exploration
with Seismic Data

2
Acquisition Process

Source wavelet has particular characteristics dependent upon source

typefrequency, phase, single vs. multiple crests/troughs, etc.

Earth filters the source waveletabsorption, geometric spreading,

reflections, refractions, wave conversion, etc.

Geophones/hydrophones receive the Earth-filtered waveletrecords

multiple wave forms, reflections, refractions, etc.

Acquisition design allows removal

removal of undesirable aspects of filtered
wavelet through the actual acquisition processe.g., phreatic-zone
sources, ground roll suppression, etc.

Acquisition design allows enhancement of desirable aspectssurvey

layout and design, source type, etc.

Acquisition Process

May be analog (continuous) or digital (series of digits).

Dynamic range range from strongest to weakest signals that can be

recorded
natural differences between strong early arrivals and late weak arrivals
may exceed 100 dB (many halvings of amplitude)
AGC or automatic gain control keeps amplitude within a specified
range (later corrected to original during processing)

Aliasing
Ali i sampling
li a waveform
f with
ith ttoo llarge off a sample
l iinterval
t l
introduces long-wavelength forms. Nyquist frequency is of sample rate.
Spectral components at frequencies higher than Nyquist frequency appear
at frequencies lower.

3
 Acquisition Process

Spread how geophones are arranged relative to source positions;

determines CDP/CMP gathers and binning for 3D. Design of spread varies
to enhance imaging of desired objective.

Noise control
Coherent noise regular patterns such as surface waves, refracted
waves, and multiples
Incoherent noise random noise such as weather, and traffic
Noise
N i can b be suppresseddb by source size
i and dddepth,
th filt
filtering,
i array
designs, and other means. For example, imaging below water table or
multiple geophones per channel.

Components of the Earth Filter

As a seismic signal
g p
passes throughg the Earth,, various effects modifyy the original
g signal,
g , includingg
(but not limited to) absorption, geometrical spreading, lithologic/fluid variations (changing reflection
and refraction coefficients, scattering, etc.
In effect, the Earth acts as a filter to the input seismic signal, or is said to convolve the signal.
Appropriate acquisition plans can reduce some undesirable effects (e.g., ground roll), as can
subsequent processing schemes (e.g., deconvolution of multiples).
Similarly appropriate acquisition plans can enhance desirable effects (e.g., full-azimuth surveys
for fracture-based anisotropy, or multi-component surveys for p-wave and s-wave acquisition).
(from Robinson and Coruh, 1988)

4
Typical Seismogram

Direct wave arrival

Reflection hyperbolae

Ground rolla form

of coherent noise

(from Kearey et al., 2002)

Basic Considerations

1) Cost
Acquiring seismic data is more expensive by a factor of
2-10 times than processing.

2) Sustainability
Once data are acquired correctly they can be
processed and interpreted a number of times.

3) Planning
The choice of acquisition parameters is very important.

5
Objectives of Seismic Reflection
Acquisition

1) Maximize the recording of primary reflections,

2) Minimize the recording of noise,

3) Within the constraints of the costs and the

recording environment.

Key Aspects of Seismic Acquisition

1) Geological Objectives

2) Transmissivity of the Earth

3) Recording Environment

4)) Recording
g System
y

6
Geological Objectives
Depth to Target Horizon

A) Depth to Target Horizon

Rule of thumb: the seismic reflection spread length
should be about the same as the depth to the horizon.

Reason: to obtain enough move-out and fold on our

target reflection to differentiate between signal and noise.
For specific acquisition surveys, e.g., long-offset AVO, the
spread may be even longer.

Geological Objectives
Depth to Target Horizon

(Brown, 1999)

7
 Geological Objectives
Depth to Target Horizon

(Willis, 1993; seismic

(Willi 1993 i i ffrom S
Smithson
ith ett al.,
l 1978)

Sometimes we need to look really, really deep at crustal scale features.

COCORP (Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling) was created to address fundamental questions involving crustal
geometries and development.
In the Rocky Mountains, a major issue arose regarding the development of foreland structures, whether by vertical uplift (surface
thrust faults becoming vertical at depth) or by horizontal compression (surface thrust faults remaining as thrust faults at depth).
This was of particular interest to explorationists because of potential subthrust opportunities.
The COCORP line across the Wind River Mountains clearly revealed continuation of the Wind River Thrust System to depths beyond
8 sec.
Along with other datasets (stress/strain studies, well penetrations, industry-scale seismic, and perhaps most importantly actual
subthrust production) indicate horizontal compression as the dominant mode of deformation in the Rocky Mountain Foreland.

Geological Objectives
Maximum Dip

B) Maximum Dip
Need to have additional coverage at the edge of the
region of interest to:
a) Obtain full-fold of coverage of area of interest (dip
independent), and
b) To account for the migration aperture.

region of interest
vertical depth, Z

zero offset migration aperture

reflection raypath (shift from vertical
along reflector)
dip,

migration aperture = Z * tan

(shift from vertical along
reflector)

8
Geological
Objectives
Salt Flank

Two different illumi-

nations of salt flank by a
source
single source.

(a) Primary reflections

which yield salt flank
image in (b).

(c) Reflections that first

bounce off a deeper
layer boundary then off
salt interface, yielding
flank image in (d).

(Yilmaz, 2001)

Geological Objectives
Vertical and Lateral Resolution

C) Vertical and Lateral Resolution of the Layering

Vertical Resolution answers the question as to what
controls the thickness of the bed we can resolve using
seismic reflections.

Lateral (Horizontal) Resolution answers the question

what controls the accuracy with which we can determine the
termination of a bed using seismic reflections.

9
 Geological Objectives
Vertical Resolution

Compared to well data, seismic data have poor vertical resolution, but of course can provide
insight as to geological aspects between the wells.
Vertical resolution is controlled by the dominant frequency of the dataset, which defines the
dominant wavelength.
Layers with a thickness above /4 or faults with displacement above /4 can be resolved.
Because of loss of higher frequencies with depth, dominant wavelength corresponding increases with
depth, thus vertical resolution becomes less as depth increases.
(Bissell, 2007, GCAGS Transactions)

Geological Objectives
Vertical Resolution Frequency Control

Seismic resolution is a function of the source

frequency bandwidth, the cumulative effect of source
and receiver ghosting, temporal and spatial sampling,
the uniformity of target illumination, the local seafloor
and overburden heterogeneities, the parameterization
of the acquisition geometry and the data processing
and imaging flow.
Of these various considerations, the frequency
content of the source signal propagated into the earth
sets the maximum possible frequency content that
can be recovered from target reflections, and is
largely determined by the effects of the source ghost.
Correspondingly, the frequency content of signals
that can be recovered from the earth is largely a
function of the receiver ghost.
Dual-sensor and dual-streamer technology allows
all source and receiver ghost effects to be removed in
data processing, and therefore allows recovery of the
maximum possible signal frequency content and
resolution of target geology.
Real data example of conventional source and hydrophone-only
Wavefield separation allows better multiple removal, streamer frequency content vs. GeoStreamer GS frequency content.
the construction of much higher resolution velocity GeoStreamer GS is incomparably richer in low and high frequency
models, more accurate imaging and preservation of content, and the frequency bandwidth improvement is overwhelming.
subtle reservoir information. This then translates to Note occurrence of loss of frequency content in conventional data due
more accurate reservoir characterization. to so-called ghost notches, which are effectively removed via
GeoStreamer GS acquisition.

(courtesy of Petroleum Geo-Services)

10
 Geological Objectives
Vertical Resolution Frequency Control

Seismic technology developments

were also driven by new thinking and
research into acoustic wave sampling.
Leo Ongkiehong of Shell and Ian Jack
of BP, among others, promoted the idea
that the seismic signal should be
measured with receivers as closely
spaced as possible along the cable, in
order to recover the highest bandwidth
(range of frequencies) reflected from
targets in the sub-surface.
Gijs Vermeer (then of Shell) introduced
cross-spreads, a method of sampling
the seismic wavefield fully by recording
data from all shot-receiver distances
(offsets) and directions (azimuths) within
a survey. The twin goals of the
seismologist became illumination and
resolution - sampling the acoustic
reflections from subsurface targets as
completely and finely as possible. Increasing the number of octaves in a seismic wavelet provides better
resolution and more precise interpretation. Source: CGGVeritas

(Wood, 2011, Geo ExPro])

Geological Objectives
Improved Bandwidth

Comparison of conventional
source and hydrophone-only
streamer seismic resolution and
frequency content (left) vs.
GeoStreamer GS seismic
resolution and frequency content.
The photograph in the top row has
had a source and receiver ghost
effect applied on the left.
Removal of these ghost effects
translates to a dramatic
improvement in resolution of the
photo, and correspondingly, the
GeoStreamer GS seismic
resolution is a step-change in
improvement.

(courtesy of Petroleum Geo-Services)

11
 Geological Objectives
Improved Bandwidth

Schematic amplitude
spectra for conventional
and dual-sensor streamer
data.
The extended bandwidth
of the dual-sensor
streamer data has a
significant effect on the
low end of the amplitude
spectrum, and typically
also has more content at
the high end of the
spectrum.

(Reiser and Riberiro, 2010, EAGE Ann. Mtng., Ext. Abs. F025)

Geological Objectives
Improved Bandwidth

Discoveries in the Faroe-

Shetland and Mre Basins
have so far been made in
areas not covered byy
extensive basalt flows. A
significant untapped potential
may be present in equivalent
leads, and good quality
seismic data is required to
image and analyze these
areas. Bounding the proven
discoveries are vast areas
where the basalt flows
seismically
i i ll obscure
b the
th
geology and structure of the
Line through the provisional drilling location of Lagavullen
underlying section. Very few
( 6201/10), note the well imaged low frequency events
wells have been drilled, and
below the basalt and improved bandwidth in lower basalt
the sub-basalt plays are
section, where potential intercalations with sediments may
largely untested and
occur (analogous with Rosebank).
represent an intriguing
exploration upside.
(Caselitz et al., 2010, PET EX 2010, Abs. 62)

12
 Spectral Decomposition
Improved Low-Frequency Bandwidth via
Dual-Sensor Technology

Dutch sector 2D lines for conventional streamer vs. dual-sensor data (from Reiser and
Riberiro, 2010). A, conventional seismic; B, dual-sensor seismic. C and D illustrate the
spectral decomposition for conventional and dual-sensor streamer data at 6.25 Hz. The
warm color indicates high energy, and cold color indicates low energy in the seismic
data at this frequency.
(Long, 2010, Offshore Magazine)

Geological Objectives
Improved Bandwidth

Two versions of the same reservoir image. A large gas discovery sits in the middle of each image. The top seismic images
correspond to conventional streamer and dual-sensor seismic response. The bottom images correspond to the acoustic
impedance results from the conventional and the dual-sensor streamer. The difference between the conventional and dual-
sensor technology data can easily be evaluated with this side by side comparison.

(Caselitz et al., 2010, PET EX 2010, Abs. 62)

13
 Geological Objectives
Vertical Resolution Frequency Control

Improved resolution will be

vital in future to extract the
maximum information from the
subsurface, as shown in this
subsalt image from the UK
North Sea. Previously
published in First Break Vol.
28, No. 10.

(Wood, 2011, Geo ExPro])

Geological Objectives
Layer Boundary Discrim.

Layer Boundary
Discrimination
Two concerns exist when reflectors in close False
F l Amplitude
A lit d
proximity (e.g., thin beds or fluid compartment due to Tuning
wedge) are present:
Can actual boundaries be discriminated?
Are amplitudes preserved?
As layers become thinner, the potential exists
for interference between one reflector (e.g., top
of layer) and another (e.g., base of layer or fluid
t t)
contact).
Layer boundaries cannot be resolved if
thickness is < /4, and indeed layer appears
thicker than it actually is. False Thickness
Side lobe energy from one event interferes with
the primary energy of the another causing an
amplitude effect, which is maximized when layer
thickness is /4.
(top, Robinson, 1983; bottom, Domenico, 1991)

14
 Geological Objectives
Layer Boundary Discrim.

Layer Boundary
Discrimination
If a layer is thicker than /2 then its top and bottom
appear separate (i.e., they can be individually
discriminated) and respective amplitudes are largely
interference free (i.e., first side lobe energy does not
interfere; higher order side lobe energy interferes at
> /2).
Typical Scenario
If a layer is /2 thick, boundaries are just separate.

Beds between /2 and /4 in thickness interfere

Interval velocity of rock: 4000m/s
constructively if the reflection coefficients are of
opposite sign. Dominant frequency of signal: 40Hz
Maximum constructive interference occurs at /4 Wavelength of signal, therefore: 100m
(tuning).
Amplitude decreases between /4 and /8.
Below /8 the waveform is indistinguishable Tuning thickness: 25m
from that produced by a single bed. Indistinguishable from a single bed: 12m
At about /30 or less interference destroys the
Reflection destroyed: 3m
reflection no matter how large the reflection
coefficient.
(top, Robinson, 1983)

Geological Objectives
Frequency and Vertical Resolution

Frequency and Vert. Resolution

At right is an example of various synthetic
seismograms, which are created from well data.
Well logs can provide density and velocity
(reciprocal of T) data.
Density times velocity yields acoustic impedance.
Changes in acoustic impedance (e.g., layer
boundaries) generate reflections, with amplitude
strength increasing as AI increases, and polarity
depending upon whether low AI unit is above high AI
unit (positive reflection) or vice versa (negative
reflection). Thus, a reflection coefficient log can be
generated.
Simulated signals of various forms are input into
the reflection coefficient log to generate a synthetic
seismogram.
The example shown here simulates various
synthetic seismograms as the frequency content of
the input signal is varied.
At higher frequencies, clearer bed boundary
detection is observed.
(Ansten, 1980)

15
 Geological Objectives
Fault Displacement

Fault Displacement

Note that horizon displacement less than /4 does not

appear as a fault displacement (is it broken or not?).
Note that in the above unmigrated simulation,
simulation even if
displacement < /4, diffraction hyperbolae result from
the point terminations against the fault. Sometimes
unmigrated data can enhance structural and/or
stratigraphic terminations.
In some cases, autotracking will stop at the fault
(right), whereas in other cases (nearing resolution limit,
or near displacements at n*) keeps right on going.
(top, Yilmaz, 1987; right, Badley, 1999)

Geological Objectives
Fresnel Zone and Lateral Resolution

Fresnel Zone and

Lateral Resolution
The first energy to reach a detector from a
plane reflector is from the point where the
reflector is first tangent to the wavefront. The
area of the reflector that produces the
reflection is limited by the area that the
wavefront later makes with the reflector.
The energy arriving within this interval sums
constructively to produce the reflection.
The Fresnel zone is larger for low
frequency components than for high
frequency ones.

V = average velocity to reflector

t = two-way time
f = dominant frequency Hz
(Sheriff, 1977)

16
 Geological Objectives
Fresnel Zone and Lateral Resolution

As mentioned previously, the P-S

Fresnel Zone, derived by Eaton et al.
(1994) h
(1994), has
an 80% smaller radius than the P-P
Fresnel zone for the same frequency
content.
Therefore, the P-S survey should
provide a higher lateral resolution.
However, the
frequency content of surface P-S
seismic is often reduced due to near-
surface attenuation,
making the two Fresnel zones
comparable- P-P design for this
parameter should take
precedence.

Geological Objectives
Fresnel Zone and
Lateral Resolution

Fresnel Zone and

Lateral Resolution
The Fresnel zone has a two
two-
dimensional form.
For diagrammatic purposes, assume
that a geologic element (arbitrarily box
shaped) is located along Line 1, but
does not technically cross Line 4.
Line 4 passes to the side of the box,
but close enough for part of the Fresnel
zone to impinge on the box producing
side swipe.
Conventional 2D migration takes no
account of the origins of the reflections
derived from a side swipe situation.
These can only be removed by 3D
migration.
(Neidell and Poggiagliomi, 1977)

17
 Key Aspects of Seismic Acquisition
Geological Objectives

Fresnel Zone and

Lateral Resolution

This diagram illustrates

the apparent increase in
extent of sandstone bodies
due to the Fresnel zone
effect.
In addition to increase in
areal extent, amplitude is
also affected.

(Neidell and Poggiagliomi, 1977)

Transmissivity of the Earth

Can we retrieve a reasonable signal from

our objective Target horizon with our seismic Bandwidth the range of
frequencies which a
acquisition system?
seismic p
pulse possesses
p
To answer this question we must be aware
of the mechanisms that affect the amplitude,
phase, and bandwidth of the signal as it Good Bandwidth
Ampl.

passes through the Earth.

Negative factors affecting amplitude (A),
phase (P), and bandwidth (B):
1) Geometrical spreading or spherical Freq.
di
divergence (A)
2) Partitioning of energy at an interface (A,P) Narrow Bandwidth
Ampl.

3) Reflection interference (A)

4) Absorption (A,P,B)
5) Scattering (A,P,B)
and more. Freq.

18
 Transmissivity of the Earth
Geometrical Spreading

Geometrical Spreading
Geometrical spreading is the reduction of Spherical Spreading
amplitude with distance travelled.
Energy spreads over the area of a sphere (Area
= 4r2).
Energy per unit area ~ 1/r2 where r is the
distance from source.
In homogeneous isotropic media,
Amplitude 1/r because Energy Amplitude2. Non-Spherical Spreading
Ax = As / x, where Ax is Ampl. at distance x,
As is Ampl. at source, and x is distance from
source.
In real Earth the amplitude decreases more
rapidly than 1/x due to increase in velocity with
depth producing divergent raypaths.
The wavefront is not spherical

Transmissivity of the Earth

Energy Partitioning

Partitioning of Energy at an Interface

For a normal-incidence (perpendicular raypath and reflector)
reflection, the reflection coefficient (recording reflection strength and
polarity) relates to amplitude change and is determined by:
Refl. Coef., RC = AR / AI = ( 2 v2 1 v1 ) / ( 2 v2 + 1 v1 )
layer 1 Trans. Coef., TC = AT / AI =1 RC = 2 1 v1 / ( 2 v2 + 1 v1 )
AI AR 1 , v1 Recognize that around the world two different conventions exist in the
treatment/naming of amplitude responses:
US Convention Positive RC are called peaks, corresponding to the positive
side of the amplitude scale. Negative RC are troughs.
European Convention is reversed Positive RC are called troughs,
corresponding to negative side of the amplitude scale.
Check the polarity of your surveywater bottom, basement, key markers, etc.
AT layer 2 By US C
B Convention,
ti a positive
iti RC representst iinputt waveform
f iis th
the
2 , v2 same phase as the reflected waveform (e.g., a compressional wave
reflects as a compressional wave, whereas a negative RC represents
input waveform is 180 phase as the reflected waveform (e.g., a
compressional wave reflects as a dilational wave.
As incidence angle changes (e.g., due to greater source-receiver
offset), the response changes (e.g., due to mode conversion) and the
equation becomes more complex. AVO/AVA studies look at these
changes to extract additional details.

19
Transmissivity of the Earth
Reflection Interference

Reflection Interference

RC Wavelets Composite RC Wavelets Composite

1 1
1
2 2
2

Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

Transmissivity of the Earth

Reflection Interference

Composite Signal
from Multiple Reflectors
Each individual reflector ((representing
p g a change
g in
acoustic impedance [density times velocity], typically
a lithostratigraphic boundary) causes an echo or
reflection.
The net seismic signal is the convolution of each of
these individual reflections (plus other effects).
A major aspect of processing and interpretation is to
make sense of these variations in the seismic
amplitude (and other components, e.g., frequency,
phase etc
phase, etc.).
)
A peak or trough does NOT have to correspond to
a specific reflector.
If the seismic reflector is sufficiently separated from
other reflectors, then a greater correlation between net
seismic peak/trough and reflector generally exists.
In thin bed intervals (by thin meaning thinner than
/2), amplitude is affected, and below /4 layer
becomes indistinguishable from a single interface.
(after Dobrin and Savit, 1988)

20
 Transmissivity of the Earth
Reflection Interference

Composite Signal
from Multiple Reflectors
As stated on the previous
pre io s slide,
slide each indi
individual
id al
reflector (representing a change in acoustic
impedance [density times velocity], typically a
lithostratigraphic boundary) causes an echo or
reflection. The net seismic signal is the convolution
of each of these individual reflections (plus other
effects).
In particular, a peak or trough does NOT have
to correspond to a specific reflector.
As shown in this example, due to the presence of
multiple thin layers (boundaries of which are each
acting as reflectors, the actual top of pay does NOT
correspond to the peak amplitude, but is rather
slightly above.
In practice, we commonly pick the peak or
trough and extrapolate to the reservoir
boundary if it is not on the peak or trough.
(Bissell, 2007, GCAGS Transactions)

Transmissivity of the Earth

Absorption / Attenuation

Absorption or Attenuation Quality Factor (Q)

Seismic energy lost due to internal friction in a measure of attenuation
the rock due to non-elastic mechanisms;
converted to heat
heat. energy loss per cycle 2
=
Sometimes called intrinsic attenuation. total energy in a cycle Q
Ax = Ao e-ax, high Q = low attenuation
where Ax = ampl. at distance x low Q = high attenuation
Ao = ampl. at reference dist.
E = Eo exp (-2ft/Q)
x = distance
a = attenuation factor
Typically 0.25 dB / wavelength.
There is a constant fractional loss per cycle of
seismic wave.
Q = 10,000 Seawater
Higher frequencies that go through more cycles = 30-150 Shales
are more attenuated than lower frequencies and = 50-150 Sandstones
hence the Earth acts as a low pass filter. = 100-300 Carbonates
Automatic gain control is a type of processing
that corrects for the loss of amplitude with time
during a seismic recording.

21
 Transmissivity of the Earth
Absorption / Attenuation

(Ashton et al., 1994, Oilfield Review)

Transmissivity of the Earth

Scattering

Scattering
The irregular dispersion of energy caused by inhomogeneities in the medium through the
energy travelling.
Sometimes called extrinsic attenuation.
Scattering is a frequency dependent effect.
If the heterogeneities are very small, then high-frequency energy will be scattered in all directions while low-
frequency energy will not be affected by the inclusions.
Can be thought of as a low pass filter. As the size of the scatterers increases, the situation
becomes more like standard reflection and refraction.
Frames below illustrate a propagating wavetrain through a medium causing scattering, as
opposed to a wavetrain (bottom right) through a medium not acting as a scatterer.

22
Recording Environment and System
Sources

dynamite

vibroseis
ib i
air gun
sparker (electrical discharge)
bit noise
etc.

Recording Environment and System

The Ideal Source Signal

An ideal pulse convolved with the seafloor creates a simple seismogram

23
 Recording Environment and System
versus Reality

The output seismogram is a convolution of the source signal and the earth (the seafloor).
Sharp seafloor signal becomes ringy because of reverberations in the source signal.
Source design (e.g., source arrays) can often result in a much cleaner signal without
reverberations.

Recording Environment and System

Seismic/Acoustic Spectrum

(from Kearey et al., 2002)

24
Recording Environment
and System
Dynamite Shot

solid dynamite first arrival

dashed modelled

1881 Experimental
Study

(Trans. Seis. Soc. Japan, 8)

Recording Environment and System

Vibrator Truck

25
Recording Environment and System
Airgun in Pit for Onshore Survey

Recording Environment and System

Sources Used In Water

(from Kearey et al., 2002)

26
 Recording Environment and System
Source Array to Achieve a Better Source
Wavelet

(above) A single airgun creates a ringy signal.

(top right) Summing the signal of multiple guns
creates a more desirable signal in the front end.
Proper tuning of the array yields a sharp upfront
signal while suppressing the later signal.
([Link] [Link]

Recording Environment and System

Ancient Seismic Recorder

2000 years old (from China)

Ball drops from dragons mouth

into frogs mouth when seismic
waves reach the device

Directional

(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

27
 Recording Environment and System
Geophones and Hydrophones

Hydrophones convert
compressional/dilatational
pressure pulses (sound) via a
Geophones convert motion into an electrical piezoelectric transducer into an
signal. Most geophones require coupling to the electrical signal. Most are
solid earth. Right example is a modern designed to have similar acoustic
geophone accelerometer (which reduces distortion impedance as water column.
and increases bandwidth).
(upper left, Kearey et al., 2002; lower left and right, [Link]; center, courtesy of WesternGeco)

Recording Env. and System Upgoing

Dual-Sensor (2C) Recorder
Pressure and Particle Velocity
Conventional streamers use pressure sensors called hydrophones. Hydrophones cannot distinguish
between the opposite polarity of the seismic wavefield scattered up from the earth and the time-
delayed seismic wavefield reflected down from the sea surface (the receiver ghost). As a
consequence, the ghost wavefield destructively interferes with certain frequency bands, reducing
seismic image resolution and greatly reducing the usefulness of seismic data for reservoir delineation
and characterization.
Any seismic wavefield can also be described in terms of another physical property; particle velocity.
Pressure and particle velocity can be related using mathematics only for low frequencies and only
when operational noise is very low
low. Geosensors,
Geosensors however,
however allow the GeoStreamer to directly
measure particle velocity for all frequencies. Significantly, geosensors detect the time-delayed
receiver ghost wavefield with different polarity to hydrophone. This complementary property creates Downgoing Ghost
unique opportunities in seismic data processing.
GeoStreamer records all the seismic wavefield that can be recovered from the earth, without any
receiver ghost effects. This allows our customers to see the reservoir better, characterize the reservoir
more accurately, and monitor hydrocarbon production with greater confidence.
Diagrams illustrating principles of dual-sensor streamer acquisition. Both the up-going pressure (P)
and particle velocity (V) wavefields are reflected from the sea-surface with opposite polarity (down-
going wavefields). Hydrophones and geosensors used together enable discrimination between up-
going and down-going wavefields, thus enabling data processing to remove the unwanted down-going
wavefield (ghost) reflections.

Summation of
Upgoing and Combined
Downgoing =
De-Ghosting

(courtesy of Petroleum Geo-Services)

28
 Recording Env. and System
Dual-Sensor (2C) Recorder
Pressure and Particle Velocity

Real data example of conventional source

and hydrophone-only streamer frequency
f
content vs. GeoStreamer GS frequency
content. GeoStreamer GS is incomparably
richer in low and high frequency content,
and the frequency bandwidth improvement
is overwhelming.
Note occurrence of loss of frequency
content in conventional data due to so-
called ghost notches, which are effectively
removed d via
i GeoStreamer
G St GS acquisition.
i iti

(courtesy of Petroleum Geo-Services)

Recording Env. and System

Dual-Sensor (2C) Recorder
Pressure and Particle Velocity

Both hydrophones and

geophones record the
primary (major event at ~0.8
sec) and multiples (later in
time).
By combining data from
both hydrophones and
geophones, the multiples are
effectively removed.
The source in this example
is using bit noise while
drilling!

(Meehan et al., 1998, Oil and Gas Journal)

29
 Recording Env. and System
Dual-Sensor (2C) Recorder
Pressure and Particle Velocity
Conventional with Ghosts Dual-Sensor without Ghosts

Conventional hydrophone-only seismic data has degraded resolution, less low and high
frequency information, poor signal penetration, and is a weaker platform for many key processing
and imaging solutions. Thus, the true response of the earth cannot be recovered or investigated.
Dual-sensor technology effectively removes ghosts, and enables more accurate and more robust
reservoir characterization, including lithology and fluid prediction
(courtesy of Petroleum Geo-Services)

Recording Environment and System

Multicomponent (4C) Recorder

A typical marine 4C recorder includes a hydrophone or pressure sensor (only sensitive to

compressional/dilatational P waves), and 3 orthogonal geophones (sensitive to both P and S
waves). The orthogonal geophones allow discrimination of arrival types (P waves mainly vibrate
along Z, and S mainly along X and Y) and 3D direction of vibrations.
Right shows PGSs FOURcESM Seafloor Seismic Acquisition System, a cable system with
gimbaled 3C geophone (to ensure vertical and horizontal orientation of geophones, a necessary
factor for vector fidelity) and hydrophone.
(left, Barkved, Oilfield Review; right, courtesy of PGS)

30
 Recording Environment and System
Conventional Analog Coil Geophone vs.
Micro Electro Mechanical System (MEMS)
For standard P-wave exploration, the analog coil geophone has served the industry
well for over seventy years.
It is relatively inexpensive, rugged and reliable, and allows for flexible array designs, but it
also presents limitations.
limitations
The natural resonance of the analog coil geophone (for example, 10 Hz) limits the recorded
signal fidelity at lower frequencies.
Furthermore, the advent of 24-bit recording, improved processing options and cost
constraints have lessened the concern, but not the need, for careful receiver-array design.
For multicomponent applications the conventional geophones limitations become
more noticeable.
Vector fidelity and the response of one vertical and two horizontally deployed elements are
severely limited unless the geophone is planted within a few degrees of perfectly level.
level
MEMS sensors offered to the seismic industry (e.g., Sercel [DSU3] and Input/Output
[VectorSeis]) provide some decided advantages over prior multicomponent sensors.
Advantages include single sensor (point receiver) recording, direct digital output, improved
vector fidelity, broadband linear phase and amplitude response, low harmonic distortion,
measurement of sensor tilt, lower system weight, and reduced power consumption. While
single sensor vs. array limits ground roll removal, modern advances in processing including
polarization filtering reduces this need.
(Gibson et al., 2006, CSEG Recorder)

Recording Environment and System

Conventional Analog Coil Geophone vs.
Micro Electro Mechanical System (MEMS)

Comparison of various seismic acquisition system configurations. (a) Conventional geophone arrays ( 6
elements ). (b) Conventional multicomponent triphones; system complexity can produce wiring errors and system
weights and power requirements can be onerous, and may still be run with arrays (not shown) which may yield
significant intra-array S-wave static issues, cross-talk, etc.. (c) MEMS - single cable, light weight, reduced power
requirements, easy deployment (shaded MEMS sensors represent an alternate design using half station interval).
(Gibson et al., 2006, CSEG Recorder)

31
Recording Environment and System
Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 1

* Geophones

* Seismic Energy Source

Recording Environment and System

Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 2

* Seismic Energy Source

32
Recording Environment and System
Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 3

* Seismic Energy Source

Recording Environment and System

Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 4

* Seismic Energy Source

33
Recording Environment and System
Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 5

* Seismic Energy Source

Recording Environment and System

Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 6

* Seismic Energy Source

34
Recording Environment and System
Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Seismic Field Record Shot 1

Recording Environment and System

Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Seismic Field Record Shot 3

35
Recording Environment and System
Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Seismic Field Record Shot 6

Recording Environment and System

Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Processed Seismic Section Subsurface Image

36
Recording Environment and System
Source-Receiver Configurations

Split (straddle) spread End spread

(Kearey et al., 2002)

Recording Environment and System

Receiver Cable Systems (Land and Water)

(photos courtesy of Kansas Geological Survey [land] and University of Texas [marine])

37
 Recording Environment and System
Receiver Cable Systems (Land and Water)

CGGVeritas is also well known as a

land acquisition specialist and with its
super-crews has come close to realizing
the Vermeer ideal of cross-spreads.
M d
Modern lland
d acquisition
i iti systems
t lik
like
Sercels 428XL have a theoretical
channel count of up to 100,000 stations
and can use new technology detectors
like MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical
Systems) accelerometers. Wireless
systems such as Sercels UNITE aim to
take mega-channel systems into rugged
and remote territory. In a recent survey in
the Middle East, CGGVeritas recorded
25,000 live channels per Vibroseis shot,
each into a 36 line spread of 5km x
4.2km. Source and receiver sampling
was 7.5m, yielding exceptionally high fold
and resolution. Super-crews also use
techniques to improve production, such
as recording more than one Vibroseis
source simultaneously and have matched
or even exceeded marine production
rates.
(Wood, 2011, Geo ExPro])

Recording
Seismic Reflection
SurveyData Gaps
Gaps in land seismic data are due
to omissions where data could not
be acquired.
For example,
example it is not always
possible to transmit the signal
above pipes, in sensitive areas and
above buildings.
Because of overall source- Seismic section using optical sensors and cable, Snorre Field, North Sea
receiver spread, higher-offset S-R
pairs can provide information for
deeper horizons.
The lower image is the first
seismic section measured with light
(fiber-optic based sensors and
cable)! The blank area in the
middle is caused by the gap
between the two cables as laid out
on Snorre Field. Courtesy:
StatoilHydro.

(top, modified after [Link] bottom, Thompson et al., 2009, Geo ExPro)

38
 Recording Environment and System
Seismic Reflection SurveyLand

(top, Domineco, 1991)

Recording Environment and System

Seismic Reflection SurveyCurved Profiles

A 2D profile does not have to be in a straight line.

Curved profiles are not uncommon in areas with difficult access (e.g., along valley
roads in areas of high topography).
(Robinson and Coruh, 1988)

39
Recording Environment and System
Seismic Reflection SurveyWater (Towed Streamer)

([Link]

Recording Environment and System

Seismic Reflection SurveyWater (Towed Streamer)

([Link]

40
Recording Environ-
ment and System
Towed Streamer

([Link]

Recording Environment and System

Land-Based Towed Streamer

(upper left, Inazaki, 2006, Near-Surface 2006; lower left and right, Geostuff [Grass Valley, California], 2011 )

41
 Recording Environment and System
Land-Based Towed Streamer

Seismic Line near Besel, Switzerland

Multicomponent Raw Data

Vertical Transverse Radial

Sh Seismic Line near Tokyo

Tokyo, Japan

(left, Suarez and Stewart, 2007, CREWES Sponsor Mtng.; top right, Nitsche et al., 2011, ETH Zurick; bottom right, Inazaki, 2006, Near-Surface 2006)

Recording Environment and System

Seismic Reflection SurveyWater (Dual Streamer)

Dual-streamer technology (two towed streamers, one shallow and one deep within the same vertical
plane improves imaging significantly as:
(1) it allows removal of both source and receiver ghosts;
(2) each streamer infills the missing ghost-notch frequencies of the other;
(3) the deeper cable is less sensitive to environmental aspects and thus extends bandwidth into low
frequencies, allowing deeper penetration, esp. in subsalt/subbasalt terrains, improved imaging in
steep-dip terrains, and improved seismic inversion;
(4) a simpler source signal also enhances high-frequency content for improved stratigraphic/reservoir
imaging; and
(5) an overall improved signal-to-noise ratio results.
(Hill et al., 2007, Offshore Magazine)

42
 Recording Environ.
and System
Dual Streamer
Datasets were processed from (top)
Kirchhoff prestack time-migrated image
from the over source at a depth of 12 m (39
ft) and the over cable at a depth of 20 m (66
ft), equivalent to a conventional deep-
towed streamer acquisition configuration
towed-streamer
and (bottom) for the corresponding
Kirchhoff prestack time migrated image
from the fully de-ghosted data from the
over/under source and cable combination.
Both datasets were processed using
identical parameters; they were migrated
with the same velocity field, stacked with
the same velocity field, and have the same
post-migration processing.
A comparison of the results shows that
the combined over/under dataset is far
richer in low frequencies than the deep-
towed-streamer acquisition configuration.
The quality of the image beneath the basalt
(at 4.0 second two-way travel-time) on the
data from the over/under combination is far
superior to that from the conventional
deep-towed-streamer acquisition
configuration.
(Hill et al., 2007, Offshore Magazine)

Recording Environ.
and System
Dual Streamer
The enhanced low-frequency content also makes
seismic inversion less dependent upon model-based
methods.
The image shows a small portion of an inversion to
relative acoustic impedance of both the over source over
cable data, and the fully combined and de-ghosted data.
Two wedge models are also shown. The geologic model
common to both is a sandstone wedge encased in shale
shale.
Synthetic seismic data generated from Hz to Nyquist
were used for the seismic modeling, and for the wedge on
the right, a bandwidth from 5 Hz to Nyquist. Both seismic
models then were inverted to relative acoustic impedance.
The relative acoustic impedance results appear as the
wedge models. The benefits of the additional low
frequencies can be seen clearly when the wedge model
relative acoustic impedance results are compared. The
relative acoustic impedance wedge on the right identifies
the acoustic impedance contrasts at the top and bottom of
the wedge, but fails to reflect accurately the thickness of
the sandstone wedge. The relative acoustic impedance
wedge on the left not only identifies the acoustic
impedance contrasts at the top and bottom of the wedge,
but also depicts the sandstone wedge as a single, solid
geobody.
A striking similarity emerges when the inversion to
relative acoustic impedance of the real data is compared
to the wedge models. The inversion to relative acoustic
impedance of the de-ghosted data can be interpreted to
have a wedge-shaped feature. The inversion to relative
acoustic impedance of the over source and over cable
data cannot.
A relative acoustic impedance inversion of over/under
data results in a more reliable estimate of geobody volume
than with conventional data. This could impact
exploration prospect economics and field development
planning. (Hill et al., 2007, Offshore Magazine)

43
Recording Environment and System
Seismic Reflection SurveyWater (Ocean
Bottom Cable)

([Link]
AndMonitoring/SeabedSeismic/PublishingImages/seafloor_seismic2_468.gif)

Recording Environment and System

Multicomponent Ocean Bottom Seismic

Imaging comparison of 3D
conventional marine seismic (top)
and 3D OBS (bottom) illustrating
i
improvedd uplift
lift off the
th Statfjord
St tfj d
East flank structure.
Conventional 3D streamer
acquisition had been difficult in
this field, due to gas in the
overburden and multiples in the
lower reservoir zones.
The new interpretation resulted
in more confident mapping of
intact rotated fault blocks with a
better understanding of the areal
extension and the internal
stratigraphic dip within the East
Flank area.

([Link]

44
 Recording Environment
and System
Fiber Optic Systems
Conventional electrical-based
ocean bottom systems used for
recording and transmission of
d t are particularly
data ti l l susceptible
tibl
to the corrosive effects of the salt
water column.
Fiber optic technology (top) for
both recording and transmission
overcomes that major limitation.
The lower image is the first
seismic section measured with
light (fiber-optic based sensors
and cable)! The blank area in the
middle is caused by the gap
between the two cables as laid
out on Snorre Field. Courtesy:
StatoilHydro.

(courtesy of StatoilHydro)

Recording Environment
and System
Cable-less System Nodes
Autonomous battery-powered nodes are
deployed on the seabed or dry land, where they
record data continuously for pre-determined
lengths of time before being retrieved to
download and QC the acquired data prior to
redeployment.
With no cables to contend with and the
flexible deployment capability of the
autonomous nodes even in the marine
environment, via remotely operated vehicles OBS node deployment by
the nodal seismic systems are designed to ROV in the Gulf of
Mexicos Deimos Field.
meet a number of needs.
More flexible acquisition geometries
geometries, e
e.g.,
g wide and
full azimuth for land surveys.
Reduced downtime and maintenance.
Improved depth imaging.
Increased productivity. Old Russian military truck
Insignificant footprint. carrying 206 ZLand
seismic nodes and five
High precision placement and repeatability allows people sits behind a
from improve time-lapse monitoring. node buried up to the neck
at the Russkoye oilfield.
(Durham, 2006,2009, 2010, 2011, AAPG Expl.)

45
Recording Environment and System
Node Acquisition BPs Atlantis Field

Ocean Bottom Ocean Bottom Ocean Bottom

Streamer
Node Cable Node

(Amundsen and Landro, 2008, GeoExPro)

Recording Environment and System

Example of Land Multicomponent Survey

(from Gaiser, 1999)

46
Recording Environment and System
Example of Ocean-Bottom Cable Layout for
Multicomponent Survey

(from Gaiser, 1999)

Recording Environment and System

Source CenteredRotation of inline and xline
components into radial and transverse

(from Gaiser, 1999)

47
 Recording Environment and System
Swath vs. Patch Design
The optimal choice of acquisition geometry for a 4C survey hinges on both geophysical and financial
considerations. Most designs can be classified as either patch or swath. In swath designs, source lines
are parallel to receiver lines, while in patch designs, source lines are perpendicular to receiver lines.
Swaths tend to produce a limited or narrow range of azimuths, whereas patches produce a wide range.
In any survey design, the key parameters are cable separation, source line separation, shot and receiver
i t
interval,
l andd in-line
i li and d cross-line
li offset.
ff t Th
These control
t l th
the bi
bin size,
i ffold,
ld offset
ff t and
d azimuth
i th di
distribution,
t ib ti
which ultimately determine the cost and quality of a survey. Figures below are generic examples. Designs
must be uniquely tailored for the specific targets and objectives of each survey. Typically a variety of
options are modeled and evaluated.
For multicomponent acquisition, in addition to typical CMP aspects for PP acquisition, consideration of
CCP (common conversion point) must be considered in the acquisition design.

SWATH DESIGN PATCH DESIGN

(courtesy of PGS)

Recording Environment and System

Key Acquisition Design Parameters
General Parameters

48
 Recording Environment and System
Key Acquisition Design Parameters
Bin Size and Dimensions (Bx and By)

The bin size in part controls the lateral resolution of the survey design and the
fold.
Fresnel
F l effects
ff t mustt also
l beb considered,
id d as that
th t also
l controls
t l lateral
l t l resolution.
l ti
Decreasing the bin size may improve lateral resolution, but with a consequential
decrease in the fold of the bin.
In multicomponent surveys, aspects of a CMP (or CDP/CIP) bin for the acoustic
PP wave may differ from the CCP (common conversion point) bin for the elastic
PS wave, if designed solely based on CMP or CDP considerations. Proper
consideration must be given to CCP binning as well, especially to achieve same
bin size to avoid differential lateral resolution between the PP and PS components
off the
th survey.

Recording Environment and System

Key Acquisition Design Parameters
Number of Shots (NS)

The initial step in 3-D or 2-D design is to determine the basic parameters of bin dimension.
the depth of target, the fold required, the record time, the survey size, and the maximum and
minimum offsets required to image the shallowest and deepest targets. These parameters
are compiled
p byy geological
g g modelingg or previous
p surveys
y in the area.
One of the most important calculation, after determination of bin size, is the number of
shots (NS) per km2 (Stone, 1994). The NS parameter is the basis for all the other parameters
that follow. NS is determined by:

NOTE: This and following discussion addresses common aspects of a CMP patch design, in which the
midpoint of course lies halfway between the source and receiver positions (assuming minimal static
variations). Other designs may have modified equations. Also for a multicomponent survey, design
considerations of CCP (common conversion point) must be addressed due to the asymmetry of the P-S
wave (CCP moves closer to receiver as compared to CMP)

49
 Recording Environment and System
Key Acquisition Design Parameters
Shot Line Spacing (SL)

The shot line spacing (SL) value allows the minimum fold to be produced with the desired
bin size and channeI capability (Stone, 1994):

NOTE: An odd integer multiple of the SL versus the Receiver Spacing for CCP aspects of a
multicomponent survey can address some of the major detrimental aspects of a CMP-only
design (fold periodicity, including in some cases zero fold regions; different bin sizes
between acoustic, PP, and elastic, PS, components of the survey; etc.). That is, we
simultaneously address needs of both CMP and CCP.

Recording Environment and System

Key Acquisition Design Parameters
Largest Minimum Offset (Xmin) and Receiver Line Spacing (RL)

The largest minimum offset (Xmin) is

defined as the hypotenuse between the
firrthest shot and receiver pair within the
rectangle formed by adjacent shot and
receiver lines
lines. It is common for the shot
and receiver lines to cross between the
source and receiver stations.
The largest minimum offset (Xmin) within
a bin controls the receiver line increment
(RL).
The largest Xmin should be less than the
depth of the shallowest reflector that
needs to be recorded (Galbrait., 1994). This
ensures adequate imaging of the
shallowest reflector
reflector.
The RL is related to the SL and X by the
Pythagorean relation of:

50
 Recording Environment and System
Key Acquisition Design Parameters
Maximum Offset (Xmax)

The area covered by the live receivers, known

as the receiver template or recording patch, is
determined by RL and SL as well as the number
of channels in the recording system.
As a rule off thumb, the dimensions off the
template need to be shaped in such a way as to
exceed the maximum depth of the target (Stone,
1994).
The maximum offset (Xmax), as defined by the
hypotenuse of the receiver template (the area
covered by live receivers), should exceed the
maximum depth of target.
In the case of dipping structure, an additional
offset must be computed: The migration
aperture (Yilmaz,
(Yilmaz 1989) is the additional
recording offset that must be included for
dipping structure to be imaged, and thus the
template may need to be extended to allow for
the migration aperture.
NOTE: In general for multicomponent acquisition, longer offset is
required for PS due to little to no mode conversion in the near
domain, and source noise in the near to far range [single sensor
issue], and thus recognizable reflections appear in the far domain.

Recording Environment and System

Fold DifferencesSwath vs. Patch Design for
Multicomponent Surveys (courtesy of PGS)

SWATH DESIGN PATCH DESIGN

P-P P-S P-P P-S

Fold for a swath geometry with 400m cable separation, Fold for a patch geometry with 400m cable separation
100m source line separation and 1800m cross-line offset. and source line separation and 1800m cross-line offset.
Note that while the fold of the swath design is higher, the fold is much more evenly distributed in the patch design. Not
shown is the wide azimuth distribution of the patch design, but with uneven minimum offset distribution, whereas the
swath design offers a more uniform sampling of offsets with better near-offset coverage.
Survey objectives such as the need for dual sensor summation, the need for P-S ray paths and imaging vs. AVO
considerations will ultimately determine which design is best. For imaging objectives, including gas cloud problems, patch
designs offer the best and most cost-effective alternative. In some cases, the client may contemplate a combination to
achieve a fully sampled source space, particularly useful for wavefield imaging of complex subsurface structures such as
salt bodies and subsalt imaging. Other design aspects to consider are dips (requiring estimation of Vp/Vs ratio) and
frequencies.
Fresnel zone and aperture considerations will be dictated by P-P ray paths. In terms of coverage, P-S ray paths will
dominate the discussion, given that the conversion point moves toward the receiver and away from the midpoint.

51
 Recording Environment and System
Multicomponent SurveyP-wave and S-wave
Imaging

(from Century ad, AAPG Expl., Dec. 1999)

Recording Environment and System

Azimuthal Data

Refraction of light through the irregular surface of a glass causes parts of the spoon to be invisible
or distorted.
The image changes depending on the direction of view.
Similarly, the azimuth of observation impacts the results of seismic imaging through geologic
media with complex geometries.

(Buia et al., 2008, Oilfield Review)

52
 Recording Environment and System
Azimuthal Data

Changing azimuthal perspective can change appearance.

For the typical observer of this lunar footprint (Apollo 11 mission):
One viewing direction causes a false perspective whereby footprint seems as an elevated positive feature.
Viewing in an alternate direction/perspective, the footprint appears correctly as a depression.
(courtesy of NASA)

Recording Environment and System

Azimuthal Acquisition Schemes

Comparison of acquisition geometries (bottom) and azimuth-offset distribution plots in rose diagrams (top). The number of traces
recorded for each offset-azimuth combination is color-coded in the rose diagrams. Offset corresponds to distance from the center of
each circle. Azimuth corresponds to the angle within each circle. Colors range in order from purple and blue for a low number of
traces, to green, yellow and red for a high number of traces.
From left to right: Traditional marine surveys are acquired by one vessel in one azimuth and produce data with a narrow azimuth-
offset distribution. Multiazimuth surveys are acquired by one vessel sailing in multiple directions and have azimuth-offset distributions
clustered around the direction of the sail lines. Wide-azimuth surveys are acquired by several vessels, increasing the azimuth range
for many offsets. Rich-azimuth surveys use several vessels shooting in several directions, combining the concepts of multiazimuth
and wide-azimuth surveys to deliver contributions for most azimuth-offset combinations. The Coil Shooting (single- or multiple-
vessel) technique delivers a high number of contributions for a complete range of azimuths for all offsets.
(Buia et al., 2008, Oilfield Review; Bunting et al., 2011, GCAGS Transactions)

53
 Recording Environment and System
Acquisition Schemes

Long term seismic quality evolution from lead identification to appraisal. From left to right: 1998
Spec PoSDM for lead identification, 2003 WEM prospect maturation, 2008 WATS fast track while
drilling, and 2010 WATS TTI for appraisal.

(Billette and Quist, 2011, GCAGS Transactions)

Recording Environment and System

Full-Azimuth Coil-Shooting Acquisition

Comparison between E-Octopus 3D prestack

depth migration of full-aperture, full-fold WAZ data
(left) and circular-geometry test data (right).
The Coil Shooting data exhibit some indications
of improved imaging, such as the higher amplitude
and better continuity of the salt overhang in the top-
left area of the section.
(Buia et al., 2008, Oilfield Review)

54
 Recording Environment and System
Full-Azimuth Coil-Shooting Acquisition

Results of a finite difference modeling and imaging study to assess the uplift of the Dual Coil
acquisition solution in imaging the subsalt reflectors in the SEG Seam model.
(Bunting et al., 2011, GCAGS Transactions)

Recording Environment and System

Shear Wave Splitting

Full-azimuthal seismic data allows for

detection of shear wave anisotropy.
Anisotropy, for example due to fracture
permeability,
bilit can result
lt in
i a phenomenon
h known
k
as shear-wave splitting.
As a shear wave passes through the
anisotropic medium (or as an incident P-wave
converts to reflected S-wave energy), the shear
wave splits.
A fast-shear wave becomes polarized parallel
to the fractures, and a slow-shear wave polarized
orthogonal.
With multicomponent receivers, the data can
be processed to extract the orientation and
degree of anistropy providing insight into the
density and/or aperture (width) of fractures.
Crossed dipole shear measurements in wireline
logging can detect shear wave anistropy,
providing an important tie to typical seismic
scale studies.
(J. Geiser, April 2003, AAPG Expl.)

55
 Seismic Anisotropy
Emilio Field, Italy

Emilio Field in the Adriatic

offshore Italy shows the fast S-wave
direction in color to illustrate the bi-
modal
d l distribution
di t ib ti associated
i t d with
ith
the target layer (naturally fractured
Scaglia carbonates in the upper
Paleocene).

Note the compartmentalization and

apparent control by faulting (thin
black lines).

There is good agreement with the

borehole data in wells at the top of
the structure (white points), and
based on production, borehole
fracture studies and anisotropy
from seismic data, the Emilio Field
has characteristics of a Type II
fractured reservoir.

(J. Geiser, April 2003, AAPG Expl.)

Shear Wave Splitting

Insight into the Borehole Environment

Fractures
Horizontal stress
Faults
LWD severe limitations
at present

56
Recording Environment and System
Time-Lapse 3D Seismic

Time-lapse seismic is sometimes called 4D seismic.

Repeated surveys are used to detect changes resulting from production from
a reservoir.
reservoir
Areas that have been produced between the surveys may reveal changes in the
difference survey (e.g., difference between two surveys); provides useful
information regarding production monitoring.
Areas that have not been produced, e.g., untapped fault blocks, do not exhibit
changes in the difference survey, and represent areas that may justify additional
wells.
An additional application, esp. with time
time-lapse
lapse multicomponent surveys, is to
investigate changes in elastic properties with time, including variations in saturation,
collapse of reservoir, subsidence of overlying strata, etc.
A potential challenge is synchronization of surveys, especially if original
exploration survey is used.
In many cases, time-lapse survey designs include permanent placement of
recording stations to allow better synchronization between multiple surveys.

Recording Environment and System

Time-Lapse 3D Seismic

(PGS advertisement, AAPG Explorer, October, 1996)

57
Recording Environment
and System
Time-Lapse 3D Seismic

Time-lapse horizon slices

showing effects of production
from Eugene Island 330 Field.

red increased amplitude

blue decreased amplitude
green sustained high
amplitudes (bypassed pay)

Recording Environment
and System
Time-Lapse 3D Seismic

This example illustrates a field-

scale volumetric analysis of
production monitoring.
Mapping of a pre-extraction 3D
survey defined the initial reservoir
volume, generating the initial net
pay map (top).
After 5 yrs of production, a second
3D survey was acquired, defining
a residual hydrocarbon volume,
as defined by the lower map.

(Mussett and Khan, 2000)

58
Recording Environment
and System
Time-Lapse 3D Seismic
Time-lapse imaging of steam flood
EOR operations at Salt Creek Field,
Wyoming.
Time-lapse seismic indicates that
injected fluids do not flow
predominantly in a radial direction
from injector to adjacent producers,
but instead reveal significant degree
of asymmetry indicating a strong flow
component in the updip direction with
lesser sweep in the strike and down-
dip directions,
directions most likely related to
CO2 buoyancy.
Fluid flow cannot be characterized as
a symmetric five-spot pattern that
serves as a unit cell to describe the
flood.

(Freeman, 2011, AAPG Explorer, Sept. issue)

Recording Environment
and System
Time-Lapse 3D Seismic
Most time-lapse surveys are used to
monitor the effects of production,
although stimulation techniques
(especially CO2 or steam floods)
floods).
Talisman in the Poice Coupe Field in
Alberta, Canada, recognized that
reservoir changes due to fracture
stimulation could be monitored on time-
lapse surveys.
Top image illustrates simulation of
production effects (drop in pressure)
versus fracture stimulation (increase in
pressure). Fracture stimulation results in
significant drop in seismic velocity
causing marked time shift of amplitude
events, which can be imaged by
differencing pre-frac versus post-frac
surveys (right image).
(Duey, 2009, Hart Energy E&P)

59
 Shear Wave Splitting
Valhall area, North Sea
(top) 3D azimuthal seismic data in the Valhall area, North
Sea, reveals an interesting pattern of fast shear waves.
Lines indicate orientation fast-shear waves and length
indicates magnitude of anisotropy.
Red triangle represents the producing platform.
Note that the overall pattern is circumferential to the
platform position.
Records fracturing associated with subsidence due
productioncollapse margin extension.
The fast shear orientation occurs perpendicular to the
LOCAL least effective principal horizontal stress (h), which is
radial to the subsidence center.
Note as well that, while the overall zone is circular, there is a
greater anisotropy on the east and west margins, resulting in
bilateral symmetry.
Bilateral symmetry of structural elements in an otherwise
circular environment typically reveals the interaction of local
stress within a regional stress field.
REGIONAL Hmax is ~ENE-WSW.
(bottom) Inverse/composite focal mechanism for
microearthquakes recorded at Valhall.
The focal mechanism is an attempt to best fit both the polarity
data (where open circles denote dilatational and filled circles
denote compressional P-wave first motions) and S-to-P
amplitude ratio (indicated by the size of the symbols).
While there is considerable uncertainty in the focal plane
mechanism, it is certainly suggestive of normal faulting, with
orientation consistent with other stress/strain data.

(top, J. Geiser, April 2003, AAPG Expl.; bottom, Zoback and Zinke, 2002, Pure Appl. Geophys.)

Wellbore Seismic
Vertical Seismic Profile (W/L primarily)

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 Receivers placed downhole and
Wellbore Seismic record information from surface
Offset VSP to Image Below Shallow Gas sources (one direction therefore
less frequency loss and better
vertical resolution). Data
intensive (Gbs) so real-time
LWD use is limited.

Missing data due to near-surface gas cloud. Sources offset from wellbore bypass shallow gas.

Wellbore Seismic
3D VSP

Tomographic velocity extraction from 3D VSP

from the San Juan Basin, Colorado.

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 Wellbore Seismic
VSP Enhanced Fault Identification

Left: A four-way well tie using synthetic, a VSP corridor stack, 3D VSP, and 3D SS (surface
seismic) images.

Right: The fault interpretation using 3D VSP allowed identification of possible reservoir faults not
recognizable in the surface seismic dataset.

(Milam, 2011, AAPG Explorer, Sept. issue)

Wellbore Seismic
Time-Lapse VSP Injection Results

Pre-CO2 Flood Post-CO2 Flood Difference

Control

Frio Frio

Left Vertical slice from original 3D VSP.

Center Vertical slice from post-CO2 flood 3D VSP. Note significant change in Frio interval.
Right Difference between pre- and post-CO2 flood surveys, highlight marked changes in the
Frio interval due to injection.
(Daley et al., 2005, Conf. on Carbon Seq.)

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 Wellbore Seismic
Multicomponent VSP

(right) VSP geometry with an offset source. Both

transmitted and reflected P-P and P-S waves are
shown.
(bottom) Schematic diagram of (a) PP-P
P reflection
trajectories and (b) P-S conversion points for the
VSP case of a surface source and subsurface
receivers. The midpoint (MP) and asymptotic
conversion point (ACP) for a surface source are
indicated.

(Stewart et al., 2002, Geophysics)

Wellbore Seismic
Multicomponent VSP

Composite plot showing well logs, VSP in depth and two-way time, synthetic seismograms, P-
wave surface seismic, and VSP sections. Data are from southern Alberta. Note the great reflection
activity (and noise) in the converted-wave section (from Geis et al., 1990). The P-P and P-S VSP
extracted traces or corridor stacks are labeled P-VET and PS-VET, respectively.
(Stewart et al., 2002, Geophysics)

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 Wellbore Seismic
Seismic MWD Example

Wellbore Seismic
Seismic MWD Example Real-Time Check-
Shot Survey

(Left image) Raw (unstacked) hydrophone memory data for a 10-shot checkshot at Well A, offshore
Malaysia. Note consistency between shots and strong first arrival (highlighted). (Right image) Real-time
checkshot waveforms (example shown inset) for Well B indicated the actual target depth (red line) to be
150 m shallower than originally predicted (yellow line) from the surface seismic data.
(Abdullah et al., 2011, Offshore Magazine)

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 Cross-well seismic involves
Wellbore Seismic sources in one borehole and
receivers in another, literally
Cross-Well Seismology (W/L Primarily) imaging between the wells.
Again, data intensive so real-
time LWD use is limited.

(Miller and Dupal, 1987)

Wellbore Seismic
Crosswell Tomography

(Harris and Langan, 1997)

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Wellbore Seismic
Time-Lapse Crosswell Example

(Harris and Langan, 1997)

Bit noise seismic while drilling uses

Bit Noise Seismic While Drilling the bit noise as the source. Bit noise
Reverse Vertical Seismic Profile signal is transmitted up through the
mud, along the drill collar and
through the formation, including
down-going waves being reflected
back up to the borehole receivers
and surface receivers.

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Bit Noise Seismic While Drilling
Comparison to Traditional VSP

Passive Seismic Monitoring

Listening to the Reservoir

(Dasgupta, 2008, SEG Dist. Lecture Series)

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 Passive Seismic Monitoring
Listening to the Reservoir Injection Event

Receivers
Borehole Rceivers
Surface Rec

(Dasgupta, 2008, SEG Dist. Lecture Series)

Passive Seismic Monitoring

3 Hz Hydrocarbon Indicator

It has been recognized from passive seismic datasets (which can record very low frequency
components) that hydrocarbon reservoirs commonly exhibit a marked frequency anomaly around 3
Hz.
While the exact causal mechanism is unclear, a natural resonance frequency is considered to be
the primary cause.
With dual-sensor technology (pressure and particle velocity), the envelope of frequency
acquisition has been pushed downward to around 2 Hz or so, and thus this acquisition
improvement is likewise allowing identification of this 3 Hz phenomena using active seismic data.

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Passive Seismic Monitoring
3 Hz Hydrocarbon Indicator

From Passive to Active

3 Hz Hydrocarbon Indicator

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 From Passive to Active
Low-Frequency Hydrocarbon Indicator
AVO combined with Spectral Decomposition

The vertical seismic sections present the AVO attributes (intercept x gradient) at both high frequencies (a) and low
frequencies (b).
The low-frequency (10 Hz) AVO attributes section (b) contains a bright anomaly at the reservoir depth (twt ~ 2.7 s). Elastic
properties exhibit greater variation between water versus oil saturation in the low-frequency domain.

Thank You

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