Cable_Access_Technologies

Historically, CATV has been a unidirectional medium designed to carry broadcast analog video channels to
the maximum number of customers at the lowest possible cost. Since the introduction of CATV more than 50
years ago, little has changed beyond increasing the number of channels supported. The technology to provide
high-margin, two-way services remained elusive to the operator.

During the 1990s, with the introduction of direct broadcast satellite (DBS) and digital subscriber line (DSL),
the cable operators experienced a serious challenge to their existence by competing technologies threatening
to erode market share of their single product.

DBS operators marketed more choice and better quality entertainment product through digital technology,
whereas the incumbent local exchange carriers (LEC) proposed to offer a combination of voice, video, and
data by means of DSL.

Fearing loss of market share and the need to offer advanced services to remain economically viable, key
multiple system operators (MSOs) formed the Multimedia Cable Network System Partners, Ltd. (MCNS),
with the purpose of defining a product and system standard capable of providing data and future services
over CATV plants. MCNS proposed a packet-based (IP) solution in contention with a cell-based (ATM)
solution promoted by IEEE 802.14. MCNS partners included Comcast Cable Communications, Cox
Communications, Tele-Communications Inc., Time Warner Cable, MediaOne, Rogers CableSystems, and
Cable Television Laboratories (CableLabs).

The Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) 1.0 standard that resulted from the MCNS
effort was unanimously accepted as the North American standard, and vendors aggressively introduced
products in compliance with this standard. MSOs defined upgrade and construction programs to increase the
supporting bandwidth of their plants and to provide two-way functionality.

The DOCSIS 1.0 standard prescribes multivendor interoperability and promotes a retail model for the
consumer's direct purchase of a cable modem (CM) of choice. To ensure multivendor interoperability,
CableLabs subjects all products offered to rigorous testing. Equipment successfully passing all tests will be
CableLabs Qualified for head-end Cable Modem Terminating System (CMTS), and CableLabs Certified for
CM devices.

To date, the DOCSIS 1.0 standard is proving to be a universal success, with deployments now in operation
worldwide.

CableLabs, in conjunction with the vendor and user communities, is now in the process of defining DOCSIS
1.1 for the purpose of supporting Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and advanced security, and is also
paving the way for advanced future multimedia services.

Guide Contents
Internetworking Basics
LAN Technologies
WAN Technologies
Internet Protocols
Bridging and Switching
Routing
Network Management
Voice/Data Integration Technologies
Wireless Technologies
Cable Access Technologies
Dial-up Technology
Security Technologies
Quality of Service Networking

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Network Caching Technologies

IBM Network Management
Multiservice Access Technologies
Contents
1 Evolution from One-Way Broadcast to Two-Way Hybrid Fiber Coax
1.1 Figure: A Simple, One-Way Video Broadcast Topology Using Coaxial
Cabling Exclusively
1.2 Figure: Simple HFC Distribution Network
1.3 Figure: Advanced HFC Network with Ring Topography
2 Limitations and Specifications of the HFC Plant
2.1 Table: Downstream Cable Specifications
2.2 Table: Upstream Cable Specifications
3 DOCSIS Standards, Signaling Protocols, and Applications
3.1 Figure: DOCSIS and OSI Protocol Layers
3.2 Table: Nominal DOCSIS Downstream Data Rates in 6-MHz Channel
3.3 Table: Nominal DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for QPSK
3.4 Table: Nominal DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for 16 QAM
3.5 Figure: Cable Modem Registration Sequence
3.6 Table: List and Definition of Show Cable Modem State Commands from a
Cisco CMTS
3.7 Table: A Generic CMTS Hardware Specification
3.8 Table: Generic CM Hardware Specification
4 DOCSIS Hardware Deployment and Resulting Service Capabilities
4.1 Figure: CMTS Deployment Possibilities in a Typical HFC CATV Plant
4.2 Table: Five-Year Business Plan Summary
4.3 Table: Head End Serving Area Characteristics and Available Spectrum
4.4 Table: Head End Customer and Traffic Profile
5 Future DOCSIS Applications
6 Summary
7 Review Questions
8 For More Information
8.1 Books
8.2 URLs
8.3 Magazines
Evolution from One-Way Broadcast to Two-Way Hybrid Fiber Coax
A CATV network consists of a head-end location where all incoming signals are received and, regardless of
their source, frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is applied, amplified, and transmitted downstream for
distribution to the complete cable plant.

Original CATV networks, as shown in Figure: A Simple, One-Way Video Broadcast Topology Using
Coaxial Cabling Exclusively, were exclusively one-way, comprised of diverse amplifiers in cascade to
compensate for the intrinsic signal loss of the coaxial cable in series with taps to couple video signal from the
main trunks to subscriber homes via drop cables.

Figure: A Simple, One-Way Video Broadcast Topology Using Coaxial Cabling Exclusively

Contents 2
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Besides being unidirectional, the long amplifier cascades resulted in a system with high noise that was
inherently unreliable and failure-prone, in addition to being susceptible to lightning strikes and ingress noise
from foreign radio frequency (RF) signals.

The first significant improvement to the CATV plant was the introduction of fiber-optic technology and the
advent of the HFC plant (see Figure: Simple HFC Distribution Network).

Figure: Simple HFC Distribution Network

Portions of the coaxial cable and supporting amplification elements are replaced with multifiber optic cable
from a head end or hub location. The aggregated video signal is used to modulate a downstream laser, which
transmits the optical signal to an optical node, which in turn converts the signal from an optical to an
electrical signal that can then be propagated downstream to the entire customer serving area.

It can be readily seen that the introduction of the fiber can significantly reduce the number of cascaded
amplifiers consequently improving system reliability, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the downstream
video signal, and potential system bandwidth. In addition, this makes the system ready for the next step to
two-way operation. As an added benefit, HFC reduces operational and maintenance costs, and improves the
immunity of the system to ingress noises.

Two-way operation is achieved by the addition of requisite upstream amplifiers in the amplifier housings, the
addition of a narrow-band upstream laser in the optical node, a dedicated upstream fiber to the head end, and
a compatible optical receiver to convert any upstream information to an electrical signal. When all
components are in place, proper return path alignment is required.

Figure: A Simple, One-Way Video Broadcast Topology Using Coaxial Cabling Exclusively 3
 Cable_Access_Technologies

By means of adding an optical RING topography, the cable network affords greater reliability, supports
greater bandwidth with the capability to transport more information, and is ready to support two-way
operation by the simple addition of requisite components, as illustrated in Figure: Advanced HFC Network
with Ring Topography.

Figure: Advanced HFC Network with Ring Topography

Network robustness, scalability, and flexibility is further improved by the introduction of the intermediate
hub from which advanced services can ultimately be launched.

The HFC network and topography as outlined become the basic building blocks for developing access
transport capabilities needed by the MSOs to compete in the dynamic communication environment.

Limitations and Specifications of the HFC Plant

The HFC network has the potential to offer tremendous bandwidth in the downstream or forward direction
from the head end or hub to the customer. Depending upon the extent of the plant upgrade, the available
bandwidth could be as much as from 54 to 860 MHz. Downstream channel bandwidths are determined by the
individual country's video broadcast standards.

The historical broadcast video channel assignments limit the upstream or reverse direction from the customer
to the spectrum between 5 to 42 MHz. This upstream spectrum is frequently hostile to return path
connectivity due to the ingress of foreign interfering signals such as ham radio citizen band (CB), among
other legitimate RF emissions.

Table: Downstream Cable Specifications summarizes the specifications for the downstream direction.

A DOCSIS system must provide greater than 99 percent availability when forwarding 1500-byte packets at
the rate of at least 100 packets per second. To achieve these criteria, certain CATV performance

Figure: Simple HFC Distribution Network 4

 Cable_Access_Technologies

specifications are mandated on both the upstream and downstream spectrum.

Table: Downstream Cable Specifications

Assumes nominal analog video carrier level (peak envelope

Downstream
power) in a 6-MHz channel with all conditions present
concurrently and referenced to frequencies greater than 88
Parameter
MHz
RF channel spacing (BW) 6 MHz
Transit delay, CMTS to most distant
Less than or equal to 0.800 ms
customer
CNR in a 6-MHz band Not less than 35 dB (analog video level)
C/I ratio for total power (discrete and
Not less than 35 dB within the design BW
broadband ingress signals)
Composite triple-beat distortion for
Not greater than -50 dBc within the design BW
analog-modulated carriers
Composite second-order distortion for
Not greater than -50 dBc within the design BW
analog-modulated carriers
Cross-modulation level Not greater than -40 dBc within the design BW
Amplitude ripple 0.5 dB within the design BW
Group delay ripple in the spectrum
75 ns within the design BW
occupied by the CMTS
-10 dBc at less than or equal to 0.5 ms

-15 dBc at less than or equal to 1.0 ms

Microreflections bound for dominant
echo
-20 dBc at less than or equal to 1.5 ms

-30 dBc at less than or equal to 1.5 ms

Carrier hum modulation Not greater than -26 dBc (5 percent)
Burst noise Less than 25 ms at a 10 Hz average rate
Seasonal and diurnal signal level
8 dB
variation
Signal level slope (50 to 750 MHz) 16 dB
Maximum analog video carrier level at
the CM input, inclusive of above signal 17 dBmV
level variations
Lowest analog video carrier level at the
CM input, inclusive of above signal level -5 dBmV
variation
Table: Upstream Cable Specifications summarizes the specifications for the upstream direction.

Good engineering, design, and maintenance practices for CATV plants ensure that these traditional video
parameters can easily be met and maintained for operational systems. Parameters of primary concern,
however, relate to signal level and noise.

Limitations and Specifications of the HFC Plant 5

 Cable_Access_Technologies
Table: Upstream Cable Specifications

Assumes all conditions present

Upstream
concurrently
Frequency range 5 to 42 MHz, edge to edge
Transit delay, most distant CM to nearest CM or CMTS Less than or equal to 0.800 ms
Carrier-to-noise ratio Not less than 25 dB
Carrier-to-ingress power (the sum of discrete and broadband
Not less than 25 dB
ingress signals) ratio
Carrier-to-interference (the sum of noise, distortion, common path
Not less than 25 dB
distortion, and cross-modulation) ratio
Carrier hum modulation Not greater than -23 dBc (7 percent)
Not longer than 10 ms at a 1 kHz
Burst noise
average rate for most cases
Amplitude ripple 0.5 dB/MHz (5 - 42 MHz)
Group delay ripple 200 ns/MHz (5 - 42 MHz)
-10 dBc at less than or equal to 0.5 ms

Microreflections: single echo -20 dBc at less than or equal to 1.0 ms

-20 dBc at less than or equal to 1.0 ms

Seasonal and diurnal signal level variation Not greater than 8 dB min to max
The greater challenge for the operator is to realize sufficient usable upstream bandwidth to achieve the
systems throughput requirements for data or other services. The limited upstream bandwidth must often be
shared with other services, ranging from impulse pay-per-view (IPPV), telemetry, and alarm gathering
information from the active elements in the cable plant, as well as having to compete with interfering signals
that radiate into the lower frequency range.

Because of the limited and often-hostile upstream bandwidth, the hardware design must implement diverse
countermeasures to mitigate the effects of both fixed and transient harmful noise. In addition, the network
designer must choose from the available remaining spectrum and often must implement bandwidth
compromises for a DOCSIS deployment.

A combination of upstream signal quality measured by carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR), anticipated market
penetration, services offered, and available upstream spectrum will ultimately dictate the physical
configuration of the return-path physical layer.

DOCSIS Standards, Signaling Protocols, and Applications

The DOCSIS interface specifications enabled the development and deployment of data-over-cable systems
on a nonproprietary, multivendor, interoperable basis for transparent bidirectional transfer of Internet
Protocol (IP) traffic between the cable system head end and customer locations over an all-coaxial or
hybrid-fiber/coax (HFC) cable network.

The system consists of a CMTS located at the head end, a coaxial or HFC medium, and a CM located at the
premises of the customer, in conjunction with DOCSIS-defined layers that support interoperability and
evolutionary feature capabilities to permit future value-added services.

Table: Upstream Cable Specifications 6

 Cable_Access_Technologies
DOCSIS layer definitions are as follows:

IP network layer
Data link layer comprised of:
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer conforming to Ethernet standards
Link security sublayer for basic privacy, authorization, and authentication
Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer for operation supporting variable-length protocol
data units (PDU) and featuring:

CMTS control of contention and reservation transmission opportunities

A stream of minislots in the upstream
Bandwidth efficiency through variable-length packets
Extensions for the future support of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or other types of
PDU
Support for multiple grade of service and wide range of data rates

Physical (PHY) layer comprised of:

Downstream convergence layer conforming to MPEG-2 (Rec. H.222.0)
Physical Media Dependent (PMD) sublayer for:

Downstream based on ITU-T Rec J.83 Annex B with either 64 or 256 quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM), concatenation of Reed-Solomon and Trellis forward error correction
(FEC), in addition to variable-depth interleaving
Upstream, employing:
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) or 16 QAM
Support for multiple symbol rates
CM controlled and programmable from the CMTS
Frequency agility
Support for fixed-frame and variable-length PDU formats
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
Programmable Reed-Solomon FEC and preambles
Capability to support future physical layer technologies

In addition, the specification defines means by which a CM can self-discover the appropriate upstream and
downstream frequencies, bit rates, modulation format, error correction, and power levels. To maintain
equitable service levels, individual CMs are not allowed to transmit except under defined and controlled
conditions.

The DOCSIS layers are represented by Figure: DOCSIS and OSI Protocol Layers and are compared with the
classic OSI layer.

Figure: DOCSIS and OSI Protocol Layers

DOCSIS Standards, Signaling Protocols, and Applications 7

 Cable_Access_Technologies

The DOCSIS physical layer permits considerable flexibility to ensure quality transmission can be achieved
over cable plants of varying quality. Of significance are the optional upstream channel bandwidths and
modulation choices available for both the upstream and downstream signal flows.

Based upon bandwidth and modulation options, in addition to DOCSIS-specified symbol rates, the total and
effective data rates of DOCSIS facilities are summarized in Table: Nominal DOCSIS Downstream Data
Rates in 6-MHz Channel, Table: Nominal DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for 16 QAM and Table: Nominal
DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for 16 QAM. The overhead generated by FEC inefficiency represents the
difference between the respective rates.

Table: Nominal DOCSIS Downstream Data Rates in 6-MHz Channel

Modulation type 64 QAM 256 QAM

Symbol rate 5.057 MSs 5.360 MSs
Total data rate 30.34 Mbps 42.9 Mbps
Effective data rate 27 Mbps 38 Mbps

Table: Nominal DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for QPSK

Bandwidth 200 kHz 400 kHz 800 kHz 1600 kHz 3200 kHz
Symbol rate 0.16 MSs 0.32 MSs 0.64 MSs 1.28 MSs 2.56 MSs
Total data rate 0.32 Mbps 0.64 Mbps 1.28 Mbps 2.56 Mbps 5.12 Mbps
Effective data rate 0.3 Mbps 0.6 Mbps 1.2 Mbps 2.3 Mbps 4.6 Mbps

Table: Nominal DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for 16 QAM

Bandwidth 200 kHz 400 kHz 800 kHz 1600 kHz 3200 kHz
Symbol rate 0.16 MSs 0.32 MSs 0.64 MSs 1.28 MSs 2.56 MSs
Total data rate 0.64 Mbps 1.28 Mbps 2.56 Mbps 5.12 Mbps 10.24 Mbps
Effective Data Rate 0.6 Mbps 1.2 Mbps 2.3 Mbps 4.5 Mbps 9 Mbps
DOCSIS further specifies that for a system to become functional and operational, mandatory servers must
interface the CMTS and CM deployments. These servers include the following:

Figure: DOCSIS and OSI Protocol Layers 8

 Cable_Access_Technologies
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, as defined by RFC 2181. This server provides
needed IP addresses for both the CM and subsequent PC devices that follow.
Time of Day (TOD) server, as defined by RFC 868 for the purpose of time-stamping operational
system events.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server, as defined by RFC 1350 for the purpose of registering
and downloading CM configuration files for individual customer service. These configurations could
include quality of service (QoS) parameters, baseline privacy (BPI) implementation, operating
frequency assignments, the number of host devices, and so on.

For large-scale deployments, it is recommended that these servers be supported by dedicated hardware
platforms to ensure rapid system response and scalability.

The DOCSIS specifications dictate a CM registration process as represented in Figure: Cable Modem
Registration Sequence. In an environment equipped with a CMTS and supported with the required servers, a
CM scans the downstream spectrum when it is initially powered on for a compatible RF channel carrying
data adhering to DOCSIS physical layer characteristics. The CMTS periodically broadcasts upstream channel
descriptors (UCD) over the DS channel, from which a CM will learn its assigned upstream operational
frequency. The CM has now established both a US and a DS frequency.

Figure: Cable Modem Registration Sequence

The CMTS periodically transmits upstream bandwidth allocation maps (henceforth referred to as MAP) in
shared time slots in the DS direction.

The CMTS assigns a temporary service identifier (SID) (typically SID = 0) to the CM, which begins a coarse
power ranging (R1 using 3 dB increments) and time synchronization process between itself and the CMTS
on a contention basis using shared time slots.

The CMTS periodically sends keepalive messages to verify link continuity between itself and all CM units in
the same domain. When a CM receives its first keepalive message, it reverts to a fine power ranging (R2
using 0.25 dB increments).

Table: Nominal DOCSIS Upstream Data Rates for 16 QAM 9

 Cable_Access_Technologies

Following the R2 process, a CM is considered to have established a link between itself and the CMTS, but
the link will be broken if 16 consecutive keepalive messages are lost.

On a contention basis in shared time slots, using a temporary SID, a CM forwards a bandwidth request to the
CMTS, which in turn forwards a grant to the CM, permitting it to forward upstream information in allocated
time slots. The CM subsequently makes a DHCP discovery followed by a DHCP request. The CMTS
forwards a DHCP acknowledgment from the DHCP server containing an IP address, a default gateway, the
addresses of a TFTP and TOD server, and a TFTP configuration file name.

The CM subsequently initiates the TOD and TFTP process. From the TFTP server, the CM receives a
configuration file containing QoS, security, applicable frequency assignments, and any new software images.

The CM forwards this configuration file to the CMTS and initiates a registration request. If the configuration
file is valid, the CMTS assigns the CM a permanent SID and registers the CM to online status.

Following registration, the CM optionally initiates the activation of the 56-bit DES encryption algorithm to
provide security between the CMTS and itself over the cable plant.

As CMs register, their individual status can be monitored remotely via access commands to the CMTS.
Table: List and Definition of Show Cable Modem State Commands from a Cisco CMTS defines status
messages from a Cisco universal broadband router.

Table: List and Definition of Show Cable Modem State Commands from a Cisco CMTS

Message Message Definition

Offline Modem is considered offline
init(r1) Modem is sent initial ranging
init(r2) Modem is ranging
init(rc) Ranging is complete
init(d) DHCP request was received
init(i) DHCP reply was received; IP address was assigned
init(t) TOD request was received
init(o) TFTP request was received
online Modem is registered and enabled for data
online(d) Modem is registered, but network access for the CM is disabled
online(pk) Modem is registered, BPI is enabled, and KEK was assigned
online(pt) Modem is registered, BPI is enabled, and TEK was assigned
reject(m) Modem did attempt to register; registration was refused due to bad MIC
reject(c) Modem did attempt to register; registration was refused due to bad COS
reject(pk) KEK modem key assignment was rejected
reject(pt) TEK modem key assignment was rejected
DOCSIS prescribes that data forwarding through the CMTS may be transparent bridging or, as an alternate,
may employ network layer routing or IP switching. It also specifies that data forwarding through the CM is
link layer transparent bridging with modifications allowing the support of multiple network layers.

In addition, DOCSIS defines generic CMTS and CM hardware specifications to ensure multivendor
interoperability in field deployments. These are summarized in Table: A Generic CMTS Hardware
Specification.

Figure: Cable Modem Registration Sequence 10

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Table: A Generic CMTS Hardware Specification

Parameter Characteristic
Upstream 5 to 42 MHz (5 to 65 MHz offshore)
Frequency range
Downstream 88 to 860 MHz
Upstream 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 kHz
Bandwidth
Downstream 6 MHz (8 MHz offshore)
Upstream QPSK or 16 QAM
Modulation modes
Downstream 64 or 256 QAM
Upstream 160, 320, 640, 1280, 2560 Ksymbols/sec
Symbol rates
Downstream 5.056941 or 5.360537 Msymbols/sec
CMTS power level range

upstream

downstream
For the DOCSIS availability criteria to be realized or exceeded, the hardware must support noise-mitigating
countermeasures or properties to operate in the hostile upstream. For the upstream, the operator has a choice
of either QPSK or 16 QAM enabling operation within a degraded CNR, but with reduced spectral efficiency.

Additionally, forward error correction (FEC) can be optionally configured to reduce the amount of data
corrupted by noise. Furthermore, an optimal upstream BW can be selected by the operator to fit data channels
between either noisy spectrum or spectrum assigned to other services.

The last countermeasure available is a concept of spectrum management, in which the selected upstream
frequency, modulation, and channel bandwidth can be altered to ensure reliable access transmission between
the CMTS and CM in case of transitory noise periods.

The physical characteristics of the generic DOCSIS 1.0 hardware, noise-mitigating countermeasures, and the
associated cable plant parameters have been defined and specified in Table: Generic CM Hardware
Specification. Based on this information, and knowing the actual cable plants characteristics, the operator can
now consider deploying hardware to develop a network.

Table: Generic CM Hardware Specification

Parameter Characteristic
CM power level range: QPSK: 8 to 58 dBmV

Output 16 QAM: 8 to 55 dBmV

Table: A Generic CMTS Hardware Specification 11

 Cable_Access_Technologies

Input -15 to 15 dBmV

Transmission level -6 to -10 dBc
DOCSIS Hardware Deployment and Resulting Service Capabilities
Assuming HFC CATV topography as shown in Figure: CMTS Deployment Possibilities in a Typical HFC
CATV Plant, CMTS equipment could be deployed at both the hub and the head end locations. For the
purpose of this application, the Cisco universal broadband router is considered. The uBR7246 is an
integrated router with a capacity of up to four CMTS units, with CMTS units available with one downstream
port and from one to six upstream ports. In addition, the universal broadband router can be equipped for
backbone connectivity from a large selection of port adapters, ranging from T1/E1 serial to Packet Over
SONET (POS), to Dynamic Packet Transport (DPT) and from 10BaseT Ethernet to High-Speed Serial
Interface (HSSI).

Figure: CMTS Deployment Possibilities in a Typical HFC CATV Plant

When selecting the backbone connection option, an assessment of the total backbone traffic and the available
medium must be considered. In all likelihood, for our example, the backbone from the hub location would be
transported optically to the head end, where all traffic would be aggregated by either a router or an IP switch
before being forwarded to the Internet or to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Often, the MSO
will provision a cache engine at the head end to reduce the bandwidth to the Internet and consequently reduce
the facility lease cost.

Connectivity to the PSTN is often required to support either dialup Internet service, voice, or Telco return
data service.

Table: Generic CM Hardware Specification 12

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Telco return, if available from the MSO, is as an interim service offering because its plant topography has not
been fully upgraded to two-way operation. In such applications, a high-speed downstream connection is
established over the HFC plant, whereas the upstream connection is established via a Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) connection over the telephone network, with a dialup modem at the customer premise and an access
server located electrically before connecting to the Internet.

To emphasize the engineering considerations evaluated for establishing a DOCSIS network, a simple
business case model will be evaluated. The relevant business parameters are summarized in Table: Five-Year
Business Plan Summary. The analysis considers only residential and limited business customers supported by
the head end location.

Table: Five-Year Business Plan Summary

Plant Growth '0.75 Percent per Annum

High-speed data service offered:
256 kbps DS 128 kbps US
Residential
1.5 Mbps DS 512 kbps US
Business
Penetration rates:
3 percent in first year with 30 percent CAGR
Residential
Two in year two; add one per year thereafter
Business
Analysis assumptions:
25 percent
Residential activity factor
25 percent
Business activity factor
8 percent
Data peak factor
The business plan indicates that the DOCSIS service is for an existing serving area that will experience
moderate growth, probably limited to new home construction, over the plan period. The operator intends to
offer a single data product to each of the residential and business users within the serving area.

Penetration rate is the percentage of total homes passed in the serving area and represents the number of
customers who buy the service.

The activity factor represents the percentage of subscribers who are actively online either uploading or
downloading information.

The peak factor represents the relationship between the perceived or apparent bandwidth load of a system
compared to the actual finite bandwidth available from the physical CMTS deployment. Peaking reflects the
fact that data transfer to an individual user is typically during intervals of instantaneous duration.

Figure: CMTS Deployment Possibilities in a Typical HFC CATV Plant 13

 Cable_Access_Technologies
The cable plant infrastructure (head end serving area) that is considered for this deployment has
characteristics, assigned spectrum, and selected modulation as summarized in Table: Head End Serving Area
Characteristics and Available Spectrum.

Table: Head End Serving Area Characteristics and Available Spectrum

Downstream: 88 to 750 MHz

HFC characteristics
Upstream: 5 to 42 MHz
25,000 homes passed

Head end serving area 25 nodes (average of 1,000 homes each)

CNR varying between 30 and 36 dB; average of 32 dB

Downstream: EIA channel 60 at 439.25 MHz
Available spectrum
Upstream: 32 MHz, 800 kHz bandwidth
Downstream: 64 QAM
Modulation
Upstream: QPSK
The head end supports a local serving area of 25,000 homes passed, distributed among 25 optical nodes with
upstream CNR ranging from 30 to 36 dB. The CNR is a significant parameter because it dictates the number
of nodes that can be combined into a single receive port. DOCSIS requires a CNR of 25 dB, irrespective of
the upstream modulation chosen for certified operation.

The selection of QPSK and bandwidth of 800 kHz will impact the return path data throughput rate.

From the business case variables, a five-year customer and traffic profile summary is prepared.

The table indicates that the number of homes passed and the penetration rates have increased considerably
over the evaluation, with the resultant perceived bandwidth to be processed by the CMTS equipment at the
head end.

The number of CMTS units to support the perceived load must be determined considering the use of the
Cisco uBR-MC16C consisting of one downstream and six upstream ports. First, however, a valid upstream
aggregation scenario must be established.

Consider combining three nodes, each having a CNR of 36 dB, resulting in an aggregated CNR of
approximately 27 dB that comfortably exceeds the DOCSIS criteria.

We must now determine the quantity of CMTS units to satisfy this application:

25 nodes/3 nodes per receiver = 9 receivers, indicating a need for two uBR-MC16C units

Considering the 800 kHz QPSK upstream limitations, the hardware selection must be validated against the
traffic analysis for the business plan, as summarized in Table: Head End Customer and Traffic Profile.

Table: Five-Year Business Plan Summary 14

 Cable_Access_Technologies
Table: Head End Customer and Traffic Profile

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Homes passed 25,000 25,188 25,376 25,666 25,758
Residential customer 750 982 1286 1685 2207
Business customer 2 3 4 5
DS 48M DS 64M DS 84M DS 100M DS 144M
Total traffic
US 24M US 32M US 42M US 55M US 72M

Downstream Validation

Two uBR-MC16C resulting in 2 * 27 = 54 Mbps, compared to Year 5 requirement of 144/8 = 18.1

Mbps (where 144 MBps is the Year 5 apparent BW and 8 is the data peaking factor)

Upstream Validation

Two uBR-MC16C with 9 active receivers configured for QPSK and 800 kHz BW, resulting in 9 *
1.2 = 10.8 Mbps, compared to Year 5 requirement of 72/8 = 9 Mbps (where 72 MBps is the Year 5
apparent BW and 8 is the data peaking factor)

Subscriber Limit Validation

The total number of Year 5 subscribers is 2207 + 5 = 2212 which is well within the suggested limit
of 1200 subscribers per CMTS.

Based on the analysis of this simple business case, the initial deployment of CMTS hardware will meet the
needs of the entire five-year plan and beyond, without compelling the operator to upgrade the configuration.

Future DOCSIS Applications

This article describes the DOCSIS 1.0 product definition intended to support high-speed data over a cable
network. The standard is evolving to DOCSIS 1.1 to support additional services and future applications,
which coincide with product enhancements to support the needs of the market to ensure network reliability,
and high system availability.

Planned future services and applications include telephony based upon Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP),
video over IP using Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG) frame format, quality of service (QoS), and
enhanced security definitions. At the same time, CM and set top box (STB) devices capable of supporting
these and other services are being introduced.

When considering the simultaneous support of these new services and applications, a more extensive
planning concept must be considered.

Summary
Historical coaxial broadcast networking was described in this article, and its inherent detriments to advanced
services were identified. HFC networking was included, with a brief description of its advantages and
benefits capable of supporting high-speed data connectivity.

Table: Head End Customer and Traffic Profile 15

 Cable_Access_Technologies

The limitations of prevailing HFC designs, DOCSIS availability criteria, and requisite cable plant
specifications and terminology were addressed as well.

In addition, this article summarized the DOCSIS standard, signaling protocol, requisite supporting servers,
generic product specifications, and applications. Representative CM status messages as viewed at the CMTS
were provided to reflect parameters and tools critical for the operational aspects of a DOCSIS system.

Finally, future services and applications were identified to coincide with the evolution to DOCSIS 1.1.

Review Questions
Q - Describe the advantages or benefits offered by an HFC network.

A - HFC networks provide increased bandwidth, increased reliability, ready support for two-way operation,
improved noise immunity, and reduced operation and maintenance costs.

Q - Identify the process of providing two-way operation of an HFC cable plant.

A - Two-way operation can be established on an HFC cable plant by installing the narrow-band upstream
amplifiers in the amplifier housings, adding a narrow-band return laser at the optical node, providing an
optical return path, and placing an optical receiver at the head end or hub location. Proper alignment
procedure of the return path is also required.

Q - Describe the upstream and downstream bandwidths associated with the DOCSIS standard.

A - The DOCSIS bandwidth limitations are 5 to 42 MHz for the upstream direction, and 54 to 860 MHz for
the downstream direction.

Q - Summarize the DOCSIS availability criteria.

A - A DOCSIS system must provide greater than 99 percent availability when forwarding 1500-byte packets
at a rate of 100 packets per second when the cable plant meets the published DOCSIS system specifications.

Q - Identify the DOCSIS-defined networking layers.

A - The DOCSIS-defined layers consist of the IP network Layer, the data link layer, and the physical (PHY)
layer.

Q - Identify the DOCSIS 1.0 servers, and describe their respective purposes in the network.

A - DOCSIS servers include the DHCP server (RFC 2181), which provides IP addresses to both the CM and
PC devices; the TFTP server (RFC 1350), which registers and downloads CM configuration files; and the
TOD server (RFC 868), which provides a time stamp to operational system events.

Q - What are the facilities in which an MSO might deploy the universal broadband router?

A - The universal broadband router can be deployed as needed in both the head end and hub locations.

Q - Define Telco return and tell when this application might be considered.

A - Telco return describes a data service that provides high-speed downstream connectivity over the coax
plant, and low-speed connectivity over the PSTN. This application is typically used in rural networks, where
the upgrade cost is prohibitive, or as an interim networking solution permitting the MSO to offer service

Summary 16
 Cable_Access_Technologies

while the cable plant is being upgraded for two-way service.

Q - List a few of the properties and future applications associated with DOCSIS 1.1.

A - DOCSIS 1.1 will support VoIP, enhanced security, packet concatenation and fragmentation, as well as
QoS. Service applications include telephony and video.

For More Information

Books

Azzam, Albert, and Niel Ransom. Broadband Access Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Ciciora, Walter, James Farmer, and David Large. Modern Cable Television Technology. Boston: Morgan
Kaufmann Publishers Inc., 1998.

Grant, William. Cable Television, Third Edition. New York: GWG Associates, 1997.

Raskin, Donald, and Dean Stoneback. Broadband Return Systems for Hybrid Fiber/Coax Cable TV
Networks. New York: Prentice Hall PTR, 1997.

Thomas, Jeff. Cable Television: Proof of Performance. New York: Prentice Hall PTR, 1995.

URLs

http://www.cablelabs.com

http://www.cablemodem.com

http://www.cabletelephony.com

http://www.catv.org/modem.com

http://www.hukk.com

Magazines

Cablevision. 8773 South Ridgeline Blvd., Highland Ranch, Co 80126. http://www.cablevisionmag.com.

Cableworld. Intertec Publishing, a Primedia Company, 9800 Metcalf Ave., Overland Park, KS 66212-2215.
http://cableworld.com.

CED (Communications Engineering & Design). P.O. Box 266007, Highland Ranch, CO 80163-6007.
http://www.cedmagazine.com.

Review Questions 17