POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION and SWITCHGEAR RUD ec ET RRC 0 aTata McGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Power System Protection and Switchgear, 2/e Copyright © 2011 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. ISBN (13): 978-0-07-107774-3, ISBN (10): 0-07-107774-X ‘Vice President and Managing Director—McGraw-Hill Education, Asia-Pacific Region: Ajay Shukla Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan Publishing Manager (SEM & Tech. Ed.): Shalini Jha Senior Editorial Researcher: Koyel Ghosh Executive—Editorial Services: Sohini Mukherjee Senior Production Manager: Satinder S Baveja Production Executive: Anuj Kumar Shriwastava Marketing Manager—Higher Education: Vijay S Jaganathan Senior Product Specialist: John Mathews General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Assistant General Manager—Production: B L Dogra Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accu- racy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other pro- fessional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Bharati Composers, D-6/159, Sector-VI, Rohini, Delhi 110 085, and printed at A. P Offset, M-135, Panchsheel Garden Naveen Shahdara, Dethi 110 032 Cover: A.P, Offset RYXCRRQWRQCCX Reel le ee rtProface Contents xiti 1. Introduction 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ma 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 al 12 13 14 5 16 ‘7 Need for Protective Systems / Nature and Causes of Faults 2 Types of Faults 3 Effects of Faults 4 Fault Statistics 5 Evolution of Protective Relays 6 Zones of Protection 9 Primary and Back-up Protection 10 Essential Qualities of Protection 1/7 Performance of Protective Relays /2 Classification of Protective Relays 14 Components of a Protection System 18 Classification of Protective Schemes 19 Automatic Reclosing 20 Current Transformers (CTs) for Protection 20 Voltage Transformers (VTs) 22 Basic Relay Terminology 23 Exercises 31 Relay Construction and Operating Principles 32 21 2.2 23 24 25 Introduction 32 Electromechanical Relays 33 Static Relays 50 Numerical Relays 6/ Comparison between Electromechanical Relays and Numerical Relays 63 Exercises 64vi 35 6. Contents Current and Voltage Transformers 65 3.1 Introduction 65 2 Current transformers (CTs) 65 3 Voltage Transformers (VTs) 89 Summation transformer 93 ww ww ak Phase-sequence Current-segregating Network 94 Exercises 95 Fault Analysis 96 4.1 Introduction 96 4.2 Per-Unit System 98 43 One-Line Diagram 102 44 Impedance and Reactance Diagrams 103 4.5 Symmetrical Fault Analysis 107 4.6 Symmetrical Components 1/46 4.7 Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis 168 48 Grounding (Earthing) 98 Exercises 215 Overcurrent Protection 221 5.1 Introduction 221 5.2 Time-current Characteristics 22] 5.3 Current Setting 225 54 Time Setting 226 5.5 Overcurrent Protective Schemes 228 5.6 Reverse Power or Directional Relay 234 5.7 Protection of Parallel Feeders 237 5.8 Protection of Ring Mains 237 5.9 Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protection 238 5.10 Combined Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protective Scheme 240 Phase Fault Protective Scheme 240 Directional Earth Fault Relay 240 Static Overcurrent Relays 247 Numerical Overcurrent Relays 245 Exercises 246 Distance Protection 249 6.1 Introduction 249 6.2 Impedance Relay 250 6.3 Reactance Relay 258 64 MHO (Admittance or Angle Admitiance) Relay 261Contents vii 65 Angle Impedance (OHM) Relay 267 6.6 Input Quantities for Various Types of Distance Relays 269 67 Sampling Comparator 270 6.8 Effect of are Resistance on the Performance of Distance Relays 27/ 6.9 Reach of Distance Relays 274 6.10 Effect of Power Surges (Power Swings) on the Performance of Distance Relays 277 Effect of Line Length and Source Impedance on Distance Relays 28/ 6.12 Selection of Distance Relays 283 6.13 MHO Relay with Blinders 283 6.14 Quadrilateral Relay 284 6.15 Elliptical Relay 286 6.16 Restricted MHO Relay 287 6.17 Restricted Impedance Relay 289 6.18 Restricted Directional Relay 289 6.19 Restricted Reactance Relay 290 6.20 Some Other Distance Relay Characteristics 290 6.21 Swivelling Characteristics 293 6.22 Choice of Characteristics for Different Zones of Protection 294 6.1 6.23 Compensation for Correct Distance Measurement 295 6.24 Reduction of Measuring Units 298 6.25 Switched Schemes 299 6.26 Auto-reclosing 301 Appendix 304 Exercises 305 7. Pilot Relaying Schemes 310 7.1 Introduction 310 7.2 Wire Pilot Protection 3/0 7.3 Carrier Current Protection 3/5 Exercises 326 8. Differential Protection 327 8.1 Introduction 327 8.2 Differential Relays 328 8.3 Simple (Basic) Differential Protection 329 8.4 Percentage or Biased Differential Relay 339viii Contents 85 86 Differential Protection of 3-Phase Circuits 346 Balanced (Opposed) Voltage Differential Protection 346 Exercises 347 g. Rotating Machines Protection 349 91 9.2 Introduction 349 Protection of Generators 349 Exercises 361 10. Transformer and Buszone Protection 364 10.1 Introduction 364 10.2 Transformer Protection 364 10.3 Buszone Protection 375 10.4 Frame Leakage Protection 376 Exercises. 377 11. Numerical Protection 379 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nt 1 11. a ll. ll. 1.1 12 13 14 15 16 Iii; 18 19 10 all 12 mh 14 15 Introduction 379 Numerical Relay 38/ Data Acquisition System (DAS) 386 Numerical Relaying Algorithms 390 Mann-Morrison Technique 390 Differential Equation Technique 397 Discrete Fourier Transform Technique 393 Walsh—Hadamard Transform Technique 402 Rationalised Haar Transform Technique 4/6 Block Pulse Functions Technique 427 Wavelet Transform Technique 433 Removal of the de Offset 447 Numerical Overcurrent Protection 442 Numerical Distance Protection 444 Numerical Differential Protection 445 Exercises 450 12. Microprocessor-Based Numerical Protective Relays 452 1 1 1 1 1 21 2.2 24 25 26 Introduction 452 IC Elements and Circuits for Interfaces 453 AID Converter, Analog Multiplexer, S/H Circuit 457 Overcurrent Relays 471 Impedance Relay 475 Directional Relay 48/712.7 128 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 Contents ix Reactance Relay 484 Generalised Mathematical Expression for Distance Relays 487 Measurement of Rand X 489 Mho and Offset Mho Relays 492 Quadrilateral Relay 498 Generalised Interface for Distance Relays 501 Microprocessor Implementation of Digital Distance Relaying Algorithms 502 Exercises 504 13. Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection 506 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.12 13.13 Introduction 506 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 507 Fuzzy Logic 5/8 Application of Artificial Intelligence to Power System Protection 520 Application of ANN to Overcurrent Protection 522 Application of ANN to Transmission Line Protection 522 Neural Network Based Directional Relay 523 ANN Modular Approach for Fault Detection, Classification and Location 523 Wavelet Fuzzy Combined Approach for Fault Classification 525 Application of ANN to Power Transformer Protection 526 Power Transformer Protection Based on Neural Network and Fuzzy Logic 528 Power Transformer Protection Based Upon Combined Wavelet Transform and Neural Network 529 Application of ANN to Generator Protection 530 Exercises 537 14. Circuit Breakers 533 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Introduction 533 Fault Clearing Time of a Circuit Breaker 534 Are Voltage 535 Are Interruption 535 Restriking Voltage and Recovery Voltage 537 Resistance Switching 541 Current Chopping 544x Contents 148 149 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18 14.19 Interruption of Capacitive Current 545 Classification of Circuit Breakers 546 Air-Break Circuit Breakers 547 Oil Circuit Breakers 548 Air Blast Circuit Breakers 553 SF, Circuit Breakers 555 Vacuum Circuit Breakers 562 Operating Mechanism 564 Selection of Circuit Breakers 565 High Voltage DC (HVDC) Circuit Breakers 566 Rating of Circuit Breakers 567 Testing of Circuit Breakers 570 Exercises 575 15. Fuses 578 15.1 15.2 15.3 154 15.5 15.6 15.7 Introduction 578 Definitions 578 Fuse Characteristics 582 Types of Fuses 582 Applications of HRC Fuses 588 Selection of Fuses 588 Discrimination 589 Exercises 590 16. Protection Against Overvoltages 592 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 Causes of Overvoltages 592 Lightning Phenomena 593 Wave Shape of Voltage Due to Lightning 595 Overvoltages Due to Lightning 596 Klydonograph and Magnetic Link 598 Protection of Transmission Lines against Direct Lightning Strokes 599 Protection of Stations and Sub-stations from Direct Strokes 603 Protection Against Travelling Waves 605 Peterson Coil 6/5 Insulation Coordination 6/7 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIIL) 6/8 Exercises 619Contents xi 17. Modern Trends in Power System Protection 621 17.1 17.2 173 174 17.5 17.6 177 178 Introduction 62! Gas Insulated Substation/Switchgear (GIS) 623 Frequency Relays and Load-shedding 628 Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) Based Relays 63/ Adaptive Protection 637 Integrated Protection and Control 639 Relay Reliability 640 Advantages of Fast Fault Clearing 641 Exercises 641 Appendix A: 8085 Assembly Language Programming 643 Appendix rthogonal and Orthonormal Functions 650 Appendix €: Gray-code to Binary Conversion 651 Appendix D: Kronecker (or Direct) Product of Matrices 652 Index 653pina annPreface to the Second Edition The authors are thankful to the readers including teachers, students and engineers who have given overwhelming response to the first edition of the book. The response to the first edition of the book has been so encouraging that there have been about 40 reprints of this edition The proper operation of a power system requires an efficient, reliable and fast- acting protection scheme, which consists of protective relays and switching devices. There has been continuous improvement in the design of relaying schemes. In order to provide a foolproof protection system to the power system, innovative technology is complementing the conventional protection system. With revolutionary changes in the power system and tremendous developments in computer hardware technology, numerical relays based on microprocessors or microcontrollers are fast replacing the conventional protective relays. Revision Rationale Keeping in view the rapid technological advancement in power system protection, we haye revised the present second edition of the book thoroughly and have added many new chapters. This edition of the book will be very useful to undergraduate and postgraduate students of electrical engineering, research scholars, students preparing for professional examinations and practicing engincers engaged in system-protection work. In revising this edition, we gratefully acknowledge the constructive sugges- tions, critical comments and inspiration received from readers and well-wishers for the improvement of the book. New Additions The present second edition of the book contains seven additional chapters, viz., Chapter 3 on Current and Voltage Transformers, Chapter 4 on Fault Analysis, Chapter 8 on Differential Protection, Chapter 9 on Rotating Machines Protection, Chapter 11 on Numerical Protection, Chapter 13 on Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection, and Chapter 17 on Moder Trends in Power System Protection. With the addition of these new chapters, the present edition of the book has become consider- ably up-to-date. Chapter Organisation Chapter 1 on Introduction now stands completely rewritten with addition of new sec- tions on Performance of Protective Relays and Components of a Protection System and many new relay terminologies.xiv Preface Chapter 2 on Relay Construction and Operating Principles has also undergone a thorough revision. Chapter 3, a new chapter on Current and Voltage Transformers, describes the construction and operating principles of various types of current and voltage trans- formers (transducers) required in protection systems. Chapter 4, a new chapter on Fault Analysis, discusses the per unit system, sym- metrical fault analysis, symmetrical components, unsymmetrical fault analysis and grounding. In order to ensure adequate protection, the student must clearly under- stand the conditions existing ona power system during faults. These abnormal condi- tions provide the discriminating means for relay operation. Hence, fault analysis is very essential for the design of a suitable protection system. Chapter 5 on Overcurrent Protection is the revised and renumbered Chapter 3 of the first edition. This chapter deals with overcurrent protection detailing electro- magnetic and static overcurrent relays, directional relays, and overcurrent protective schemes. Similarly, Chapter 6 on Distance Protection is the revised and renumbered Chapter 4 of the first edition. It discusses different types of electromagnetic and static distance relays, arc resistance and power swings on performance of distance relays, realization of different types of operating characteristics of distance relays and auto- reclosing. Chapter 7 on Pilot Relaying Schemes is the same as Chapter 5 of first edition. It deals with pilot protection, wire pilot relaying and carrier pilot relaying. Chapter 8, a new chapter on Differential Protection, discusses construction, operating principles and performance of various differential relays for differential protection, Chapter 9, a new chapter on Rotating Machines Protection, deals with protection of generators and motors. We developed it by splitting Chapter 6 of the first edi- tion and adding motor protection. We then used the remaining parts of Chapter 6 to develop Chapter 10, a new chapter on Transformer and Bus Zone Protection. Chapter 11, a new chapter on Numerical Protection, discusses the numerical relay, data acquisition system, numerical relaying algorithms, numerical overcurrent protection, numerical distance protection and numerical differential protection of generator and power transformer. Numerical relay, which is the main component of the numerical protection scheme, is the latest development in the area of protection. The basis of this topic is numerical (digital) devices, e.g., microprocessors, micro- controllers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), etc., developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI and computer hardware technology. Chapter 12, a new chapter on Microprocessor Based Numerical Protective Relays, comprises some portions of Chapters 7 and 8 of the first edition and some new additions. It describes microprocessor-based overcurrent and distance relays and digital filtering algorithms for removal of de offset from relaying signals and compu- tation of R and X of a transmission line. Chapter 13, a new chapter on Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection, deals with application of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic to numerical protection of power system.Preface xv Chapter 14 on Circuit Breakers is the thoroughly revised and renumbered Chapter 9 of the first edition. It covers circuit breakers explaining the principle of circuit interruption and different types of circuit breakers. Chapter 15 on Fuses is the same as Chapter 10 of the first edition. It describes the construction and operating principle of different types of fuses and gives the defini- tions of different terminologies related to a fuse. Again, Chapter 16 is the same as Chapter 11 of the first edition, and is on Protection Against Overvoltages. Chapter 17, a new chapter on Modern Trends in Power System Protection, discusses the mod- ern topics of power system protection such as Gas Insulated Substation (GIS), fre- quency relays and loadshedding, Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) based relays, adaptive protection, integrated protection and control, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA), travelling wave relay, etc. Acknowledgements We owe a special note of thanks to Mr. Harshit Nath who helped us a lot in the prepa- ration of the manuscript of this edition. We also express our gratitude to Ms. Amrita Sinha and Ms. Kiran Srivastava for their constructive suggestions and cooperation during the manuscript-preparation stage of this edition. At this stage, we would also like to thank the many reviewers who took out time from their busy schedules and sent us their suggestions, all of which wenta long way in helping us revise the book. We mention their names below. Zakir Hussain National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Rakesh Kumar Global Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh Sardindu Ghosh National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Orissa RC Jha Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand V B Babaria Lalbhai Dalpatbhai College of Engineering, Ahmadabad, Gujarat R Senthil Kumar = Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Erode, Tamil Nadu K Lakshmi K S Rangasamy College of Engineering, Tiruchengode, Tamil Nadu S P Rajkumar Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu CV K Bhanu Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering, Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh M Narendra Kumar Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh S Ram Mohan Rao — College of Engineering, Andhra University, Vishakhapatmam, Andhra Pradesh We wish to convey our feelings of indebtedness to our colleagues and students for the encouragement and useful suggestions they gave us while we were revising thexvi Preface book. Finally, we state our heartfelt gratitude to our respective families for the love, patience and inspiration, which they are never short of showering on us. We welcome constructive criticism and suggestions from all concerned for further improvement of the future editions of the book. Please feel free to email your views at the publisher’s website mentioned below. Badri Ram DN Vishwakarma Feedback We invite comments and suggestions from all the readers. You may e-mail your feed- back to tmh.elefeedback @ gmail.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line). Also, please report any piracy of the book spotted by you.' 1.1 NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS ' An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, etc. Short cireuits and other abnormal conditions often occur ona power system, The heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause dam- age to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for the protection of each section of the power system. Short circuits are usually called faults by power engineers. Strictly speaking, the term ‘fault’ simply means a ‘defect’. Some defects, other than short circuits, are also termed as faults. For example, the failure of conducting path due to a break in a conductor is a type of fault. If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy sec- tion of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer, it may cause damage to some important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire. It may spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may reduce to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators in different power stations may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuit may cause the total failure of the system. A protective system includes circuit breakers, transducers (CTs and VTs), and protective relays to isolate the faulty section of the power system from the healthy sections. A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system when it is called upon to do so by the protective relay. Transducers (CTs and VTs) are used to reduce currents and voltages to lower values and to isolate protective relays from the high voltages of the power system. The function of a protective relay is to detect and locate a fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty element. It is a device which senses abnormal conditions on a power system by con- stantly monitoring electrical quantities of the systems, which differ under normal and abnormal conditions. The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change dur- ing abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase-angle (direction) and frequency. Protective relays utilise one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power system. Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against any other abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system. A few examples of other abnormal conditions are overspeed of generators and motors, overvoltage, under-2 Power System Protection and Switchgear frequency, loss of excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator etc. Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and issue alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker. A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault, rather it takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to this is the Buchholz relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of power transformers. Sometimes, a slow breakdown of insulation due to a minor arc may take place in a transformer, resulting in the generation of heat and decomposition of the transformer’s oil and solid insulation. Such a condition produces a gas which is collected in a gas chamber of the Buchholz relay. When a specified amount of gas is accumulated, the Buchholz relay operates an alarm. This gives an early warning of incipient faults. The transformer is taken out of service for repair before the incipient fault grows into a serious one. Thus, the occurrence of a major fault is prevented. If the gas evolves rapidly, the Buchholz relay trips the circuit breaker instantly. The cost of the protective equipment generally works out to be about 5% of the total cost of the system. 1.2 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The failure of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may damage some equipment of the power system. Most of the faults on transmission and distribution lines are caused by overvoltages due to lightning or switching surges, or by external conducting objects falling on overhead lines. Overvoltages due to light- ing or switching surges cause flashover on the surface of insulators resulting in short circuits, Sometimes, insulators get punctured or break. Sometimes, certain foreign particles, such as fine cement dust or soot in industrial areas or salt in coastal areas or any dirt in general accumulates on the surface of string and pin insulators. This reduces their insulation strength and causes flashovers. Short circuits are also caused by tree branches or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines. Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch one of the phases and the earth wire (or the metallic supporting structure which is at earth potential). If the conductors are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path and ircuited. If the broken conductor falls to the ground, it results in a short circuit. Joint failures on cables or overhead lines are also a cause of failure of the conducting path. The opening of one or two of the three phases makes the system unbalanced. Unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines set up harmonics, thereby heating the machines in short periods of time. Therefore, unbalancing of the lines is not allowed in the normal operation of a power system. Other causes of faults on overhead lines are: direct lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes, ice and snow loading, abnormal loading, storms, earthquakes, creepers, etc. In the case of cables, transformers, generators and other equipment, the causes of faults are: the conductor becomes oper failure of the solid insulation due to aging, heat, moisture or overvoltage, mechanical damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed screens, flashover due to overvolt- ages, etc.Introduction 3 Sometimes, circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operation, test- ing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in protective devices, etc. Certain faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or because of a faulty system design. Hence, the occurrence of such faults can be reduced by improving the system design, by using components and materials of good quality and by better operation and maintenance. 1.3. TYPES OF FAULTS t Two broad classifications of faults are (i) Symmetrical faults (ii) Unsymmetrical faults 13.1 Symmetrical Faults A three-phase (3-9) fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a 3-6 fault, all the three phases are short circuited. There may be two situations—all the three phases may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-circuited without involving the ground. A 3-@ short circuit is generally treated as a standard fault to determine the system fault level. 1.3.2. Unsymmetrical Faults Single-phase to ground, two-phase to ground, phase-to-phase short circuits; single- phase open circuit and two-phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults. Single-phase to Ground (L-G) Fault A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a sin- gle phase to ground fault. It may be due to the failure of the insulation between a phase conductor and the earth, or due to phase conductor breaking and falling to the ground. Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) Fault A short circuit between any two phases and the earth is called a double line to ground or a two-phase to ground fault. Phase-to-Phase (L-L) Fault A short circuit between any two phases is called a line to line or phase-to-phase fault. Open-circuited Phases This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when One or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the overhead lines fails. Such situations may also arise when circuit breakers or isolators open but fail to close one or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced currents flow in the system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes must be provided to deal with such abnormal situations.4 Power System Protection and Switchgear Winding Faults All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and trans- former windings. In addition to these types of faults, there is one more type of fault, namely the short circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings. 1.3.3. Simultaneous Faults Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may occur at the same or different points of the system. An example of two different types of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to ground fault on one phase and breaking of the conductor of another phase, both simultaneously present at the same point. The simultaneous presence of an L-G fault at one point and a second L-G fault on another phase at some other point is an example of two faults of the same type at two different points. If these two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they are treated as a double line to ground fault. If they occur in different line sections, it is known as a cross-country earth fault. Cross-country faults are common on sys- tems grounded through high impedance or Peterson coil but they are rare on solidly grounded systems. i 1.4 EFFECTS OF FAULTS i The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following effects on a power system, if it remains uncleared. ()) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other element of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up due to heavy current. (ii) Ares associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards. Such fires, result- ing from arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also a possibility of the fire spreading to other parts of the system if the fault is not isolated quickly. (iii) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting in the loss of industrial loads. (iv) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents, thereby heating rotating machines. (v) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power station may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the system. Loss of stability of interconnected systems may also result. Subsys- tems may maintain supply for their individual zones but load shedding would have to be resorted in the sub-system which was receiving power from the other subsystem before the occurrence of the fault. (vi) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers, thereby causing a loss of revenue. High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential requirements of a power system to minimise the effects of faults and other abnormalities.Introduction 5 i 1.5 FAULT STATISTICS i For the design and application of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of power system. Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centres, resulting in hundreds of kilometers’ length of overhead lines being exposed to atmospheric conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects on the lines, flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc., are greater for overhead lines than for other parts of the power system. Table 1.1 gives an approximate idea of the fault statistics. Table 1.1 Percentage Distribution of Faults in Various Elements of a Power system Element % of Total Faults Overhead Lines 50 Underground Cables 9 Transformers 10 Generators Switchgears 12 CTs, VTs, Relays Control Equipment, etc. 12 From Table 1.1, it is evident that 50% of the total faults occur on overhead lines. Hence it is overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing protective schemes for a power system. Table 1.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different types of faults (mainly the different types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table it is evident that the frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault, and hence the protection against L-G fault requires greater attention in planning and design of protective schemes for overhead lines. Table 1.2. Frequency of Occurrence of Different Types of Faults on Overhead Lines Types of Faults Fault Symbol % of Total Faults Line to Ground LG 85 Line to Line LL 8 Double Line to Ground 2L-G 5 Three Phase 3-6 2 In the case of cables, 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junctions. Cable faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures are not recommended for cables.6 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.6 EVOLUTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS In the very early days of the power industry, small generators were used to supply local loads and fuses were the automatic devices to isolate the faulty equipment. They were effective and their performance was quite satisfactory for small systems. However, they suffered from the disadvantage of requiring replacement before the supply could be restored. For important lines, frequent interruption in power supply is undesirable. This inconvenience was overcome with the introduction of circuit breakers and protective relays. Attracted armatured-type electromagnetic relays were first introduced. They were fast, simple and economical. As auxiliary relays their use will continue even in future, due to their simplicity and low cost. This type of relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or thought a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger-type electromagnetic relays formed instanta- neous units for detecting overcurrent or over-voltage conditions. Attracted armature- type electromagnetic relays work on both ac and de. Later on, induction-type elec- tromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use the electromagnetic induction principle for their operation and hence work on ac only. Since both attracted armature and induction-type electromagnetic relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays. Induction disc-type inverse time-current relays were developed in the early 1920s to meet the selectivity requirement. They were used for overcurrent protection. For directional and distance relays, induction- cup-type units were widely used throughout the world. An induction-cup-type unit was fast and accurate due to its higher torque/inertia ratio. For greater sensitivity and accuracy, polarised de relays are being used since 1939. Attracted armature-type balanced-beam relays provided differential protection, distance protection as well as low burden overcurrent units. These relays operated when the magnitude of an operating signal was larger than the magnitude of the restraining signal. These relays were classified as amplitude comparators. Single-input induction-type relays provided operations with time delays. Two- input induction type relays provided directional protection. Two- and three-input induction-type relays also provided distance protection. The operation of these relays was dependant on the phase displacement between the applied electrical inputs. These relays were classified as phase comparators. In 1947, rectifier bridge-type comparators were developed in Norway and Germany. Polarised de relays, energised from rectifier bridge comparators, chal- lenged the position of induction-cup-type relays. They are widely used for the reali- sation of distance relay characteristics. Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in the literature in 1928 and continued up to 1956. They were not accepted because of their complexity, short life of vacuum tubes and incorrect operation under transient conditions. But electronic valves were used in carrier equipment. There was automatic checking of the carrier channel. An alarm was sounded if any tube became defective, and it was replaced immediately.Introduction 7 Magnetic amplifiers were also used in protective relays in the past. A magnetic amplifier consists of a transformer and a separate de winding. As the transformer action is controlled by the de winding, the device is also known as transductor. This type of relay is rugged but slow in action. At present, such relays are not used. Hall crystals were also used to construct phase comparators. Because of their low output and high-temperature errors, such relays have not been widely adopted except in Russian countries. The first transistorised relay was developed in 1949, soon after the innova- tion of the transistor. Various kinds of static relays using solid-state devices were developed in the fifties. Multi-input comparators giving quadrilateral characteristics were developed in the sixties. Static relays possess the advantages of low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact troubles, long life and less maintenance. As static relays proved to be superior to electrome- chanical relays, they were used for the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-stations. But they did not replace electromechanical relays. Static relays were treated as an addition to the family of relays. In most static relays, the output or slave relay isa polarised de relay which is an electromechanical relay. This can be replaced by a thyristor circuit, but it is used because of its low cost. Electromechanical rela have continued to be used because of their simplicity and low cost. Their mainte- nance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static relays requires personnel trained in solid-state devices. Static relays using digital techniques have also been developed. Static relays appeared to be the technology poised to replace the electromechani- cal counterparts in the late sixties when researchers ventured into the use of comput- ers for power system protection. Their attempts and the advances in the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) technology and software techniques in the seventies led to the development of microprocessor-based relays that were first offered as commer- cial devices in 1979. Early designs of these relays used the fundamental approaches that were previously used in the electromechanical and static relays. In spite of the developments of complex algorithms for implementing protection functions, the microprocessor-based relays marketed in the eighties did not incor- porate them. These relays performed basic functions, took advantage of the hybrid analog and digital techniques, and offered a good economical solution. At present, in microprocessor-based relays, different relaying algorithms are used to process the acquired information. Microprocessor/Microntroller-based relays are called numeri- cal relays specifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically. The modern power networks which have grown both in size and complexity require fast accurate and reliable protective schemes to protect major equipment and to maintain system stability. Increasing interest is being shown in the use of on-line digital computers for protection. The concept of numerical protection employing computers which shows much promise in providing improved perfor- mance has evolved during the past three decades. In the beginning, the numerical protection (also known as digital protection) philosophy was to use a large computer system for the total protection of the power system. This protection system proved to be very costly and required large space. If a computer is required to perform other8 Power System Protection and Switchgear control functions in addition to protection, it can prove to be economical. With the tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware technology, microproces- sors that appeared in the seventies have evolved and made remarkable progress in recent years, The latest fascinating innovation in the field of computer technology is the development of microprocessors, microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) and Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) which are making in-roads in every activity of mankind. With the development of fast, economical, powerful and sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs and FPGAs, there is a grow- ing tend to develop numerical relays based on these devices. The conventional relays of electromechanical and static types had no significant drawbacks in their protection functions, but the additional features offered by micro- processor technologies encouraged the evolution of relays that introduced many changes to the power industry. Economics and additionally, functionality were prob- ably the main factors that forced the power industry to accept and cope with the changes brought by microprocessor/microcontroller-based numerical relays. Multifunction numerical relays were introduced in the market in the late eight- ies. These devices reduced the product and installation costs drastically. This trend has continued until now and has converted microprocessor/microcontroller based numerical relays to powerful tools in the modern substations. The inherent advantage of microprocessor/microcontroller-based protective schemes, over the existing static relays with one or very limited range of applica- tions, is their flexibility, The application of microprocessors and microcontrollers to protective relays also result in the availability of faster, more accurate and reliable relaying units. A microprocessor or a microcontroller increases the flexibility of a relay due to its programmable approach. It provides protection at low cost and com- petes with conventional relays. A number of relaying characteristics can be realised using the same interface. Using a multiplexer, the microprocessor/microcontroller can obtain the required input signals for the realisation of a particular relaying char- acteristic. Different programs can be used for different characteristics. Individual types and number of relaying units are reduced to a great extent, resulting in a very compact protective scheme. Field tests have demonstrated their feasibility and some schemes are under investigation. A number of schemes have been put into service and their performances have been found to be satisfactory. Microprocessor/micro- controller-based numerical protective schemes are being widely used in the field. At present, many trends are emerging. These include common hardware plat- forms, configuring the software to perform different functions, integrating protection with substation control and substituting cables carrying voltages and currents with optical fibre cables carrying signals in the form of polarized light. On the software side, Artificial Intelligence (Al) techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems have attracted the attention of researchers and protection engineers and they are being applied to power system protection. ANN and Fuzzy Logic based intelligent numerical relays for overcurrent protection, distance protection of transmission lines and differential protection of transformers and generators are presently under active research and development stage. Adaptive protection is also being applied to protection practices. RecentIntroduction 9 work in this area includes feedback systems in which relays continuously monitor the operating state of the power system and automatically reconfigure themselves for providing optimal protection. ' 1.7__ ZONES OF PROTECTION ' A power system contains generators, transformers, bus bars, transmission and distri- bution lines, etc, There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of equipment or element of the power system, such as generator protection, transformer protection, transmission line protection, bus bar protection, etc. Thus, a power system is divided into a number of zones for protection. A protective zone covers One or at the most two elements of a power system. The protective zones are planned in such a way that the entire power system is collectively covered by them, and thus, no part of the system is left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power system are shown in Fig. 1.1. Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing which a fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any of the zones (this may be due to errors in the measurement of actuating quantities, etc.), and hence no circuit breaker would trip. Thus, the overlapping between the adjacent zones is unavoidable. If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly protected scheme, more circuit breakers than the minimum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the system would trip. A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of faults in this region and consequently, tripping of too many breakers does not occur frequently. HV Switchgear protection Tete? sensor protection '— EHV Switchgear protection EHV Switchgear protection Fig. 1.1 Zones of protection10 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.8 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION It has already been explained that a power system is divided into various zones for its protection. There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty element. The primary relay is the first line of defense. If due to any reason, the primary relay fails to operate, there is a back-up protective scheme to clear the fault as a second line of defence. The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the failure of various elements, as mentioned in Table 1.3. The probability of failures is shown against each item. The reliability of protective scheme should at least be 95%. With proper design, installation and maintenance of the relays, circuit breakers, trip mechanisms, ac and de wiring, etc. a very high degree of reliability can be achieved. The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which might cause primary relays to fail. A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary relay sufficient time to operate, When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the power system is disconnected from the power source, but this is unavoidable. As far as possible, a back-up relay should be placed at a different station. Sometimes, a local back-up is also used. It should be located in such a way that it does not employ components (VT, CT, measuring unit, etc.) common with the primary relays which are to be backed up. There are three types of back-up relays: (i) Remote back-up (ii) Relay back-up (iii) Breaker back-up Table 1.3 Percentage failure rate of various equipment Name of Equipment % of Total Failures Relays 44 Circuit breaker interrupters 14 AC wiring 12 Breaker trip mechanisms 8 Current transformers DC wiring VE Breaker auxiliary switches Breaker tripcoils Hs wwwur DC supply 1.8.1 Remote Back-up When back-up relays are located at a neighbouring station, they back-up the entire primary protective scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT and other elements, in case of a failure of the primary protective scheme. It is the cheapest andIntroduction 14 the simplest form of back-up protection and is a widely used back-up protection for transmission lines. It is most desirable because of the fact that it will not fail due to the factors causing the failure of the primary protection, 1.8.2. Relay Back-up This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up protection. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this opera- tion takes place without delay. Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recom- mended where a remote back-up is not possible. For back-up relays, principles of operation that are different from those of the primary protection as desirable. They should be supplied from separate current and potential transformers. 1.8.3 Breaker Back-up ‘This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus bar system where a number of circuit breakers are connected to it. When a protec- tive relay operates in response to a fault but the circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault is treated as a bus bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other circuit breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a time-delay, the main relay closes the contact of a back-up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the bus if the proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energised. ' 1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION The basic requirements of a protective system are as follows: (i) Selectivity or discrimination (ii) Reliability (iii) Sensitivity (iv) Stability (v) Fast operation 1.9.1 Selectivity or Discrimination Selectivity, is the quality of protective relay by which it is able to discriminate between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition. Also, it should be able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protection or outside the zone. Sometimes, this quality of the relay is also called discrimination. When a fault occurs on a power system, only the faulty part of the system should be isolated. No healthy part of the system should be deprived of electric supply and hence should be left intact. The relay should also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient conditions like power surges or inrush of a transformer’s magnetising current. The magnetising current of a large transformer is comparable to a fault current, which may be 5 to 7 times the full load current. When generators of two interconnected power plants lose synchronism because of disturbances, heavy currents flow through the equipment and lines. This condition is like a short circuit. The flow of heavy cur- rents is known as a power surge. The protective relay should be able to distinguish between a fault or power surge either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of12 Power System Protection and Switchgear an auxiliary relay. Thus, we see that a protective relay must be able to discriminate between those conditions for which instantaneous tripping is required and those for which no operation or a time-delay operation is required. 1.9.2 Reliability A protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of protection. The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or more ele- ments of the protective system. Its important elements are the protective relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT, wiring, battery, etc. To achieve a high degree of reliability, greater attention should be given to the design, installation, maintenance and testing of the various elements of the protective system. Robustness and simplicity of the relaying equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact pressure, the contact material of the relay, and the prevention of contact contamination are also very important from the reliability point of view. A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is 95%. 1.9.3 Sensitivity A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds the preset value. This value is called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate when the current is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick-up value. 1.9.4 Stability A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is flowing through its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its zone. The con- cerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault, But the protective system will not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the circuit breaker. 1.9.5 Fast Operation A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the system as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment and to maintain the system stability. For a modern power system, the stability criterion is very important and hence, the operating time of the protective system should not exceed the criti- cal clearing time to avoid the loss of synchronism, Other points under consideration for quick operation are protection of the equipment from burning due to heavy fault currents, interruption of supply to consumers and the fall in system voltage which may result in the loss of industrial loads. The operating time of a protective relay is usually one cycle. Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems the operating time may be more than one cycle. t 1.10 PERFORMANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS When a fault occurs in a particular zone of the power system, the primary relays of that zone are expected to operate and initiate isolation of the faulty element. However, back-up relays surrounding that area are also alerted by the fault andIntroduction 13 begin to operate. They do not initiate tripping if the primary relays operate correctly. Information regarding operation of these back-up relays is not available when they do not trip. The back-up relay operates, if due to any reason the primary relay fails to operate. Though several primary relays are employed in many protection sys- tems, but frequently only one of the relays actually initiates tripping of the circuit breaker. There may be no direct evidence regarding the other relays being in a correct operating mode. The performance of the protective relay is documented by those relays that provide direct or specific evidence of operation. Relay performance is generally clas- sified as (i) Correct operation (ii) Incorrect operation (iv) No conclusion 1.10.1 Correct Operation Correct operation of the relay can be either wanted or unwanted. The correct opera- tion gives indication about (i) correct operation of atleast one of the primary relays, (ii) operation of none of the back-up relays to trip for the fault, and (iii) proper isola- tion of the trouble area in the expected time. Almost all relay operations are corrected and wanted, i.e., the operation is as per plan and programme. There are the few cases of the correct but unwanted operation. If all relays and associated equipment perform correctly when their operation is not desired or anticipated, it is called “correct but unwanted operation.” 1.10.2 Incorrect Operation A failure, a malfunction, or an unplanned or unanticipated operation of the protec- tive system results in incorrect operation of the relay. The incorrect operation of the relay can cause either incorrect isolation of an unfaulted area, or a failure to isolate a faulted area, The reasons for incorrect operation can be any one or a combination of (i) misapplication of relays, (ii) incorrect settings, (iii) personnel errors, and (iv) equipment malfunctions. Equipment that can cause an incorrect operation includes CTs, VTS, relays, breakers, cable and wiring, pilot channels, station batteries, etc. 1.10.3. No Conclusion When one or more relays have or appear to have operated, such as the tripping of the circuit breaker, but no cause of operation can be found, it is the case of ‘no conclu- sion’. Neither any evidence of a power system fault or trouble, nor apparent failure of the equipment, causes and extremely frustrating situation. Thus the cases of no conclusion involves considerable concern and thorough investigation. It is suspected that many of the cases of ‘no conclusion’ may be the result of personnel involvement which is not reported. Modern oscillographs and data-recording equipment which are being used nowaday in many power systems often provide direct evidence or clues regarding the problem, as well as indicating possibilities that could not have occurred,14 Power System Protection and Switchgear 1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending on the technology used for their construction, their speed of operation, their generation of development, function, etc., and will be discussed in more details in the following chapters. 1.41.1 Classification of Protective Relays Based on Technology Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following three categories, depend- ing on the technology they use for their construction and operation. (i) Electromechanical relays (ii) Static relays (iii) Numerical relays Electromechanical Relays Electromechanical relays are further classified into two categories, i.e., (i) electro- magnetic relays, and (ii) thermal relays. Electromagnetic relays work on the princi- ple of either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Thermal relays utilise the electrothermal effect of the actuating current for their operation. First of all, electromagnetic relays working on the principle of electromagnetic attraction were developed. These relays were called attracted armature-type electro- magnetic relays. This type of relay operates through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or through a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger type elec- tromagnetic relays are used for instantaneous units for detecting over current or over- voltage conditions. Attracted armature-type electromagnetic relays are the simplest type which respond to ac as well as de. Initially attracted armature-type relays were called elec- tromagnetic relays. Later on, induction type electromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation, and hence work with ac quantities only. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or a permanent magnet) and a moving part. When the actuating quantity exceeds a cer- tain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed which is applied on the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact to energise the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Since both attracted armature and induction type electromagnetic relays oper- ate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays. The term ‘electromechanical relays’ has been used to designate all the electro- magnetic relays which use cither electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction principle for their operation and thermal relays which operate as a result of electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. Sometimes both the terms, L.e., electromagnetic relays and electromechanical relays are used in parallel. Static Relays Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, diodes and other electronic components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay, which compares two or more currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied to