Module

for

Singularities

Zeros and Poles

7.4Singularities, Zeros, and Poles

Recall that the point is called a singular point, orsingularity of the complex function
f(z) iffis not analytic at ,but every neighborhood contains at least one
point at which f(z) is analytic.For example, the function is not analytic at
,but is analytic for all other values of z.Thus the point is a singular point of f(z).As
another example,consider .We saw in Section 5.2 that g(z) isanalytic for all z
except at the origin and at all points on the negative real-axis.Thus, the origin and each point
on the negative real axis is a singularity of .

The point is called a isolated singularity of the complex function f(z) iffis not analytic
at ,but there exists a real number such that f(z) is analytic everywhere in the
punctured disk .The function has an isolated singularity at .

The function ,however, the singularity at (or at any point of the negative
real axis) that is not isolated, because any neighborhood ofcontains points on the negative
real axis, and is not analytic at those points.Functions with isolated
singularities have a Laurent series because the punctured disk is the same as the
annulus .The logarithm function does not have a Laurent series at
any point on the negative real-axis.We now look at this special case of Laurent's
theorem in order to classify three types of isolated singularities.

Denition 7.5 (Removable Singularity, Pole of order k, Essential Singularity). Let f(z)
have an isolated singularity at with Laurent series expansion

valid for .

Then we distinguish the following types of singularities at .

(i)If ,then we say that f(z) has a removable singularity at .

(ii)If k is a positive integer such that but ,then we
say that f(z) has a pole of order k at .

(iii)If for innitely many negative integers n, then we say that f(z) has an essential
singularity at .

Let's investigate some examples of these three cases.

(i).If f(z) has a removable singularity at , then it has a Laurent series

valid for .

Theorem 4.17 (see Section 4.4) implies that the power series for f(z) denes an analytic
function in the disk .
If we use this series to dene ,then the function f(z) becomes analytic at ,
removing the singularity.

For example, consider the function .It is undened at and has an isolated
singularity at , as the Laurent series for f(z) is

valid for .

We can remove this singularity if we dene ,for then f(z) will be analytic at in
accordance with Theorem 4.17 (see Section 4.4) .

Exploration 1.

Another example is ,which has an isolated singularity at the point , as

the Laurent series for g(z) is

valid for .If we dene ,then g(z) will be analytic for all z.

Exploration 2.

(ii).If f(z) has a pole of order k at , the Laurent series for f(z) is

valid for .

where .

Extra Example 1. The following example will help this concept.Consider the function
.The leading term in the Laurent series expansionS(z)is andS(z)goes to
in the same manner as .

Explore Solution Extra Example 1.

Another example is;

has a pole of order at .

Exploration 3.

If f(z) has a pole of order 1 at , we say that f(z) has a simple pole at .

For example,

has a simple pole at .

Exploration 4.

(iii).If innitely many negative powers of occur in the Laurent series, then f(z) has an
essential singularity at .For example,

has an essential singularity at the origin.

Exploration 5.

Denition 7.6 (Zero of order k).A function f(z) analytic in has a zero of order k at
the point if and only if

,and .

A zero of order one is sometimes called a simple zero.

Theorem 7.10.A function analytic in has a zero of order k at the point iff its
Taylor series given by has

Proof.

Proof of Theorem 7.10 is in the book.

Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering

Example 7.10.From Theorem 7.10 we see that the function

has a zero of order at .Denition 7.6 conrms this fact because

Then, ,but .

Explore Solution 7.10.

Theorem 7.11.Suppose f(z) is analytic in .Then f(z) has a zero of order k at the point
if and only if it can be expressed in the form

(7-35) ,

where g(z) is analytic at .

Proof.

Proof of Theorem 7.11 is in the book.

Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering

An immediate consequence of Theorem 7.11 is Corollary 7.4.The proof is left as an exercise.

Corollary 7.4.If f(z) and g(z) are analytic at ,and have zeros of
ordersmandn,respectively at ,then their product has a zero of order
.

Proof.

Example 7.11.Let .Then f(z) can be factored as the product of and

,which have zeros of orders and , respectively, at .
Hence is a zero of order 4 off(z).

Explore Solution 7.11.

Theorem 7.12 gives a useful way to characterize a pole.

Theorem 7.12.A function f(z) analytic in the punctured disk has a pole of order k at
if and only if it can be expressed in the form

(7-37) ,

where the function h(z) is analytic at the point .

Proof.

Proof of Theorem 7.12 is in the book.

Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering

Corollaries 7.5-7.8 are useful in determining the order of a zero or a pole.The proofs follow
easily from Theorems 7.10 and 7.12 and are left as exercises.

Corollary 7.5.If f(z) is analytic and has a zero of order k at the point ,then
has a pole of order k at .

Proof.

Corollary 7.6. Iff(z) has a pole of order k at the point , then has a
removable singularity at .If we dene ,then g(z)has a zero of order k at .

Proof.

Corollary 7.7.If f(z) and g(z) have poles of ordersmandn,respectively at the point ,
then their product has a pole of order .

Proof.

Corollary 7.8.Let f(z) and g(z) be analytic withzeros of ordersmandn,respectively at

.Then their quotient has the following behavior:

(i)If ,then h(z) has a removable singularity at .If we dene ,then h(z)
has a zero of order .

(ii)If ,then h(z) has a pole of order .

(iii)If ,then h(z) has a removable singularityat ,and can be dened so that h(z)
is analytic at ,by .

Proof.

Example 7.12.Locate the zeros and poles of ,and determine their order.

Solution.In Section 5.4 we saw that the zeros of occur at the points ,where
n is an integer.Because ,the zeros of f(z) are simple.Similarly, the
function has simple zeros at the points and ,where n is an
integer.From the information given, we nd that behaves as follows:

i.h(z)has simple zeros at ,where ;

ii.h(z)has simple poles at ,where n is an integer;and

iii.h(z)is analytic at if we dene .

Explore Solution 7.12.

Example 7.13.Locate the poles of , and specify their order.

Solution.The roots of the quadratic equation occur at the points

.If we replace z with in this equation, the function has
simple zeros at the points .Corollary 7.5 implies that g(z)has simple

poles at .

Explore Solution 7.13.

Example 7.14.Locate the zeros and poles of , and determine their order.

Solution. The function has a zero of order at and simple zeros at

the points .Corollary 7.5 implies that g(z) has a pole of order 3 at the point
and simple poles at the points .

Explore Solution 7.14.

Exercises for Section 7.4.Singularities, Zeros, and Poles

Library Research Experience for Undergraduates

Laurent Series

Poles and Singularity

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Applications of Taylor and Laurent Series

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This material is coordinated with our book Complex Analysis for Mathematics and
Engineering.

(c) 2012 John H. Mathews, Russell W. Howell