ELECTRICITY SUPPLY ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA. Continuing Education Power Field of Electrical Engineering ESAA POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION VICTORIA ° UNIVERSITY A. Kalam = A. Spicer R. Coulter A. Klebanowski C. Biasizzo H. McDonald AoOTONHOE Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Victoria University of Technology PO Box 14428 MCMC Melbourne, Victoria, Australia 8001ELECTRICITY SU pply Associati LY ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA Continuing Education & Blectronic Engineering of Technology Power Field of Electrical Engineering Engineering POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION ECHNOLOGY ISBN 1 86272 Printed by ERICA PRESS, MELBOURNECONTENTS RECOMMENDED PROTECTION TERMINOLOGY CHAPTER 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING POWER SYSTEM PLANT AND LAYOUTS ‘THE FUNCTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING ‘PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING GONMON TERMINOLOGIES CHAPTER 2 NETWORK ANALYSIS AND FAULT CALCULATIONS. FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEM FAULIS TYPE FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS LIMITING SHORT CIRCUIT LEVELS TRANSIENTS DURING BALANCED FAULT. SEQUENCE NETWORKS FOR CALCULATION OF UNBALANCED FAULTS |OF VOLTAGES IN THE NETWORK FAULT CALCULATIONS CHAPTER 3 EARTH FAULT AND INTERFERENCES EARTH POTENTIAL RISES SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS APPLICATION OF SAFETY CRITERIA DEMANDS ON PROTECTION ARISING FROM SAFETY, RELIABILITY AND INTERFERENCE ‘CONSIDERATIONS INTERFERENCE OTHER SUPPLIED AND OTHER SYSTEMS CHAPTER 4 RELAYING TRANSDUCERS GUIDANCE IN APPLICATION OF CT's owen SveTan PROTECTION ~ Contes EARTH FAULT PROTECTION CHAPTERS FUSES INTRODUCTION (CATEGORIES OF FUSES DISCRIMINATION TESTING OF FUSES FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS CHAPTER 7. DISTANCE/MPEDANCE PROTECTION DIGITAL COMPUTATION BY A MICROPROCESSOR CHAPTER 8 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS CHAPTER 9 1 1 1 4 6 6CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 14 PROTECTION OF GENERATORS CONFIGURATION OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEM INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 1 STATOR FAULTS GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 2 ROTOR FAULTS TOCAL BACKUP SYSTEMS i ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS OF GENERATOR 5 MECHANICAL FAULTS a TRIPPING & PRESENT TREND 5 CHAPTER 15 RECOMMENDED PROTECTION FOR TYPICAL PLANT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION FEEDER 1 CONFIGURATIONS i INTRODUCTION. 1 OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION NETWORK FUNCTION CHAPTER 11 AND CONSTRUCTION 1 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS i EQUIPMENT USED TO PROTECT DISTRIBUTION INTRODUCTION 1 FEEDERS 3 POTENTIAL HAZARDS AND PURPOSE OF DISTRIBUTION FEEDER PROTECTION APPLICATION PROTECTION 1 CONSIDERATIONS AND CRITERIA 10 METHOD OF PROTECTION 3 ‘TYPICAL OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION FEEDER FUSE PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 8 PROTECTION SCHEMES 6 PROTECTION OF NEW TYPES OF OVERHEAD CHAPTER 12 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER CONSTRUCTION 1 ‘MOTOR PROTECTION INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 16 UNDERGROUND AND CBD DISTRIBUTION PROTECTION, ‘CBD AND URBAN PROTECTION RADIAL LV SYSTEM (OR OPERATED NORMAL MOTOR CURRENT DURING START AND STALL MOTOR PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS OF FAULT CURRENT CONTRIBUTION FROM RADIAL) a INDUCTION MOTORS INTERCONNECTED LV SYSTEMS 2 CO ORDINATION OF PROTECTION SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN CBD PROTECTION ‘THERMAL PROTECTION PRACTICES (SUMMARY) “4 SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION ZONE SUBSTATION PROTECTION 15 [BEARING FAILURE PROTECTION STATOR FAULT PROTECTION CHAPTER 17 ‘THREE PHASE STALLING PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 1 AUTOMATIC CHANGEOVER SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION 1 MANAGEMENT OF AN INDUSTRIAL ELECTRIC UNIT PROTECTION 2 MOTOR 19 TELECOMMUNICATION AIDED DISTANCE PROTECTION. 6 CHAPTER 13 ‘TWO ZONE MHO DISTANCE RELAYS PIT AND PROTECTION OF BUSBARS 1 BLOCKING 1 INTRODUCTION 1 EXAMPLE OF SETTINGS FOR PIT SCHEME 0 DIFFERENTIAL BUSBAR PROTECTION 1 HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL SCHEME 2 FRAME LEAKAGE BUSBAR PRO} 6 CHAPTER 18 'BUSBAR OVERCURRER ‘SUB-TRANSMISSION LINES AND ZONE SUBSTATION BUSBAR PROTECTION IN EHV TRAY PROTECTION SYSTEMS PART 1 - SUB-TRANSMISSION LINES STATIONS ZONE SUBSTATION BUSBARS ‘NUMERICAL BUSBAR PROTECTION PILOT WIRE PROTECTION 2 DISTANCE PROTECTION 5 Contes owen Sveraw PaoTEcTiON Canrents-4‘TESTING AND MAINTENANCE BIBLIOGRAPRY Power SvsemProvecrion —————S~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*S*S NNT SUMMARY PART 2 - ZONE SUBSTATIONS PREFACE CAPACITOR BANK AND SHUNT REACTOR PROTECTIONS EXAMPLE COVERING THE PROTECTIONS AND THEIR SETTINGS AT A TYPICAL ZONE SUBSTATION SUMMARY complex area of pow 's work to the subject. GENERATOR PROTECTION - SUMMARY. SUPPLY NETWORK PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS ‘TO ALLOW FOR PRIVATE GENERATION CONTROL SCHEMES SUMMARY PART 1 - TESTING GENERAL FACTORY TESTS PRE-COMMISSIONING ON-SITE TESTS COMMISSIONING TESTS METHODS OF TESTING PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT PART 2 - MAINTENANCE GENERAL MAINTENANCE PRINCIPLES ‘TIMING OF MAINTENANCE of Eletrieal and Electronic Eng of TechnologyRECOMMENDED PROTECTION TERMINOLOGYRECOMMENDED PROTECTION TERMINOLOGY ESAA COMMITTEE NO. 2.14 - PROTECTION + ivrropucTion PoweR SysTEM PROTECTION “TeRMINOL0Oaoe Power Syste PROTECTION Power SYSreM PROTECTION ‘Teammotooy I -3Power System Prorecrion Power SsTeM PROTECTION TenamnoLooyT-5cso POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION Termmovoay-6 Power Sysren Prorecrio Teroaioucxrecieg Power Sysvem Prorecrion ‘Texsemovocy I-10 Power System PROTECTION “Teasmovooy I-11Power Syste ProrEcnon Tenamousay POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION ‘Tenwinovooy I~tem Remarks tem Definition PoweR SYSTEM PROTECTION ‘TeRmmNoLoay 1 16 Powen SysTeM ProvacTioN Tenwano.ocy|DEVICE NUMBERS selected list of device numbers commonly used on protection Switch - normaly closed ‘Voltage and cuent balance relay Buchholz gas device Earth fait protection relay POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION ‘Temnanovooy I-16 CHAPTER 1 BASIC PRINCIPLESCHAPTER 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES Protective Relaying or Protection i the term that defines the branch of electric power eae ng tha i concerned with the detection and disconnection of ‘short crits “and other abnormal conditions onthe power system. ‘There are three aspects of the design and {Important in considering the role of protec: © Normal operation Prevention of elect assumes 0 failures of equipment, 0 mistakes of ince oP God’. Ieimvolves the minimum requirements for suppying the hod and a certain amount of anticipated future load. Design of the Sg ic for normal operation involves major expense fr equipment an includes ‘onsideration of: Choice between hydro, steam, or other soures of power "Transmission of power tothe Toad ‘Stady ofthe load characterises and planning for its forre grow. Metering Voltage and frequency regulation ‘System operation ‘Maintenance requirements . ‘The cons 1s of equipme Protection systems must not interfere with but must cont imit the normal operation of the system iy monitor the system to detect clerical failure or abnormal ‘Further important aspects in the design of the power system are => imoorporation of features ai ng files, and ‘provisions for mitigating the effec je when i oocus. ‘Modem poner system design employs both recourse's, as dictated by the economics of vege foul bination. Notable advances continue to be made toward geste: Power SverauPRorEcriON uapren 1-1The typeof cecrical failure that causes greatest the sh * ‘concern is the short circuit, or fault" 2 18 usualy called, but thee are oer abnormal operating conditions peer to Gecain element of the sytem tat also require atention. Some of the fers of gn and operation aimed at preventing electrical failure are: © Provision of adequate insulation Co-ordination of insolation strength with the capabilites of lightning arresters 2 Design to withstand mechanical stresses and heating owing to. short-circuit corrents, 3 Timerdelay undervoltge devices on cic breakers to prevent opin during momentary voltage dips. re —_ 4 Ground eal Feats or prompt scanning he fay element 1 Protective relaying: rete fay 2 Chea beet cen naming mses Features that mitigate the loss of the faulty element Frequent surveys Joregoing feaares “Ths, protetive relaying is one of several fearures of system design concerned with Thinirlsing Gamage to equipment and interruptions to service when electrical failures ooaur, WHEN WE SAY THAT RELAYS "PROTECT”, WE MEAN THAT, TOGETHER WITH OTHER EQUIPMENT, THE RELAYS HELP TO MINIMISE DAMAGE AND IMPROVE SERVICE. I will be evident that all the mitigation ‘Ratures are dependent on one another for successfully minimising the effects of fasture. “The following notes give an overview of plant andthe electrical characteristic that are Televant to design of the protection system. They also outine some of the various ‘Titching arrangements that are Likely to be encountered on the power system, “The aim isto identify, forthe student, some of the underlying issues that need to be considered in the design of protection “The system for generation, transmission and distribution of electric ‘enstators, lines transformers, reactive plant (capacitors and static compensator) ec Connected in a network to provide reliable transport of elect gy from the fencration source to the costomer. The parameters of the plan its associated ausiiary equipment, together over ayaem. Consequently, the protection engineer must have a sound knowledge oF Biv design ofboth the elecuical plant andthe power sysiem in order to influence the esign “The following paragraphs briefly outline some of the plant and system design considerations Generators Generators appeat in a number of sizes ranging from less than L MW Cypically in @ ‘cogeneration plamt) to 600 MW or more in Yossi! fueled station. Generated oltages are gencrally consirained in the ‘GGkV to 33KV due to design Timitations in the generator insolation means that step-up transformers are generally ncaded to connect thes ‘transmission system. Important system and the generator are the Darameters in the design of protector {generator impedances, {A distination is made fortwo conditions, namely the direct over the positions when the axis of the rotor poles are poles, or 60 electrical degrees out of phase. Fankt cure ure axis which ‘he machine fing from a short owen SYSTEM PRoTBCriON Gaumia owen STi Pronecrion cuueroe 1-3+ Subtransient impedance (K.") - determines the level for short circuit current ‘ycles after short circuit inception, ‘+ Synchronous impedance (X.) - determines the steady state value of short circuit cartent after the eansient period, ‘transformers reduce the voltages atthe bulk load centres to distribution through a ‘subiransmission network’ Which Gistrbation system, The distributions system is typically 33, 22 or 11kV and supplies & + Kip wv > B + KE ve + eR + xe le g Vb + ho = & we > Bh - Va > k ° & In schematic form the signals are derived from the system as shown in Fig. 19. METHODS OF REALISING COMPARATORS Before and pus it det is important to note the duality between pure phase (Consider a phase-comparator in block form as shown in Fig. 20 which trips when Bo = SiS s @ Likewise considera pure amplitude comparator as shown in Fig. 21, Here we getan outputif |S; =p a signal S) + Sp and $y - Sp to our phase comparator, and take signal we, Let §)=A, S)=B+jC and we getan ouput fiom the phase Grit; Pons Svermu PaorBcrion crapr 7-14 Fig 22 summarises the sation where « phas-comparair is used to compas the lpi of signals Sy/S Avey comparator isthe bask to back bridge arrangement assiown the acum may ese ‘Te ouput voltage OL, spars cnc NOTE: thst the low 0 ess sensitive © dificult to set with infeeds and coordination with other © entire station tripped ‘Powex SremmPaorucnion Cuseree 9 4Local Backup Advantages Disadvantages ¢ meeouee 9 Ror compl msnesn: 3 See aes Remote Back Remote backup as indicated previnely canbe provide by sine esrininaton protect ions i.e. overcurrent and distance are two typical prowctons ‘that are. ‘sed for is anton Ronee back Geely opis aa os J cml ange gs denny ap denne byte pe sh ai 3 Scat ca cate teem eee) Back-up To Protection Scheme Failure ‘The backup scheme tobe provided must casure, as minimum, thatthe performance ad reliability ofthe overall protection sytem tocar ¢ ul is malloc! othe failure of any single element. « To achive the above requtemet the practice of organisations iin Philosophy similar to the following: * ve easel ohare + Provision of two independent proton relay equipments on all protection ‘zones (e.g. lines, busbars, transformers etc.) _—_ a Where possible, dupes primary protect protections on a plan itm should ws, emt operating on different measuring principles and/or desis e "eg dpa ronecancal raccon cere ve service expencce has shown thal sich rays have diplyel a igh es stability and reliability, mein teens ee erat + Provision of independent inter-station signaling tink, wher pretaly on dient roe for eto inane potecion ‘+ Provision of independent D.C. supplies tothe two independent protect * Provision of independent current transformers to the two ing Poin sformers to th dependent * Provision of independent voltage supplies to the rwo independent protections ‘+ Relay and other protective equipment performance requirements required to ‘comply with British, IEC or Australian Standards or other as appropriate Regular Maintenance and testing of equipment ‘Typical examples of design practices to provide backup forthe failure of protection are shown in Figs 4 and 5 Backup To Circuit Breaker Failure nthe case of circuit breaker failure, itis not economically viable to provide duplicate high voltage cir breakers for backup. Even with the provision of duplicate trip cols on ctcait breakers, electrical or mechanical failure withthe circuit Breaker can Dreveat the clearance of 2 faut. "To ensure the clearance of the fault in the event of circuit breaker failure, Local ‘Backup is provided. Although there may be differences with the specific ciruit breaker fail schemes logics used fom organisation to organisation and from country ‘0 country, the principle of operation is in general similar in all cases. It is normal practice to utlise the main protection in conjunction with check rola (or in ‘ome applications the use ofthe circuit breaker auliary contact) to. detect the failure fare tripped to clear the fault, ‘The current check relay used to dotect the failure of the cireuit breaker is an instamtaneous ype overcurrent relay. To ensure that the circuit breaker scheme fictions corretly, it is essential that the current check relay sensitivity selected (Getting is below the minimum level of fault current Generally two arrangements of incorporating circuit breaker failure relays are used, thse are 4 Acrangement ‘Ons’ Refer to Fig, 6 for typical logic) With this arrangement, the circuit breaker failure scheme isnot enabled until the primary protection, that initiates the tap of that circuit bresker, has operated. “The advantage of this scheme is thatthe circuit breaker failure relay settings can be below load curret without impacting on the security ofthe 5) However the disadvantage of this arrangement is that the circuit breaker failure scheme remains in de-energised state until a protection operation has ‘occurred. The reliability af the scheme could be an unkznown quantity ‘Arrangement “Two" (Refer to Fig 6 for typical logic) Powax SvsriacProrecrion Gunma .6 Pons SveTeuProrscnon cinerea 9-7With the arrangement, the circuit breaker failure scheme is always in an energised state. In this case, the operation of the overcurrent check relay ‘eae is independent ofthe primary protection. “The disadvantage of this arrangement is that the circuit breaker faire relay settings usually need to be set above load Curent for system security reasons, ‘As a consequence it may become difficult to set the relay Io cover some ‘contingencies for circuit breaker failure, in particular if the fault current is ‘inate the circuit breaker fale prot ‘overcurrent check af the circuit breaker failure protection would also have operated ‘nd would remain operated uni the fault had been cleated. The operation ofboth the fon and the overcurent check would cause the timing relay of the circuit breaker failure to opera, this in turn would initiate the trip of the cient ‘yeaker atthe other end ofthe line, dus clearing the fault. not provided with two independent considered $0 low that ris. Scheme Timer Settings arrangement“ Gf “TWi6" 18 applies dependenton the preferences an ‘losophics of the relevant organisation. a both arrangements, the-ime delay that is Biv on the ciseut breaker falure scheme shoaldincinde allowance forthe following times: 2° tla circuit breaker operating time (from initiation of trip to fault clearance). @° reset time of the current check relay (the reset time of some relays could be affected by the performance ofthe current transformers) timing relay error and, & safety margin. “The timer: setting some instances:cam be neduced by using.a circuit brea contact do de-energise Whe timing-relay-circuit. However this type of 2 ‘umber of disadvantages and, in general, the use of auxiliary contacts should not Be {sod as they are considered to be insecure, The disadvantages of using cicuit breaker ‘aulary contacts areas follows: fs required to the circuit breaker and this could be 2 source of the circuit breaker mechanism could operate (and hence the auxiliary contact) oui breaker may not have interrupted the fault current than half the minimum 0 ensure the reliability of furreat sensing portion of available relays have a continuous rating of tw ‘ofninal current. Pose SysrauProzicioy Cue 9-8 Power Syst PROTECHON cuore 9-9In the case of arrangement "Two" the current setting should also be greater than or assumed forthe scheme is in accordance with arrangement “Two as detailed in earlier section, ‘The supply system consists of, ¥ two radially fed 220KV/66kV YYA transformers without 220kV bos, ¥ _220KV circuit breakers locaton the 220k incoming lines and, GEV circuit breakers locate o tie and 66RV feoders, .V side of the transformers, 66kV bus ‘The failure of the 65kV transformer circuit breaker is to be considered for this example sume that the most onerous contingency to be considered for the failure of this circuit breaker is a fault occurring either on the 220k side ofthe transformer or on the tertiary of one ‘Assume that the circuit breaker failure protection scheme proposed at this stage is as follows: © high set current check with two phase elements and a neural clement, © proposed settings of 21004 for the phase clements and 525A for the neutral elements ‘The exerise will be to verify thatthe proposed arrangement is satisfactory “The other conditions that have been supplied are as follows: © the maximum load expected to be taken by the transformers is 200A. © the available phase settings for the rel 30004. ye 1000A, 16004, 210A, and © the available nutalsetngs for the relay are 250, 400A, 525A, and 750A. ‘© Bquivalent fault currents seen by the backup protection (with gins) for falls on the 220K bus or on the trary of the transformer areas follows: Fault Location Fault Level Safety Margin 220kV Bos. 30 =3618A RWB) b= 0A SISBA CW 358A B) = 36574 R) 595A W), Transformer Tertiary @.g=Not Applicable From the data provided above the following conclusions can be reached: = the setting of 21004 for the transformer 66KV circuit breaker current check is "oo high to cater for this example of back fed transformer faulis. (A safery margin of greater than 18 must be achieved. This condition is not met forthe 220KV faults. > tweater for the phase-to-phase faults on the transformer tertiary, @ current ‘check with three individual phase elements is required, = based on the maximum transformer load of 12008, the current check phase clement can beset on 1600. By selecting a current check with three individual selings of 1600, the required safety margins and the ‘would be achieved for the operating conditions conside Power SyeraPuorscrion cue 9-10 é Powe SysrauPRoTECTION cue 9-11oKV Bus fy Fig. Unit and non-unit re) |X 2l/ Pow Seren PRorEcTIn: Carmen 9-12 owen svete PROTECTIONCcuapren 9-17 owen Syste Promacri comer 9-16Fig. 6b. Circuit Break examples of backup protection on ehy systems Fig. 7 cuurrx 9-19 own Syereu Prorucrion Caneren 9-18 Pow Seem PRoTECTON=| == =—_$ Fig. 74. Typical examples of backup protection on ehv systems Se 5+ Fig. Te. Typical examples of backup protetion on ehv systems. owen Svereo PROTECTION Pow System PRoTEcTio® Canoe 9Te (@) Schematic woc.cmi | Powan SvetaProrzcrow curren 9-22 ciacun HERR oI hs {e2e 1..X & Y PROTECTION OPERATES AND TRIPS CB ISOLATING BUS FROM FAULT IS OUTSIDE LINE PROTECTION ZONE AND LINE PRO- TECTION WILL NOT OPERATE. 2, AFTER A TIME DELAY THE X AND Y CBF PROTECTION IN CONJUNC- ‘TION WITH THE BUS INITIATES A TRIP TO CLEAR THE BREAKER AT ‘THE REMOTE END OF THE LINE. Logic DIAGRAM —— | Fig. 9, “Blind spot or "Deed zone’ protection own Sveti PaorEcrON curren 9-23,CHAPTER 10 PROTECTION OF GENERATORS ROK Lines owen Svsren PROTECTION cunvran 9-24CHAPTER 10 PROTECTION OF GENERATORS INTRODUCTION ‘There are to distinct types of construction of power station synchronous generators sailiant pole rotor and cylindrical roter machines. Hydro-generators usually have salient pole rotors with vertical shafls and rola slower than the other generators, The indica rotors supported horizonally. The prime fer turbine. The farbo-generators in most Of the ‘urines/mators, There is a number of supply power forthe ‘breaker betweun the generator terminals andthe te sunibaries from the EHV system via the generator ‘gchronising the generator. ‘A variety of abnormal operating conditions and falts may occur in such a range of fenerating plant and the degree of protection of the machine and of the external ‘lectrical installations depends on cost and importance of the machine forthe overall, Power system, The hazards and problems depend also on the construction and Connections of the machine wih the supplied network and with earth, Some networks atthe generator volta ‘conected generators have ne“The fellowing fas and hazardous abaomal condition for high votge generators Ihave to be considered: for Meh voltage gener ‘Th mos eqn Sutin te sor ate single phase to ground fas, Phase fu and inter fae are uncommon and ese wll uly evolve int cart. Bverygenerno shld be poet pans pase phate and earth al Gfsome modcen schemes allow for settings as low as 3%. With this sensitivity large fant of the windings are covered with fast fault clearance but the felts closed 10 the Feutral point of the generator cannot be detected by these schemes. s only one lead brought out from the neutral point of the ‘Sator windings instead of the neutral ends ofall windings separately. A differential scheme as shown in Fig, 6 may be established i es ‘Sequm FHATPFaNection “The effect ofthe earthing resistor on the sensitivity of protection is brief discussed in 8, Low resistance earthing allows for the generator to contribute current of own Sysnen Paorserion Poon Sverzn PRomETiON cuore 10-3addition to, the above polarised relay scheme. The protection schomes reacting to the ROTOR FAULTS ‘neutral current lik the above ean protect about 90% ofthe generator windings ‘With high impedance grounding eg. via distribution transformer, the ground fault ses a contre tapped 1 ‘connected tothe centre point and earth and an earth o ‘a voltage across the relay filtered out from the input quantities by digital filters (eg. Fourier ‘The principle of both the ac and dc. injection methods is similar insensitive tothe third harmonic, Secondary of supply auxiliary transformer is connected between cath an the field circuit For the a method, the ac. voliage is injected via For generators with the neutral connections of individual phase windings not ‘whereas forthe de. method, the d by means ofa bridge rectifier, resistance is continuously measured ‘Fram the power system point of view the reactive large under-excted machine may cause excessive vol ‘uansmission lines leading toa threat to sytem stably. Powan SvszanProrscron ‘cumoten 10-4 ‘Powen SyereuPuoTacrioN (canon 10-5 é(On the other hand a delay in tripping is required to allow for a possible return to sgmchronism and to give the regulator a chance to increaso the excitation voltage. Fast and correct recognition of the iype and severity ofthe risk in every case may save the generator from unnecessary tripping under critical system conditions “when its generator to swing back into normal if the isturbance was caused by a prolonged clearance of ful. Another method of field loss protection is offered by ‘can be disconnected aftera short delay ¢.g. ‘monitoring the impedance atthe termi ofthe generator. The impedance will travel transformer cause tipping. ‘The trip is exouuted when the angle between voltages of the generator and the system does not excood 90 dogrees. This angle limit moderates the duty of the tipping circuit breaker ‘A more elaborate version ofa pote slipping protetion is shown in Fig. 15. \gpe are embeaddad in the stator windings at strategic positions Similarly, the rotor temperature can be measured by evaluation of the winding resistance with an ohm-meter type of instrument. Tripping ofthe set will ensve ifthe {temperatures atained are beyond design limits. ‘unsymmetrical faults external tothe nts which cause excessive heating ‘egative sequence component of the stator current expressed in pet unit generator rating, T is ime in seconds and K is a constant ofthe order ‘depending on the type of machine. si own SvsraMPRoTECHON cue 10-7 from quadrant 1 through second, third and fourth quadrant ofthe impedance plane along a smal circle i the centre is within the machine or along a larger circle if the Gente isin the transformer or along asl larger cic forthe centre located further in the system. The classic characteristic ofthe protection is made of two blinders and an foffet mho so arranged that the swings appearing in the generator and generator- ontinvously supervised by personnel is unlikely to be overloaded, Cooling, an overload condition can arse and, to cater for this, ive elemenis of either the thermocouple or resistance thermometer The protection may have Stage 1 witha definite time delay as Alarm, and Stage 2 with ‘of the rotor as Trp, The‘Modern digital relays have a mathematical thermal model of the generator encoded in the software and can allow for full utilising overload and unbalanced load withstand capability without exceeding the thermal limits. ‘Reverse Power Flow ‘The diesel generators have the limit bet MECHANICAL FAULTS Mechanical protection devices are used to detect overspeed, e.g. overspeed governor, loss of vacua, loss of boiler water and fring, nbrication failure, and possible rotor shaft distortion during set shutdown. TRIEPING ing parameters inthe software. In effect, the outputs may be arranged in 2 conventional way and the plant or, for a smaller generatos, an intemal software {ireedy connected to the relevant trip coils and alarms (Fig PRESENT TREND required for complet. prot protection functions making up the whole scheme with shor descripions is also Show. The fietions are slecied and adapted to the requisements and the settings are Applied by means of softwaze switches, choice of algorithms and entering setting data oftware greally increase the avai {immediately detected and announced s “The argument for reduction of redundancy is not accepted by many best of both worlds and, indeed, have their requirements sat five units A large generator - ‘ype and the total scheme may tke up to 9 units depending ‘configuration. There isa variety of functions in the scheme with Yedundancy in date acquisition, auxiliary supply and tripping. ‘The GEC ALSTHOM modular MIDOS sys the modularity, The new fully digital components of the sys ‘relays fit inthis traditional concept together with older well proven hnew technique of performing the functions and the new features technology are implemented in these new components. The modul en craeren 10-8 Powga Syste PROTECTION conrren 10-9schemes allows for addition and progressive replacement of components to enhance the performance of the schemes. “The processing power of the new protection schemes allows for greater precision and speed of identification of fats or abnormal states ofthe machine and this combined Application of digital relays off also oost benefits in terms of minimisat tion of protection panel space, protection ofthe generators rated above IMVA and SMVA respectively. aC Balt { \ | Ponsa SyerenProrEcTON Cavern 10-10 Ponen SysTaxPoTECTiON (cueren 10-11‘carrer 10-13 Powsa SyermnProracron Cuneren 10-12 own Sere PaorEcron &{ ft | en 216 owen Sema PROTECTION ‘curren 10-15NousaIoNg ras ano omamaongrersxs anos 1 “eon ‘enPower StsranProrcroN ‘cuapran 10-18 Pours Sys PhovETON ‘(Currie 10-22i Vv Pons SvereqProrecrio owen S vst PROTECTION Cover 10-25Fig. 22. Dapiae REG 216 (ABB).owen Svstea Prorecron cumrren 10-28 owen Sysri PROTECTION ‘curren 10-29a - CRS Note I- Optional blocking. [Note 2-Deviees show tripping appropriate auxiliary if wiping isthe select option. [Note 3. UA indicates nit auxiliary. Opes tates OBForcm Power Swstax Prorscron ‘cramer 10-30 Pow SvareM PROTECTION (cuurreR 10-31Deeley sracoworunas Fig. 27. Typical conf cathing ‘Cnmeren 10-33Ps owen Svsran PROTECTION_— ————— Fiscooo ee er eeoetneeromence ‘curren 10-36 CHAPTER 11 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS* Overloads may arise from planned operation under normal conditions or ‘under abnormal conditions Flue of force cooling equipment ean result in overload, and therefore overheating of the jgned to operate under system abnormal under frequency conditions; however, genersior Step up transformers connected directly to the generator terminals can be subject to quite high overexcitation ifthe fild and voltage regulator are placed in operation before the machine reaches fll speed Internal Fauks ‘Many faults can and have occurred within 2 transformer, these have been grouped into ‘the following types of faults + Dicletrc: ~ shorting between turns, windings or fom winding to earth; partial discharges, + Mechanical: - movement as a result of electromagnetic forces (short circuit) vibration; defect in the onload tapchanger ‘Thermal: ~ high temperature du Some of the above obviously produce severe faults requiring fast acting protection, ‘whilst others can be classified as incipient faults that nowd to be dealt with before a ‘more serions fault develops fansformer from extemal disubances, short circuits, also under frequency), * To protect the system connected to it and the environment from effects ofthe fault in the transf * To monitor ration ofthe transformer, warn against incipient faults and restrict damage if " (METHODS OF PROTECTION and appropriate plant specifications usually froquency overvoltages, however there can be situations where some fs required (eg. transformers at the end of long transmission ‘equitod to have an inverse voliage/time characteristic Surge Aresters ae used for protection agains transient voltage Tighnng impulses). The Aresters se selesiod to mi the ola the winding impulse level. Modern arresters employ ZnO non-linear suppress the surges. Dierential protection is used to detect faults within the differentia zone which may cover only the internal part of the transformer or may also inciude the LV and HV ‘connections, Details ofthis system have been covered in another lecture “This protection which isin the form of a volsertz relay is required only where the ‘sansformer is comnected diecly toa generator. ‘This covers overheating due to sustained overloads or failure of cooling equipment ‘Two instruments are used a st out below. ): The top oll temperature is measured using 3 fin oll at the top of the caret propersona Sad Heer to Fig 2 which lusts his rangement. A vanble resistor inthe ‘emer cheat enable the cures to be suse to Set the radon fo that eaouated ffom the emperarwre nse est placed around the bellows in the indicator, is also used. Another arrangement isto replace the bulb with a resistor, in ‘this case lemporature measured by the change in resistance. (r= 100 ohms at degC) owen SYSTEM PROTECTION cwuoren 11-2 r 4 S ueren 1-3‘Mercury switches or magnetic reed switches connected tothe temperature gauge can be fans). An example of seting for a WTI on a 150 MVA transformer are il Temperate Indicator “Top Oil Alarm (based on temperature rise test) = 82 degC ‘Top oil tip (based on maximum oil temperature) 105 degC Winding Temperature Indicator: Cooler On =87 degC Cooler Off = 82 degC Winding Temp. Alarm (calc. fom temp. rise te) ~ 97 degC ‘Winding Temp. Trip (based on max allowable temp.)=130 degC (note: trip fact is not always used, in some cases time delay is used) ‘Al electrical faults within the transformer tank will result in production of gas = slow rate for incipient falts ~ rapid rate (yolent) for serious faults (es. power arc produced by Dashover between windings orto earth). {In the vicinity ofthe fault oil breaks down and forms gas bubbles which rise to the top of the tank and along pipework to the conservator oilatr interface "The transformer tank and all pipework are designed to ensure that gas bubbles take ‘this path (need to vent al pockets into the tank to conservator oil pipe or fill up the ‘pocket with suitable materia), formation of gas at the fault causes oil to low up into the the rapid flow of gas bubbles Buchholz relay which is mounted in the rising oll pipe ‘chamber with two floas, one with an aluminium reed switch. Refer Fig, 3 With m the contacts are open, ‘POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION cuore 11-4 ‘The Bochhotz relay can also be used to detect low oil level resulting from a tank or radiator il leak rst with an alarm then if no action is taken, ati, ‘A relay similar tothe Buchholz is used to detect faults in tapchanger diverter switch tanks which have separate conservators. in this case only a vane is used as diverter svtches prodace gas during normal switching operation. ‘The Buchholz relay can only be used with transformers with conservators. Transformers without conservators 6, nitogen blanket type, usually have a pressure switch ‘Pressure Relief Device (PRV) Pressure relief devices are provided to prevent the tank ftom rupturing in the case of a severe fault Modem PRVS are a spring loaded devices, ‘Thermal:- overheated conductor, core, tank This may be a result of a bad Joint, undesize conductor, circulating curents due to faulty core earthing or “unpredicted heating due to leakage ux or field from a heavy current conductor. This ‘ype of fault results in overheating ofthe oil and conductor insulation + Partial Discharges:- result of high electrical sess. could occur at high voltage potential or at earth end potential. This resulis in breakdown of the ol by ion ‘bombardment, Sparking: occurs where the dielect FONER SYSTELMROTECTION cwaoreR I~Depending upon the rate of gas generation a certain amount, if no al the gas ma diss in vending on the vate Considering the shoe, il samples are taken fom the trnsfomes, he gas ara 10% by volume) is extracted from i pea and Some case studies are set out in the following table ‘TABLE ‘EXAMPLES OF FAULTS DETECTED BY DGA mx EepleDate -H2 CO. «CHS. «COD_ CIES COHS CoH us 0 0 6 com, cH +Ratio == <0.1 Code 0 ==> 3 code? can m Code 0.21 = case 7 a thermal fault, temperature range 300 - 700 degC ‘A bolted connection in the cable box was not tight and had overheated the felty joint ‘yas covered in carbon ing jocal temperature, Note the change in results after rectification of EX? mm ocHE sample 2000 200 95 1000 05 9 0 can cu com Ratios =n = <0,L code == =3 code? coe ip 2H | Code 02.2 = case 8a thermal fault, temperature over 700 degC POWER SYSTEM FROTECTION cuaoren 11-7ExS Sample 1988 420 400 2100 1700 2300 620 4 sample 1989 Ratios give code 0 22 a thermal faut, temperature over 700 degC. for both samples mild steel components overheated by eddy currents induced from leskage fx. Delta Tertiary Winding: Where a delta tertiary winding is provided in a transformer the winding is usually Introduction ‘The purpose of this guide is to provide an outline on the parameters to be considered ‘when Selecting High Voltage Fuses for use on Distibation Transformers, Selection methods of "Rule of Thumb” and "Manufacturers guidelines” may cause protection problems, and itis intended that this guide will enable all users to formulate their own Tusing polices based on their own system and the parameters they fee important. each user to determine, however, ifall parameters are desired cheap form of protective equipment when compared to HV lected correctly provige & ‘of protection ing will ensure only the faulted HV fuses correctly graded to the Zone substati equipment is isolated 1 fuses are not installed, minimum damage faults in a specific transformer or cable ‘would be difficult to locate, resulting in consumers being shutdown for longer periods ‘than necessary, sete comety the HV fs wil provide proton 0 operators onthe LV si, eed inPasmout and ldo stance signed to melt and thos open a circuit, ‘Current Limiting Fuse Link range, limits the ‘Afuse link which, daring and by its operation in specified current range, ‘urren to substantially lower value than the peak value Disriinatin/Gradiog scriminion between to or wore devices in ses is ud to oer whe, of the PSE Sa ont ovroaet, ony he device nce fo operat does Rated Curent “Te as caren sae by the manicures fe the cunent tha these wil ay onkoosty tout etenorton ated Breking Capacity we ig sat 10 be cape of ‘Te maximum propectve Weakng cen tat a fase is sat Pe rare deren vag under speed condtns Prearcng Time ‘The time between the commencement of a current large enough to cause the fuse Clement to melt and the instant when an ae is iste Pr Characteristics 2 cating 1) a a function of Accave giving Pt values (roarcing 1 andlor operating rogpetve surret under stated conditions of operation. Rated Minimum Fusing Current “The current stated as being that current which will cause the Fase link to operate in a specified time under prescribed conditions or he pape of hs insucton the Minimum Fusing Cure Ty Bi neo #hous oe tinlcurent acres ona auras 11-8‘Minimum Breaking Current [Not all High Voltage fase are capable of succesfully interrupting all currents down to ‘minimum fusing current, For Ponder Sd fies the ae of an anempred operation below minim breaking Corret may be asus insmal are chusng dri overeating (melng of porcelain) and catastrophic failure particularly if the fuse is oil immersed, (oeting (n order of importance) + Vollage Range of Fuse + Ratod Breaking Capacity of Fuse + Current Reting of Fs Determined bs 1. The ned odetct and isolate as many fat conditions as possible. 1. Allowance for magnetsing in-rush, TL, Overload rating of protected equipment TV. Physical fase dimensions LY protect (©) To the Zane os feeder protections ‘VIL. Measures required to prevent the fuse operating in is critical ‘ange (Especially important in metal clad switchgear or metal qurreril-10 Explanation of Parameters Rated Voltage ‘The rated voltage of any HIV fuse mast not be less than tht of the system into which it ‘operating, however, in some situations its possible to use a higher rated fuse fe. most modern LIKV rated ases canbe safely used in 6 6kV systems erable to use the higher voltage ge fuses ending up in the higher danger with using higher ‘oltages being created during fuse {uses is the possibilty of higher switching tion being to high for some of the old lower Moder HRC fuses are usually dual rated with reduced switching voltages taken into ‘account atthe design stage. Rated Breaking Capacity “The HY fuses rated breaking ox level under al conditions ty should exceed the systems prospective fault For expulsion type fuses contaiting the fase wire may rot always be possible with the result the tbe ‘owing to the generation of excessive pressures ‘As these fuses are usually mounted in the air, very lite injury to persons or and the risk of using the expulsion fuse in a circuit where its nsuficient maybe justified on esonomic grounds. Current Rating © Detection of as many fanlts as possible When used on distribution transformers improved safety can be achieved by selecting the fase to aperate ina specified time. ‘erroneous LV faut, parts 1 and 2, outline the values of reflected LY fauts tothe primary fous transformer winding configurations, as an example, for a DYI or DYT transformer the bolted phase-N fault flthough in mos cases approximates to eo phase and 3+ ‘value, the primary I i8 reduced ‘Consequently this: ‘an be further redu isthe most difficult to detec, especially when the f by are resistance,‘To make allowance for zcng fits on the LV would require te fase curent bs Beal rei which wld ei the feed capably of te the fist operat ins rel one andy even case 58 pea ‘magnetising in-rush, =e ore ‘This situation requires a compromise of beter protection sensit o Pi prot tivity aginst system 1 Although not perfect, the HV fs selected by this method is many times quicker than the Zone S/S feeder protection which for smaller transformers may not even detect reflected 3-phase faults much les phase-N fats, ° ig Mos: zane S/S fede rely re et around 400A which is equivalent, 433V when supplied at 11kV, “ (0 O11 at ‘Typically a 5% Z 300KVA transformer bas a 300% 100 FORA or = 80008 LV fault level Allowance for Magoedss ‘The HV fase link must wit wei Teed ww ae Standard 12.8 Nov. 1976 a eae ol tae tonsa ek greater than 0.1 sc. for a (QM) Overload Rating of Protected Equipment 5, fuses solcted a per the largest fuse 10 fault willbe large enough to provide 50% ae a oe for treed om Read ofthe wuntomer or igh impedance rarer transforms & compromise maybe neces, an if the See bf inceaed tarsormer eve mere operant han sjpoved LY aes a conpromi is equied and he HV fie se eee I the fase size is increased care should be taken fo ensure thatthe reflected phase-N falls not within the critical zone GY) Physical Size of Fuse In some situations the current rating of the fuse maybe determined on the fuses ‘of HRC fuses suitable for use in air alters from 1 ‘diam, at the 404 rating. For the protection of Some switch units will only take certain length fuses, this i especially so European switchgear which can only accept 292mm and 442mm length fase, yet 537mm foses are availble. tion curves for their ‘of the HV fuse can be For this reason the fuse resistance is important and is usually available on request fom. the manufacturer. (VD Discrimination - HV Fuse to LV Protections 1. General Its common practice to consider the discrimination of HV fuse to LV protect textremely smportant, even tothe point of educing the possibility of detecting by increasing the HV fuse size cxuoren 1-13FFor pole substations this policy would not cause operator harm, but in Padmount and ‘Vault type S/S, operator injury from flash bums is of concem and fusing t00 large is not recommended “Loss of discrimination to provide beter detection of faults isa small price to pay" 2, Other Factors Affecting Discrimination Diseriputorfasing policies. Some supply authorities compound discrimination problems by fusing distibutor ‘maximum loading of cables which may be greater than the transformer le of 400A capacity, 400A fuses would be be a 300KVA. Gi) Use of LV Circuit Breaker Protections. Where LY circuit breakers together with relaying is used discrimination HV to LV is further compounded by the CE operate and relay minima times. 3, Determination of shether Discrimination is possible ‘Where discrimination is required between 2 protections, whether at different or the {ame voltage, the two time cutent carves must be compared over their complete range. For relaying, the graphical method is sufficient fo determine discrimination, however, as fses operate very quickly, less than 1 cycle for maximum faults, two methods 10 ‘check discrimination are required ‘As with relays discrimination caa be accurately checked by the praphical method or the 01 to 20000 second operate times. and Gp ,Forless man 0.1 second operate ime, discrimination is checked by ensuring the let through af the downsream device doesnot exceed the [®t which the upstream, fuse can withstand without element damage. selected on the fault with the smallest for the fault resalting in the maxima ie, In the case of DYI transformers the phase to phase fault. Example 1 atthe end of this chapter outlines a suggested method to check discrimination, 4. Desigo approaches to improve Discrimination () Useof 7 tpe Fuses tn 1975 the British Standasd for LV fuses was revised with the idea of having ‘Baasuial fuses capable of withstanding motor starting currents. This resulted ia much racing fuses which consoquenly created grading problems in the Blenriciy Supply Industry. Fig 7 graphically shows this difference, “This problem was eventually corrected by the introduction of a ‘Standard for specification of faster acting or J type fuses (B.S. -pefersing to Fig. 7 the advantage of the faster operating LV fuse is highlighted by the barter grading to the 40A B & S HV fuse operating on 11 kV. ‘To achieve some chance at discrimination, *J* type LV fuses should be used on supply inthosty distributors where HV fases are installed ‘the use of "T* type fases at the ansformer may result in poor grading t the LV switch boards a the industrial type fase ‘ype fuse will only just grade to a 160A jp Determined by comparison of minimum 1° of 4008 fase to ttat Ise). ‘Characteristics ofboth "type and industrial fuses are enclosed as App C respectively (ji) Consumer Switchboard Desians Based On Providing Protection Diseriinaton ‘At the ely stage of consumers requesting a specific load they should be approached to design their LV Board in a effort to improve discrimination Some suggestions: 1, Fully protected main switcbes should be avoided as grading to mechanical devices ‘vith BV fuses is dificult Consumers should be encouraged to install more smaller sub-mmains from the soa and rather than large sub-mains wit farther swifehboerds remote from the ‘ain board. mn some installations this may not be possible as large motors may exist, 2 fsome form of restriction of the Consumers load is required, overload protection Jen asa thermal devices, as distint from a short cicuit protection, cou be installed tm the main switch. 3, Large consumers should be encouraged to take tore than 1 supply from the advantages if two separate ansformers supplied oo fe, A 30004 toad would be beter supplied bythe arrangement shown in Fig. § rather than Fig. 9 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION cuagra 11 = 14 rowan erareMFROTBCTION crarrag 11-15Comments ‘An added advantage is that HV fusing of 1000KVA transformers at 11kV ot Possible whereas the HV fusing of 2000kVA transformers is dfficalt and ia ‘ot recommended, ‘This is especially so where high impedance transformers are purchased to reduce the LV fault level, ‘consumer require, thereby resulting ina larger HV fuse and ths improved This also has the added advantage of proving capacity to the street mins Gv) _Onsmall transformers additional small street distribu need for large fases on distributors, would reduce the (VID) Measures required to prevent the fuse operating i ‘When HIV fuses are installed up poles and well fuses cracking due to operating in thei eit Viowever, where HV fused switch units, especially oil ‘taken to reduce the possibitity of the fuse operating in fase operating inthe critical zone ae transformer avecloading and restrictive LV faults within the transformer or LV cabling WARNING - Because ofthe disastrous effoct of operating inthe critical one IV fuses ‘Contained i ol fuse units must not be used as feder overland devices COMMENTS on Full have introduced "Fall (Current characerstce ofthese fases nd which does not allow any room to most back-up fases with characteris allow sufficient clearance for grading, full ange fe proves suitable ud al oherslton terion then the vend Capa ea bom and svings maybe pease by no rquing LV ove fete rhe tansomer Asyet a utube flange is for us in high voltage esd switch unis as not been foun (VEL) System Design Considerations When Using BV Fuses (@) Location of Fuses available in locating HIV fuses to protect not only the for UNG systems the fuses must be mounted within Padmount enclosures 2, Caution is required when locating the fuses remotely from the transformer as ‘femo-resonance could occur during 2 single fuse operation. voltageurrent charac "The result of fero-resonanee, should it oocu ‘overvoliage can cccur, bearing no resembl owes sysrexmoTEcTIon cearren 11-16 A aueren 11-17provided the Xog%mo Fatio at $0 I be acceptable the capacitive reactance to ground between the transformer and point of open, ‘The probability of ferro-resonance can be reduced by tripping all 3 phases for the operation of any fase. (6) The nee wo res the Zone ofthe HY fuss [Xp isthe magnetising reactance of transformer windings. Design considerations to reduce the problem of ferro-resomance 1 ‘The problem is best avoided by the use of HV fased switches which trip all forthe operation of any fuse 2. For pole mounted fuses, ganged 3-phase switches can ofthe problem occurring during energization of the transformer. 3. The problem is further reduced by energising the transformer on load rather ‘than with zero load 4, As the main caus ofthe problem i the Xeg/% fto the Xeg can be retued by sling he heist swish 20 cose 20 Peale wo the ooiirmer 3 0 the theory that the %ay/X, ati shou be renter than 36. Table B ig Povdes allowable cable Eagle for varios soe bansfonners on TIKV and mpl oles From the table, iflong cables cannot be avoided, it may be advisable to increase the transformer size or decease the cable size (©) Current Limiting Feature of Fuses Some supply authorities use the speed of operation of HV fuses to reduce the effet system fault currents can have on cables and switch units. sufficient to withstand substantial fault Large savings are available by installing the current ’e selected on load basis resulting in a much smaller Problems which exist with this practice ae (Gi) With Jong lengths of cable and several problems could occur should a single fuse operate transformers ferro-resonance “the zone of protection coverage provided by the HV fuse should not be extended "unnecessaniy om the LV side ofthe transfor me ‘This appears common for pole substations where, to reduce to be mounted on the pole cross-arm LY fuses are sometime ‘Ths results inthe HV fase being fequited to operate fr f tion should be avoided as the fault current value is quickly reduced by O/H fection of LV faults, especially the phase-N, by the HV fuse may not be iis songly recommended that some form of fse protectin te ised 08 the rn asso ie fies lotta lot spose othe transom Point of interest 1 fae este formers as it can be substantial portion of, FV fuses will not prevent ‘Shown thal, as the fse melt the winding noeds tobe fanlied to cause “However, due tots custent limiting and speed of operation the HV fuse greatly reduces ‘Sup hich energy releases ofthe type that causes transformer explosions. Probable HY fuse operations for v fase selected as per this guide (@) Phase-Ground Faalt any phase “The LY fuse supplying the fault cbabie that discrimination will not oocur for this type of fault and 2 or even TIV fuses would operate as wells the 2 LV fuses on the faulted phases, ‘hows typed! fault cutent flows for this type of ft rows PROTECTION cxuersn 11-18 a‘ seMAFROTECTION cure 11-19(© Three Phase fait. 4s the 3 phase reflected fault is mot much lower than the phase to phase then discrimination would not occur across the wansformer fr a bolted fault ‘Internal faults in a transformer are: {phase to earth faults; hase to phase fouls; ‘Inter-turn faults, + core faults tank fats, Various sources of abnormal stress in a transformer are: * reduced sysiem frequency ‘The principles used in transformer protection are: gas detection; + overfhuxing. Snemes of transformer protection are + far overload * combined ailferentil and for intee-tun faults, core faults and loss of oil -for overvolage + overoxing protection Selection of protection schemes for transformers hasbeen taken up as the frst research project at Victoria University of Technology in the domain of application of Expert Syetems for protection design. pilot Expert System has been created and it can help im this task. The choices offered by the ySiem are, however, limited to GEC and ABB ‘conventional relays. corres 11-21(Current transformers ~for protection and winding temperature indicators. Bustos relay - gas and oil actuated relay. Pressure relief vals it surge relay fron ead tap changer Oil drain vale fr taking oi samples. All cavities (6, wood) ted to conservator or space filled with suitable material ‘Teemperatare indicator pockets and indicators. Surge arresters~ connected to each terminal Location of Protection Control and Monitoring Devices Fig2 Winding Temperature Thermal Image Device urraa 22 row ersrmreorecTion caer 1-23CD te ae Tiawtenen ve FONE mars) sre Fig. 3G). Buchholz Relay and Ground Level Receiver” Fig. 3(b) Buchholz Relay - a mercury swithe mechanism aes £ a Fig. 4. Comparative rates of evolution of gases from ol as a function of ‘decomposition | ows srsrEummorscrion curren 11-26 caren 11-25sonpea juasana ney parson = ousmuosaresss os ee- Thuan o- (9 5a souuosa.-019y prose op suiduoy 2fge9 a1qeMonE MMSE. ble B Maximum allowable cable lengths to avoid Feno- Resonance bused on Allow Note: ‘Typial values for 58 Dy Transformer 2. Typical Xeo values for pape insulated lead covered $.W.A. sereened 3 phase clesFig. 7 Typical fuse characteristics Hl 1 i 1 t 1 t 1 1 1 Fig. 8 3000A supply using 2X 2000KVA transformers ostomer switehroom sien” |ubration Fig.9 30004 supply 1X 20001VA supply A rowan svemmnorEcron curren 11-31& DY-1 Transt R & BLY, a DY-II Transf. ¥ & BELV Fig. 10(a)—Refle le current for a LV Fig10() Reflected fault currents would operate 32 would operate LV phase to phase faut 10() Reflected fault current for @ LV three phase fault Fig. 11 Selection guide (ABB Relays) cuore 11-32 *- owen ssrA PROTECTION usr 11-33ig. 11 Selection guide (ABB Relays) curren 11-35 owen svermceaorzcTOn ‘cuyren 11-34 rowan tveTeuoracrInI lent ot potendon gists fu “table 5: Power traneormer protection ig, 12 Selection guide - GEC (generator transformer protection) carrer 11-36 ‘quvrse 11-37eeeCHAPTER 12 MOTOR PROTECTIONCHAPTER 12 MOTOR PROTECTION INTRODUCTION “There is a range of protective devices applicable to the Funny to sophisticated solid state relays, In. general ‘Nandardised than say generators. “the cost and extent of the protective devices willbe weighed agains ihe pe of load andthe repercussions of interruption to the ‘operation Fuses will generally provide adequate protection for very small motors upto fractional up to say 20 EW can be protected by simple thermal overload tsps oF dashpot Seeiees pins under stage proton. These can be incorporated {nto the staring contol equipment Instantaneous protection can also be include Lr the function of the motor is of great importance and/or the motor is greater than sy Tot ahen move seuitive and discriminative thermal protection relays are used, For motors with ratings in excess of say 1 MW and repairs for faults would be ‘ienBeant and high speed clearance would be absolutly necessary Differential protection would also be incorporated “The types of abnormal operating conditions which the protection wil be applied 1 can be categorised into two pes sternal conditions ‘ermal fa mechanical overload, unbalanced supply voles, Pow SverauPronecrion Caarre 12-1‘Then if Vs isthe applied stator voltage then the induced rot Ve = RVs and the rotor curent per phase wil be vr k= a “The stator magnetic field will sweep the rotor conductors at full synchronous speed {inducing a rotor current at line frequency. Whea the motor is running the relative speed of the rotor and stator elds willbe proportional tothe slip S. “The frequency of the rotor current = sf, and the rotor volage = sKV. ine frequency the rotor reactance is Xy and a slip frequency will b SX5, 3c, ging a rotor impedance per phase of - y= Rp + ie The rotor current per phase will henoe be The rotor current and hence stator curent standstill current until the motor has reached ‘sarting period) main substantially equal to the mal ranning speed. (80% - 90% of It is common practice to assume a constant starting cur ‘determining the curret and ime settings of motor overl {forthe stating period in ction. (Fig. 2) [Loss af One Phase - Starting, Normal starting caren Iy* = Yan a Z ‘Where Zis the standstill impedance pee phase of moter. Sey that one phase i open c 1B phase Fig. 3) I,=0 _ ha rd 21, 0 that the starting current with one phase open circuited will be 0.866 times the normal starting current, ‘On the surface this may not be perceived as such a great problem, the sequence circuits and currents are also considered. (Fig. 4) Iy+lp+lo=0 and hence lo = 0 1-1/3, +47.) L=s0-@)I, then postive sequence curent magnitde cael Tie, half the normal starting curent, Similarly the negative sequence current owen SysTEM PROTECTION coueren 12-2 a our SyeransPaorecrian ‘cuaren 12-3sequence current is also equal to haf the onal starting curent “The positive and negative sequence information is considered important later in heating effects and unbalanced voltage conditions. “The rato of positive sequence to negative sequence impedance is given approximately by the ratio of the stating curent fo the normal running current For delta connected winding motors the actual line starting current with one phase ‘open circuited (Fig, 5) is the same asthe star connected machine. . Y, Ty = Be ‘normal starting line current z | ‘Actual starting with one phase open circuited. Also note that one winding will carry tice the cuentas. “The following would occur 2) Considerable negative sequence heating due to higher rotor losses, 8) ‘The motor could stall asthe output power would be reduced (which would depend upon the driven toad). ©) Increased current 4) Possiility of additional nesative phase sequence cutent being fed ito the ‘motor fom paralle! equipment. (Operation on Unbalanced Voltage ‘The degree of unbalance is small in nox Savdstrial systems 5% unbalance berwoen, {Ggure quoted by Victorian Supply Author ‘ollages could occur (2% has been the ‘The relative small negative phase sequence impedance ofthe machine compared with TR pontve scquenoe impecance means that small volageimbslances are capable of fnerating velatvely lange negative sequence currents, ‘Motor positive sequence impedance a slip S. = @ Bye and at standstill when $= 1 and at normal running spe, = (R+RY H+ “The vale of Rs ae generally less han the Xs. (opically 1:10) the resistance term is neglected, the negative phase sequence impedance at nommal he 2eisaPs is appronmatsly equal 0 the posive phase soquenee impedance at Sandell eg if motor has a starting curent 6 times tefl load current the negative sequence ‘FEuance would be about 6 the positive sequence impedance, ‘A.5% negative sequence ‘negative sequence curent tage in the supply could produce approximately 30% of of induoed negative sequence curent fffect To avoid overheating thet produce higher put would need que is produced by the negative sequence current and its associated magnetic fel. Powen SveraProracrion Ccrarrak 12-4 Powcr SwsranePxotsom08 canvass 12-5& Lethe switch operates directly in the me it shall be capable of safely interrupting the locked rotorisall earent ofthe motor In the absence of manufacturers information the locked rotor current is taken 25 ~ (a) Eight (8) dimes fl toad cures (©) Four (8) times ful load curren cover temperature protection is required fr: which may be required fo ron unattended and which have a tating refrigerators in shops or communal use in block of lat, drainage suimps in basements Over temperature protection is not required where the opening ‘would crete a hazard, eg, fre pumps and other essential fre p ‘Atomatic reset devices are permite f provided the devioe protects the motor windings against attain res under continued {tipping conditions. ‘Thermal Detectors Australian Sundard AS 1023 (parts) covers the gener ‘orormance of built im thermal detectors including, thermist Faye It is applicable to the design and mannfactare and i eves. ‘builtin thermal detecors and control units are intended to protect the motor from damage due to excessive short term ovecheating resulting from: a » je Phasing ©) Persistent Over Impaired Vent “The degree of protection will be governed by the thermal endurance of the winding {Hsulation and fs not adjustable, Note that current operated protective schemes can BE related to the rated load ofthe motor and are adjustable “The thermal protection will be set such that muisance tripping due to greater than ‘by temporary under vollages is avoided Thermal protection is not effective alone for all motors and all faulvebnormal conditions ce of protection will depend on a numberof other factors. 2) rate of rise of temperature of the motor winding (highest under stalled conditions, ¥)—Tocatlo, number and installation method of thermal detection devices. ©) tolerances on the temperatures atthe normal operating conditions. @ tolerances on the control sysiom to which the thermal detection devices connect “The margin between the protection level and the rated load condition will be dependent ‘yon the diference between the actual and permitted temperature rise ofthe winding ‘bd the difference between the actual and specified cooling air emperaturs Knowing that the temperature setting of the builtin thermal detection device is fixed, then the level of protection is chosen to accommodate the hotest cooling air and ‘maximum permissible temperatare rise. Pawan Svavea PAOTECTON ‘curren 12-7‘The outcome ofthis will be that the motor wil be permitted to operate close t0 the protection level if the driven equipment is able to demand substantial prolonged overloads, bbe noted that this prolonged overicad condition will not usually be 3c but the following should be appreciated. feof the winding insulation is approximately halved for every 109¢ increase in operating temperature. b) Driven apparatus, Supply and contol gear should be capable of handling the are incorporated in the windings pric ‘afterwards the Stestes and conditions. eg 2) moteause damage or weaken winding insulation » 3 mechanical stress as part of winding process ©) impregnation products 1) impregnation under vacuum or pressure 8) clectrodynamie forces and vibration Recommended values of reference temperatures for thermistors are given in the table below Recommended Reference Temperatures for Thermistors Temperature Gass] Cass | Css | Claw ios | o_| i30_| ass TAP u10] 130] 130160 Waring go | no | 20 | wo ing in a contebatio current having both dc and ac components decaying exponentially and described bythe following equations. R,(S= 0) = Rotor circuit resistance at zero slip (ohms) AR, = Stator circuit resistance (ohms) f= Frequency (Hz) Arising out of tests carried out with industrial motor loads typical values for 415.V ants genertted under single pha fal condone are pill highs Soa tnS phase fot conlons ig, 6 The ial AC component of urea om 3 af sinlar magaitade to the dex Systems 625% fll lod corel soft Practical values for various indicated in Fig, 7) and these values are based on the more onero own SyermaPuorscrion cunpren 12-8 Powen SvarEM PROTECTION crurien 2-9 zIt is recommended that an assess ‘More detailed information about the starting current and times could also be heft be made for large motors and | Fuse Rating CO ORDINATION OF PROTECTION Tow a bon (x PLC for 10 Secs the fuse (The current rating ofthe fuse clement will exceed the current carrying capacity ‘conductor which it protects) 50 ‘Where other conditions, eg, starts in rapid succession, high degress of enclosure suitable adjustments in the selection ofthe appropriate fusing may be required. ‘Thermal Trips Tn aneary typeof thermal tip a bimetallic tp was used a thes {he motor coven passing direc rough the sensing element (Fi tension up to a predetermin fen temperature compensitio ed the movement of tbe upper tip bar and bimet owas SvereProreriot (curr 12-10 Powax SysrexProrecrionwip bar was stopped by @ stop of the same thermal cantally unaffected by temperature changes and have been used on ‘three phase ae motors. ing was inherenly protected as any appreciable unbalance in the phase nl cause the tip bas to mave ih oposite directions and operate the ‘sipping mechanism, ht variations of this same principle include the use of bimetallic jot carry current but are Operated indiecdy by heaters. In larger ay be derived from CT. cits is an clement which simulates closely the changing relay consists of three single phase elements, each comprising a heater and an ted bimetallic actuated movement, (Figs, 11 & 12) line and are ‘movement of the The tee pairs of bimetallic spiral elements are mounted » responsive to rises in heater temperature Which in turn prod comiact assembly. 3 spiral elements rotate through the same angle as fue that the contact arm is insensitive to change motors against damage due to: comprising an actuating bimetallic spiral and a compenssting bimetallic spiral, ‘A saturating current wansformer supplies current through the actuating spiral, either irecdy or via a heater. The saturating current transformers prevent the relay ‘operating daring long motor staring periods against high inertia leads, They also ‘protect the heater and spiral against damage during this same perio. amount but will Other variations which ar 3) instantaneous earth leakage, >) attactod armature relays in Lew of saturating CIs which will provide ‘instantaneous clearance for heavy curent faults total To the the protection device provi ‘creat in the motor wind Ccrapren 12-12k= constant I = specified load curent before overload occurs, maximum rating, ‘only react to absolute current increases and cannot differentiate ‘and negative sequence components of currents As previously indicated on effect than one unit of post tof negative Sequence current has a greater beatin sequence current. oe * ‘The more sophisticated take this imo account in the design o characteristic based on Fig the design of the thermal K° ~ affixed constant, k 1.5 for motors below 40 kW, eine const, = sors below 40 kW, and can be up 196 ‘Thermal Overshoot ‘Thermal relays do not match the thermal characters There will often be a time lag between the appli Te time lag between the applied current and relay operation (Fig ‘Motors with hes to heat generated Wi ing day maybe gpd sometime after the saring prod due the relay, anes Me sans Either th should be desensitised during the stating period or the starting time ian the relay operate me taking into account the overshoot. eg IFthe 4s 30 seconds for seconds otherwise ti ‘motor starting current and the relay operating surrent, then the starting time should be less than 27 Relay overs sot aply under sling condone assuming that sling eure = starting cur - fat calling curent ‘Short cieuit protection in the motor windings gh set, insantaneous overcurrent ‘within the same case and are sual Iris usual to find 3 phases of overcurent or 2 flement in a standard relay case ‘A frequent cause of single phasing is ‘blown ‘rly approach the fusing Gurent andthe fase Sea cet, figue and eventually the fuse could blow during startin. THIRC fuses for short circuit protection have the merit that the Dreventing the curren! from reaching a prospective BEARING FAILURE PROTECTION ‘make the motor top immediately and the 'A normal thermal overload selay with matcbed motor the moto sel is protected from excessive damage ings are 4-8 or 8-16 times fll loa forthe overcurent and 02-04 times phases of overcurrent and one cath fu fase, During starting, the current can can be operating hot. This can ead 10 ing time may’be in the order af 1 to 2 ms compared with a minimum operating, time ofan overload trip of 100 ms. sally have ball or roller bearings. Any failure will usually ‘Carent will be equivalent tothe locked rotor Salting protection will prevent excessive winding damage but wil ot prevent bearing If sleeve bearings are used then other symptoms such as temperature rise, vibration and 10-20% merease in moor current wil be presen in advance of fitre “Temperature sensing devices embeded in te bearing wil give some warning x thermal characteristics will are normally caused by prolonged or cyclical overheating and eventual Powe Syerau? cuore 12-14 * Crore 12-15As the stator windings are generally surrounded by earthed metal, instantancous earth ‘ult protection of tke winding will afer some protection ‘The sensitivity of the earth fault relay is limited by the spl connected CT's, a starting is usally 20% rent from residually ‘instantaneous overcurrent nits are fitted they will protect only the most severe shor ‘rouits because high settings are required to prevent maloperatin on starting, For motors in the range 750 00 kW high speed clearance of phase and earth faults JS achieved by the use of ial protection impedance differential or biased ditTerenial are commonly used roquiting 6 CT's with 2 per phase atthe ends ofthe win Self balance differential prot also be used and can achieve circulating current diferenil protection Spill current can be minimised if the conductors are placed reasonably concentric ‘within the window of the core balance CT's, With low spill current the CT: ratio can be independent of the fll load current and hhence ean be more sensitive However there are some practical disadvantages ofthis form of p ‘Both ends ofeach phase winding need tobe passed through the CT. so that neutral end cabling wil be extended imise cabling the CT's will normally be positioned minals 80 that the actual terminals and the cont the protected differential zone ‘THREE PHASE STALLING PROTECTION ‘Should a motor stall when running or be unable ‘will draw 2 current equivalent 10 the locked ro es mine the dfrencs beeen ‘majority of eases the starting time of a normal ind ‘maximum allowable stalling time (before damage ‘wll osc Giscriminate between the two effects on atime basis and provide protecdon aznins. Salling. There are examples where the sling time i less than the starting time, such ‘as motors driving high inertia Toads. Under these circumstances iis difficult 0 Setermine using current and time the difference between 2 healthy stat and 2 stall condition. A separate stalling relay may be required, Assume that starting current is the same as ie stalling current, ta= maxioum saring time {th= maximum allowable stalling ime a= (Tema relay operating ie top athe same value of such hat eternal ” ac wop b> to Fig. 20) In this case the thermal relay cannot provide stalling protection, it time over catet relay separate sling rely canbe wed, and single phase definite time i SSzectes's alone, The folowing stings can overcome the ak of protect cred the ermal Hs isthe overcurrent ing and tis the time setting then SLoap “IS ta then protect le starting period and cold tl dimes then sme vant an beset less than eho sal ne repre acid Sal Rw TD] Mp - oe ven with gungel switching (RMUS) the posiliy for zor sequence coment poor fa a alanced oa es sine delayed even fr sy 2 alison thea is proba of switching Aimee tlecome: Asa camle of the stings aesear conser Metbostne Eleaicy omen Feeder Earth Leakage Relay ‘Earth Fault Indication Relay 30 A*, ‘The other features of the relay under test to ensure that it is insensitive fo switching wwansients are that haa 60 milliseconds ee ree mepe than 20 mailiseconds. a6 x Ig relay not to oper ce aft condition has ben eased he cart fal indicators ae used fo : iar ‘can be expedited more efficiently if remote iting fault develops. It can be of energy suificient to blow the part, but be of sufficieny low energy to be undetectable by the zone substation feeder protection earth leakage, in blowing and clearing the fault, no customers or load are disc If in blowing and clearing the fault, Pyles wich Jr tee cumstances the zone wbsaon new cael see et nc ay ands he sr caren ety ache, oprate ‘Eventually the open ended cable above may ‘spit again repestedly at random and eventually break down. can be undertaken at the zone subsation by inserting @ ays between the sta point ofthe protection relays and earth. 3c temporary relays operate or do net operate one can which isthe tary feeder. ‘f'n the meantime the faulty cable develops a full fale then both the potential hazard ‘and the investigation are removed. slow acting nature of electromechanical relays make them uns = purpose, Relays have been specified and used by the Melbourne Elects Powsn SyermaPromscron Cuore 16-8 owen SvetanPaorecnos counrres 16-9ee measure the product of Po the pe srrent and time and operate onthe product of curent and time om wih 8 typical of CBD/urban networks. " tur supply is mained by Ne ober cal y ‘other cables. The oes that Siren curentnron afer ft a acy pom on te nee ain ‘capacity of the remaining connected plant. min te ‘This method offers adequate protetion against cabl ip next, culing off fault ly circuit now feeding the ‘The total fault clearance time is @ combination ‘operating times. feeder relays have both operated, The total clearance time wil be different and limost ‘certainly shorter than the previous case sition of the falt has a pronounced effet on the ‘With parallel feeder networks Reeessary to determine the condition which gives the relay operating sequence and ‘maximum total clearance ime. need to be considered as two separate groups, Phase Teslt all overcurrent ‘Earth fait current does not appear as such throughout the entire network snd there are Fart lafgvet sages of earth fault protection to be graded between upper and lower Tims, No compacative difficulties anise ‘The method of providing frm supplies using unit protection by pilots backed up ty The met el arth falc protection is relatively simple and cos fective ifthe plots fre laid with the power cal ‘Modified pilt protection which includes the switchgear usbars in the preted Zons wietit ruaoesve protected zone has overlap avoids the need for the back uP Frotection previously deseribed bot can sil suffer from plot rime graded directional schemes eliminate the pilot dificol sponsive to busbar Feng ORG feauire 2 polarising. source, most usually V-T.s which increase the Distance protetion snot considered appropriate in high density short ron circuit, due eaeicafise in achieving sensitivity and a voltage source is required. Powe SvevePeoTECriON craves 16-11are particularly suited to city disuibution because © Joad form a practically continuous mesh over supply such a network could be operated in Parallel through the LV network(sobjct to ether conditions) ‘There are savings in capital and operating costs because compared toa radial network ‘an interconnected network couples together the leads which could have some diversity (ess likely in a CBD where particular classes aze grouped together eg. commercial, retail, hote ‘The outcome could be that the maximum demand of the transformers to supply the ‘combined loads is les, fewer could be required or their capacity could be less The per loading of the transformers tends 1 interconnected LV networks are supplied ftom substations on differing HV feeders then a single HV feed cied LV systems have operated with large blocks of load solidly interconnected, withthe final disconnection of non self-cleaning faults dependent upoa the protection at the substation Between the extremes of fully fused and solidly interconnected are hybrid schemes. In an interconnected LV system, the transformers are effectively connected in paralle! ‘cross both the HV and LV networks. The normal protection considerations for the parallel operation of transformers could apply, and unit protection which quickly {interrupts backfoed from the LV network into the faulted transformer could be weed Economic considerations favour the because this protection is respr dae to a HV cable fault LV pr direc acting tips shunted by fuse, using ACBS, cof directional protection on the LV side Iso tothe backfeed current fram the LV network Protection on the HY side of the transformer needs tobe responsive to, internal faults ‘wansformer fault is acceptable then local protection can be omitted, the feeder ‘eed to be supported from the LY network other than due to the loss of a substation transformer Powen Syste Prorecron own SvsrauPaorecroy (Cuan 16-13Protection of Zone Substations CBDs ‘Transformers Ditferentiat SendReceive intesip Overvotage Buchholz LV Overload Buchholz Sydney Earthing Ts. Metboure ay), Restricted E/L (LV) Back up E/L (LV) Interip LWA Mrerminal Station Differential Buchholz Brisbane Bus O1c Bus EL Back up O/C High Impedance Supervision ‘SURVEY OF AUSTRALIAN CBD PROTECTION PRACTICES (SUMMARY) LW Fess Ore EL High set O1C & BAL Back up EL Wire IDvTL OIC & EF Adelaide Perth Earting Tx Canberra Parramatta Hob Wollongong Primary Distribution System 22,11 and G6KV. Secondary Distribution System S15/240V Batvoceer Drerent Oversee iting Tempertse becole Frame Leatage opts reatal OC & sited E/F(LV) standby EF Buchholz (Oil Temperature Overpressuze Frame Leakage Dilfereatist Restricted EP ‘Overcurrent Buchholz Different IDMILOC& BF MTL OC REF Buchholz Frame Leakage Summaied bus O/C Duplicate bus zone Bas section O/C Sensitive EM EA. Frame Leakage DMTLOIC a BF fC and EF ‘Translay DMTL OC & EF Ofc & EL owas SvermaProrzo Ccuneran 16-14This is a simple and economical form of busbar protection which is ideal for the protection of phase ted indoor metalclad switchgear where earth felt rotection is required. 1s more commonly wsed in conjunction with olter protection ‘Bee sain basi requirements thatthe rams ofthe switchgear st be isla fem ‘The principle of operation ofa lame leakage scheme is based on the fact that breakdown ofthe switchgear insulation will aie the potential ofthe frame to earth ang cause a creat oo i te connection between the ame bonding bar an cart 4 caren wansomer const between the bonding ar and earth wil theee measure the earth fault current. * nt es untaneous current relay such as type CAG pica ital a ong asthe desired fut sting canbe cbiained insulted asa whole, usually by standing on concrete and No oter earth onnestion of any type shouldbe present eg incidental connection t> Stelworktrutural metal conaions to coal eles powe! css This is to ensure that - eve should be greater han 10 ohms to ease sbiliy under fault conditions. ® sabliy uni mally less than 1 ohm, the current seem by the oral fault current. Caner 16-16 a ‘This scheme of protection is particularly suited to resistance earthed systems where the cart falt current is zelatvely conssnt, ‘Common earthing shouldbe used for both the power source neutral andthe switchgear fame. Separate earthing will create a series conection earth fr internal fait. (On solidly earthed high voltage systems where there may be current then high insulation resistance has to be used bet sass of earth All able glands must be insulated to prevent circulation of spurious current produced ‘voltages induced inthe cable sheaths under through fault conditions. This can ‘case flashover between gland and switchgear frame (Other types of frame leakage schemes can employ insulation barriers for zoning and discrimination can be achieved. Two examples are shown in Figs 16 & 17. Another independently operated relay which is non discriminatory (Le, both external land internal faults are detected) is sed to detect earth faults ‘Both the check relay and the discriminating relay must operate before tripping can “Two methods of obtaining the check feature are: sed from single CT. in the system a) Neutral check provided by a rl neat. [Residual check provide by a relay energised from residually connected C.T.s isto the busbars Fig. 18) A wpedance differential bus protection scheme is protection which compares the magnitude and phase of cures the zone. Th ing curent summation is supplied to a high impedance rela iy an instantaneous overcortent relay witha varisble Pow SysreuPaotecrion‘The advantags high impedance scheme i that can be st fr hi le under through Soc te ave stunted ad ving no out pa ef ih ope low impedance scheme the relay impedance is comparable with the low he saturated C.T. one C.T. saturates under through fault conditions the unbalance curent can flow through the relay impedance is ads and st by means of = rough fault conditions the major unbalance curtis shunted by the low impedance saturated C.T. and not the high impedence be a detailed treatment of breaker fail protction heme, and from organisation to organisation and local substations. To provide ‘Sa disadvantage, into two forms, relays and CBs, the former ion of other components sich at de tip supplies, tip col tripping relays is an advantage. " P spl Pils It is reasonable witha system, such as this, to assume that at will funtion corecly to clear the fault. tone of the systems wing in the vein of duplication, itis not economically feasible to provide i ie sin 9 iy feasible to pr (Even with the most carefully maintained equipment), Power SysTeu PROTECTION Cuarren 16-18 protection(s) are arranged to initiate a timing relay such that if the main protection(s) have not reset affer the preset time delay then the adjacent ‘power source CBs ae tripped. The time delay is made up of “The timer setting can be reduced by using 2 CB auxiliary contact to open the timer ‘would normally occur prior to telays being es!) fanits berween CT, $ and CB will be seem by busbar protection but not Cleared All busbar falls of this nature wall ntertsip all remote CBs, 6) erroneous initiation during testing/commissioning would cause all CBs to be incorrecy tripped. I is adjudged to be insecure. It should be noted thatthe protection cannot be applied toa ring bs. ‘Most modern schemes use a separate breaker fail rele to initiate the timing relay. In this scheme both the breaker failure relay and ether rst operate to start the timer. futher breaker failure re ‘withthe timer contac in the trip cireit, an since the br qo have a fast reset ime the overshoot ofthe timer can be ignored sy must be above fill load and sensitivity willbe “The setting of the breaker failure ‘than the maximum load [ogi the minimum ful level “Two typical arrangements of incorporating CB breaker failure relays are shown (Fig. 20), Itcanbe seen thatthe breaker failure relay cannot operate until the de auxiliary supply is eneegood via the main wip relay contacts, Power SvsrenPRot cuurrn 16-19tripping due to switching surges, the tripping is initste via a time lag rey. Excessive phase currents caused by short circuits or harmonics can also produce overvolage (Overcurrent protection can be installed oa. swo pas chosen so that the rated value of primary curren ‘ated current ofthe bank. (Fig 21) Jn considering protection relay or current detector reset ime it should be noted thatthe (CT. secondary current may not drop to zero when the primary current i nterupeed The time taken for the current to fall below the relay setting depends wpon the size of the C-T. the magnitude and asymmetry of the primary fault curent and degree of CT, saturation With symmetrical fats the secondary current ceases almost at primary current interuption © tendency for a DC component to continve afer primary circuit inerraption, The relays on the seoondary’ side of th ccurent has decaved to below the drop af will remain picked up until the DC ly set well below the rated current of long rest times may be the realt, 3 comrection can be directly connected to is for power factor correction of an HV protection protected the cepacitor/m Considering the capacitor bank at the power system level it would need to be Aisconnected for various reasons, @ Prevention of overstressing healthy capacitors 2s a result of fuse Interruptions inthe ciruis of others. High voliage banks are commonly somnected in a pair of insulated siar connected groups, A CT. iS connected between the neutral points of the groups to supply the unbalance protection. The tripping level of the unbalance current fo" ‘banks with builtin fuses is often very low (<10A) To prevent nuisance Pons SverauProracron curr 16-20 ous SsTau Promscrion canon 16-21‘Cwarren 16-25 Powsn Sven Proracron Ccworen 16-24 Ponen SvsraxProwseninowen SveraaPRomEcTiONPROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS _ __ PE. Ta CT amen proeon tep ts owen SremsPaorecnos (Cumoran 16-28CHAPTER 17 PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS, INTRODUCTION en protected by longitu evelopment long transmis sch schemes is) ‘Owing 10 the mew protected by differential schemes although ‘By Zar the most common protection of trans protection. Distance schemes for trans ‘elesommunication link to : ferential and distance types of protection are also used, in Powe Sveveu PROTECTION coueren 17-1UNIT PROTECTION PILOT WIRE AND CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL SCHEMES ‘in many dificult to protect transmission line configurations the curres fault cours om the line, “The integrity of the pilot ch ‘equipment sich raises alarm in ‘Proprietary pilot protection schemes using fibre optic communication links are also Frepuble acw and in the future the metalic pair will be superseded by optical Sbre Tinks on the grounds of cost and performance In this scheme the combination of the phase currents obtained from the summation spmvsned to proportional volage, The voltages applied to the pos at fo each other ifthe currents leaving the line at hold must not be too Tow. Bven in absence of a fault the ods differ by the line charging current. There are also ‘Mscuracy of the cursent transformers and the pilots av some charging curent duo to their own capecitance. There is, Here hall imbalance current flowing through the coils under normal operating In addition to the curent differential relay the typical Pilot W ng wansformer, curtent interlock ms of balanced voltage scheme use tuning react fof capacitance of the pilots and these schemes ‘be induced in the pilot ‘and 5 KV for underground cables. Twisting the plots reduces ndction (cua 17-2 owes SvsTEM PROTECTION‘operation of the relays due to imbalance currents during external faults the relays are ‘Sted with restraining coils that provide a bis (marked ‘Rn the diagram). "may aoe not that ia hrc he tear dew damage tote Supervisory cable he protection wil operate on Wad cents sone ules mate cy neni or simlock by aional overeat y= ferential branches of the scheme sharactens ‘the current in each phase ere measured at each end by sampling it 12 mes per ycle ‘The resultant digital value of every measurement is sent in a coded form to the other ad of the line via a digital communication link The microprocessor at cach end sakes the differential comparison ofthe current value received via link withthe local {measurement related to the sme istant and detects any fat in the protected zone “Two methods are typical for ensuring thatthe compared quantities relate to the same {asant, simultaneous sampling and non- synchronous sampling followed by aligning the waveforms resonsircted from the measurements. Both methods require do not req detected due to constant exchange of information between the Sending and receiving signals allow to calculate the propagation time and the non Slignment of the sampling, Refer to the section on Bibliography for a simple ‘xplatation ofthe operation of automatic simultaneous sampling in greater etal ‘The digital communication channel may operate over 8 metalic wie (shor distance), microwave link. A fibre-optic communication network is being ‘ystems based on the new principle have been ing popul“This typeof protetion of EHY. transmission lies isthe most popular in Australia if a dlferential unit protection scheme cannot be used ed instantaneously only at tha (close) end because the distance the fault in its Zone 1. The other (Femote) end would be tipped with a Zone 2 joe end ofthe fine and may trip quick criminative disconnection of the line during extemal sleation of distance schemes are predominant Trip called often PIT ‘Simplified logic diagrams of these schemes are shown in Figs 1 is used in underseach and over-each variations. The most popular in yeunder-reach scheme but the over- reach PIT is also used on some shorter they ovcur in the unfaulty system. The detector = fon bath sides of bus B but it mus not operate on load impedance alo Zon is are usually direct ‘oth functions initiation of signalling and, as fault detectors, for local tripping on reception ofthe remote trip signal of their respective I a any extemal sending al erseceens fault one > ocaliy snd aie oe ‘pp. For oem t ‘and both relays cesar in this schemas faults. A Fast Zone 2 Timer provides _bvery FHV, line bas duplicate protection, A eambination of one PIT and one Mocking Ehheme as X and ¥ protections respectively offen occurs Protection signaling channels for PIT and Blocking schemes usally ulse Neh arerlie Carriers (PLC) coupled to phase conductors of the p PLC equipment is co Capacitor Sebemes has been, bowever, vt flso use for protection signalling Following are some simplified rules of sting distance relays with accleration iMlstrate the operating principles Settings 1 Relay Characteristic Angle (RCA) [RCA should be approximately equal tothe line impedance angle, a lower rather than [higher value being recommended x RCA = tal RL where Ry HL = ZL primary impedance ofthe protected line 2 Residual Current Compensation Ky related tothe pase conductor positive sents the earth-retumn path impedane Jy represents th a oe reach ofthe relay for phase-to-ground clcnce impedance, Setting of Ky affects fs: Power Svereu PRoTscrioN cuore 17-6 ‘owen SveToUPROTECTION crarran 173 Measuring Element Reach Reaches of Zone 1 and Zone 2 elements ae expressed in secondary ohms a equal 0 RCA ° aon 3d Impedance Ratio Primary and secondary impedances in ohms are related as follows topeat instantaneously for a fault on the bs of he react ed of ZA < 08 x INe where factor 08 represents 20% suabiity margin 33 Zone 2 (delayed) The telay has to operate with Zone 2 time for any fut on or closet the remote end m2 > 18 x ayNe here factor 1.5 represents a 5 ity margin 4 Blocking Detector A blocking detector at end A of Line AB has to operate for any frult outside the line bot ‘within the reach of Zone 2 of the end B relay. Otherwise such a through fault could ‘cause a fast Zone 2 tip at B. The blocking signal from A must prevent soch 2 indiscriminative operation. The backward reach AH of the blocking detector from A ‘must be, therefore, at last by 40% longer than the verreach AM of Zone 2 of relay B beyond the end A. To inctease the speed of operation of the blocking detector it ‘common practice to ensure that this margin is about 100% Reverse pg > 2x@2pp-ZyIN2) Where Zpq = locking detector reach at the reverse of line angle Zp seachofzone2atB ing 100% margin over Zap overteach ‘The seach of the detector in the line direction is of no importance 2s operate on load. Some blocking schemes have backward Too have a minimal forward reach 1 dette forward each in PT scheme hast longer than th ine length Tis camaen' ra longer than the zone 2 reach at the same end. mm > “The backward reach of the detector is not important except that itis limited by the requirement of non-operation on load, On-Load Stability 1c of protection elements, zones 1 oF 2, fal Ine Blocking scheme ae to operie on Mu une area Tae iad tamed sen by the impedance Telys 28 & ment and ofa fait detector ata Toad angle mast be shorter impedance at this angle. Pracdealy, this means that at detector where Za). Zpat Zhe Ate defined in the diagram and 1.3 represents 8 30% stability margin sme, where the Zone 2 clement forward reach is ie backward looking blocking detetar of the Iargin with respect to de maximum forward transmission load also to the zone? reach. crarnen 17-8Fora MHO zone ? characteristic: MMOdeR Zo > 1S XD cascRCA 30-6) 7 Permissible Safe) Load ‘When the seting ofthe ful or blocking detector is determined as feasible using the available taps of dials ofthe relay, the safe Toad is caleulated from the setting of the detector ZqxNex ‘where Zqy is the reach ofthe detector in the load direction ater setting Settings of a two zone MBO distance relay ina PIT scheme with an offset MHO fault etector on a 220 kV line of 24 ohm, 78 deg, primary impedance Other data CT ratio 1200 A/S A VP ratio 220 kV0.11 kV “Maximum forward transmission: Sj = 390 MW + j 225 MVAR = 450 MVA at 30 deg ‘The Relay Characteristic Angle’ RCA = 78 deg, Backward rea its forward reach (78 de). ‘The reach at "A= 78 dep. Catculations: Impedance ratioNz = Zone 21-08 248.33 =2:3 ohm Zone 2 22=15x24853=432 ohm Fault Detector: pgm 115 84.32 = 4.97 ohm, assume Zjgg™ 0.15 = 0.5 ohm Zpqy= 0.74 X= 3.7 ohm nsmission (minimum oad impedance) “The impedance seen during maximon ta r ped tq = 3 Thm < ‘in fac, the maximum permissible forward load at 30 deg, as far as preston setting is concerned, is = v anny? 1570 VA ZegxNe 37x85 which is probably far above the thermal limit of curent transformers of the ratio ‘concerned heme is caused by the channel transmission tim nel auiary relays and coding of the signal. ee, the protection operating time fr remote end fas oo tn 2 blocking er done 2 meaning ment, fst Zone 2 inet and opt ly, The fas "2 time delay must be sufficient to allow for possible generation ca hs fa Ze 2 i ogg te Fo ee ful one he pote line cunoran 17-11owen SvenaPxorzcron owen Svermu ProrecronZONE EAWLT coset EH ug Ei mei tetrp (PIT) 0 of zoe (through) fat Fig.4 (crea 17-15 m Powes SverexProrzcToN Powan Seermu PRoTEcron ‘cnaren17-¥BLOCKING SCHEME Pa own Svereu PRorseniot cuore 17-16 BLOCKING SCHEME ‘OUTOF-Z0NE CHAOUGED FAULT Fig 6. Blocking seheme-out of Pouan SysraaProwEcnos one (though) fault iE cusoran 17-17TY ON LOAD. PIT: FAULT DETECTOR, CHAPTER 18 SUBTRANSMISSION LINES AND ZONE SUBSTATION PROTECTION SYSTEMS Fig7. Stability onload Powan System Paorscrion (Cuareen17-18CHAPTER 18 SUB-TRANSMISSION LINES AND ZONE SUBSTATION PROTECTION SYSTEMS: PART 1 - SUB-TRANSMISSION LINE’ INTRODUCTION Sobtransmission lines usually operate in the nominal voltage range of 132KV t0 33kV substations, sometimes referred to as terminal Salions 0 zone substations which in tum feed the distribution network although tower cls @ subiransmission load carrying capacity can rural areas 10 200MVA for a overcurrent and earth fultprotetion pilot wire protection distance protection (with and without associated communication channels)‘components, such as inmush or transformer switching transicnls, hirmonics or de offset transients. ‘They may be controlled or interlocked with directional, undervoliage or impedance relays to enhance overcurrent protecuon scheme performance, controls are commonly implemented in subtransmission networks. Probably the most commonly used form of overcurrent relay is the inverse time type using either normal, very or extremely inverse time characterstios. These relays are ccasionally sed for primary protection in subtransmission networks butt more commonly they are used as backup protection relays to the high speed primary protection schemes such as pilot wire, distance, transformer and busbar protections For sublransmission line applications, where non-radial applications are involved, its ‘common practice to interlock overcurrent protections with a directional relay. Tie design of some overcurrent relays has been optimised to ensure fast operation, fast reset and low transient ove nrush currents. Such relays are generally used for current check functions in circuit breaker failure schemes, and for interlock functions in plot wire schemes, Definite time overcurrent relays are widely usod as earth fault protection relays for listibution feeders and PILOT WIRE PROTECTION The pilot wire protection scheme, which isa unit rype and principle, when applied as a line protection utilises two geographically. To enable the ‘or catenary type supervisory cable pairs. Supervisory communication cables are constructed for either underground or overhead installation. They generally consist of twrsted pairs using 0.6 to LOmm diamet=t conductors. Their de resistance is usually im the zange of 35. to 140. chia. owas SvermuPromscrion cuapr 18-2 Overhead cables typically contain 11 pairs (22 conductors) and underground 50 or 100, pairs, Proprstary pilot protection schemes usin fibre optic communications links are now avaiable and in the fatre the metallic pair will be superseded by optical fibre cable links on the grounds of cast and performance, However the traditional pilot wire systems wil ill be in service for some years yet. ‘The diagrams of Figure 1 show the basics of two pilot wite schemes in common use ‘These give the same general performance but use different operating techniques and ‘behave differently under abnormal situations Because of the high cost of supervisory , Its usual practice to not compare line ‘done with other Unit type protections such as sre Promeenion cuore 18-3rely, ‘The second scheme type is known asthe circulating current type and is shown in Fig, 1b, As can be seen from the diagram, Cirouits are the reverse ofthe balanced voltage se i series withthe cable wire pair and the operating circuits across it. Under heavy load ‘or through fault conditions, current circulates in the eable pair negligible operating current. During a fault condition on the iat each end will ince ypen-ircuiting the cable pair or through fault, whereas short circuiting the cable pair operation fr in-zone fal ‘The supervisory cable puir resistance and capacitanc performance of pilot wire protestion schemes. For FFrom the comments made above it will be appreciated that fault because of fal Secondly, curent interlock relays (sometimes called cu connected into the phase current inputs end. These interiock relays ae high speed instantaneous eure Powsn SvsrencPRoTEcrion circuited cable pair, depending om where inthe sire it occurs, Short circling the ‘hie pair wl ease operon i the ine creat above the base seus the coueren 18-4 set toa level above maximum load current and below ‘They are connected to allow pilot wite Telay tripping only ‘heir minimum operating value, ie a genuine power system | DISTANCE PROTECTION ‘Switched type distance relays are mostly used in the subtransmission network as they ‘2 lower i cost than ‘unswitched or full schemes and provide adequate operating Speed to Teck sublransmission network clearing time requirements, The use of Recommonicaton link assisted distance protection schemes are rare. at subtransmission voltage levels, Four zone distance relays are mainly used, ie three measuring zones and the fourth Eonsicting of the falc detectors and a varity of polar characteristics are availabe. Fg. Shows some of the more comtmon characteristics. Zone 1 is the high speed tripping zone, st to 80 percent ofthe line impedance and Auth operating times of 25 milliseconds for a modem electronic relay 10 50 nilliscoonds for an older syle electromechanical scheme. on fault dotctors, sometimes referred to as starting ‘ass iavolved and switch the flied mpuls. Those fale detectors aze also to provide time-distance settings for a distance relay SUMMARY ‘The table given in Fig + the protection schemes commonly applied to ‘various types of subtransmission lines. owen SvemmuPRorEcTiON cnr 18-5PART2- ZONE SUBSTATIONS INTRODUCTION ‘These zone substations are then in tum used to supply the distibuti ‘The zone substations contain a numberof plant items, these may in 4 i All of the above items of plant, will be protected by specific and co-ordinated protection schemes which atthe zone substation namely: subtransmission lines (overhead ot Underground) protections. ee, Fig. 5 shows examples ofthe single line diagrams for typical zone substations results fom incomes operation. Most busbar protection schemes are tas on the Giterentalpreecion principle wih the exsxpion of ype known a frac of Stace lekage protedion which commonly applied to abulon vag fev soa clad swtehgear Differential Bushar Protection this type of busbar protection scheme can give quite satisfactory perfor fault level distribution voliage busbar, igher fault loves, it becomes uneconomic if not impractical toage caleulated as indicated above. Therefore with a through fault, busbar ton will not occur fora fly saturated current transfor ‘High impedance busbar protetion schemes bascally require all curent transformers to be of the same tums ratio, ofthe low reactance type and dedicat tothe application, ie ‘ot shared with other protection schemes, pedance sh their use is limited to situations where the cost of replacing current transformers is more expensive than the cost of a medium impedance type scheme. framework and the station earth grid of use of frame leakage protection and care ent flows through the busbar protction current transformer. Frame leakage protection is most Switchgear and buses where all faults will be phase to earth protection against interphase faults not involving earth. tection consists of an inverse time overcurrent relay supplied by incoming feeds, ie sources to a busbar en a per phase ‘TRANSFORMER PROTECTION © To correct for the phase shift vrough the transformer so that the secondary ‘currents are in pase‘Transformers without conservators use a gas impulse (or pressure impulse) type device Which uses a diaphragm operated set of relay contacts which respond to the sodden pressure rise in the transformer tank apable of detecting faults which may not be seen by external electrical such a differential and overcurrent. Iner-urn faults, core bolt short circuited laminations and faulty connections etc will liberate ‘228 which can operate a gas telay before a severe fault develops Gas protection shouldbe fitted tall transformers of SMVA rating and above, ‘Restricted Earth Fault Protection Restricted earth fault protection is a high impedance type differential scheme specifically configured to protect transformer earthed star connected windings, ‘especially when these windings are earthed through a neutral resistance or reactance 13 limit the magnitude of earth fault currents as is sometimes done in distribution systems. When a transformer star connected winding or equivalent is earthed through an impedance of sufficient chmic value to signficanly limit earth felt currents, the operating current avail and in these circumstances it is usual to supplement the transformer differential protection with resiricted earth faut protection to rein andthe second level isto trp the capa In addition protection equipment is required circuit breaker and the capacitor banc’ For provide overcurrent relays with two phase fault and one earth fault elements, wogetber ‘with high st instantaneous overcurrent elements. ‘When setting capacitor bank protections ing factors also need to be taken ‘© significant transient inrush currents that can occur on switch on. the presence f harmonics in the supa voltage. Shunt Reactor Protection Impedance protections (ot common), [Negative sequence protections (not common). Gas protections (for ail immersed uit) vuuy ou ions need 10 AAs was the case for transformers, the seting and stability of the protect {ake into account inrush and transient currents during energisation, the effect of short term overvltages if these are applicable ‘The 66RV protections, comprises two independer seing inverse overcurrent. For the pup the overcurrent zane substation Pours SveraaPaoracrion Powe Seti PROTECTION Conrren 18-1‘The Zone Substation Protection Systems and their Propated Settings ‘The protection schemes and their proposed settings are as Item Protection 182 66KV Orc GDM) NORMAL INVERSE (RXIDF) Ml 20kV CB FAILURE 3 22kVNO 1 BUSOIC BUS TIE 2 ‘VERY INVERSE QMCTI39 &@ MVTT 14) (McGGs2) Instantancous = 6,0 KA (Primary) 12 66/22kV TRANSF, 4 BRVCENTRAL BUS CT=15005,Tap=80% | NO 1 DIFF. Y INVERSE @touce 5 2kVNO2BUSOIC VERY INVERSE (uicece2) (BCE 6a 2kV OUTGOING FDRS \VERY INVERSE (MIDOS MFACH) (SEPAMIS) zi 22kV CENTRAL BUS — CT=1300/5, ‘Time Setting = 0.10 seconds HIGH IMPED, Instastaneous = 3.0 KA Primary) (MIDOS MFAC34) & 7a TRANSFORMERNO 1 BACKUP EARTH FAULT STANDARD INVERSE yum and minimum fault levels that are various operating conditions that the 7 COMMON SACRUP EARTH FAULT Time Sting *0.10 seconds c y Currents 22kV Currents STANDARD INVERSE Je TRANSFORMER NO2 9508 BACKUP EARTH FAULT 7635 ‘STANDARD INVERSE 8 22kV CB FAILURE BOK TRANSF.NO1 (MCTI39&@MVIT 14) Timer 10.234 Powe Svsten PROTECTIN quorm 18-12 Powae SremayPRoTEcTiON (crarren 18-1322kV Bus ‘System Abnormal 22kV Bus System Abnormal (One transformer + LTTASSSAS85A 45998, and Two 66k lines iin service) oe 1060A, 1060 55054, 66kV Bus 36 159204, System Normal ‘Maximum Fault +o 137908 Levels be 119508 (66kV Bus Fault 36 906A, 2718, ‘with failure of ro 7858 2718A,13594, imination between Tem 3 and em 6a, previously reduce the setting of tem 5 kV Bus Overcurrent Schemes (Items 3, 4,5) and Outgoing 22kV Feeders a and 6), For details of co-ordination chan fer to Figures 12a and 12b, 2 PL1OO ROS CT'Pesformance OK Feeder T Performance OK us Protection CT's Ratio 15¢ Protection CT's Ratio 400/1 24 Mem 4 22kV Ce I! Low Impedance Differemial Scheme) ‘This protection is a low impedance zone protection therefore grading. with other protections not required Relay could be set to maximum sensitivity of VIPM 20% TM 0.1. There is no reason why a PM of $0% and TM of 02 have been 4341 58 2.0K 750 ly 0.6 seconds, whereas with PM at teen 0.1 seconds 3 & 5) and Outgoing 22kV Power Steven Paorzcrion Cuueren 18-14 |In the case of the No 2 Bus (tem 5) the margin with the SEPAM setting is (038 seconds ~ this is OK. ‘Also in the case of the SEPAM, the instantaneous setting may not be ‘sufficiently low to cove for minimum fault conditions with only one 66/22kV ‘transformers in service. It will be necessary to lower this sting to SKA. In the case of earth faults the earth fault protection of the SEPAM may clash ‘with fuse characteristic for high resistive faults However ths is generally an igh level fanlts and discrimination t an instantaneous setting on items 3. & 5 is not ee achieved with the SEPAMCS, therefore ‘Backup Earth Fault Protections (tems 7a, To and 70) CT's 3005 0.25 PL S0RO.15 For details of co-ordination charts refer wo Figs. 108 and 106, ‘There is lack of discrimination between the Backup Earth Fault Protections and the Bus overcurrent protections and marginal discrimination with the SEPAM's ‘The proposed ack cath alpen stings would be more apron ifa heme had been in place. In this situation define time evel faults might be an acceptable solution. 11 should also be noted that there is some degree of CT saturation under worst ‘fault conditions ( approximately 2 cycles), however this should not significantly effet the operation ofthe protection, 2K Circuit Breaker Fail (tems 8 to 11), ‘ems 1 and 2. Because the circuit breaker faire primary protections, the minimum operating value needs 10 be set above load - safety factor 1.2 appropriate, ‘Transformer Biased Differential Protection (tems 12 and 13) Transformer Differential MIDOS MBCHI2 ¢ ‘Transformer Rating 25233 MVA. = 2898 @ 6exv = 8668 @ 22kV = TapRange —56.1kV 15% 66. 0kV 0% 3 +5% Tap steps 1.25% 4 Selection of Auxiliary CT Ratio ‘Set foe mid range ie. -5% Tap 62.7KV + Primary Currents For33MVA_—69.3KV 62.7KV S6.1kV Toad @ 65KV 274,94 503.94 33964, load @22KV 86608 608 366.0 ~ Secondary Currents 60K Side CT 40015 Y 3.4364 3.7994, 42458 20kV Side CT 120015 A62508 6.2504, 6.250 Required ratio of auxiliary CT = 625 = 1685 3.799 Based on SA rated current of Primary CT ‘Required ratio of auxiliary CT - xn 16s 5 x = 825 Select x - 82 Avsiliary CT Rati should be 5°82 (Turns Ratio 41/25 Terminals 4 to 9/S1 10 $2) (Cheek Errors using this Auailiny CT ratio: Power Syemm4Protacrion Ccusoren 18-16 coer 18-171 5635-625 x 100% = -100% 3.635 2 623-625 x 100% = 03% 623 3 6962-625 x 100% = +11.4% 623 Proposed Aux CT 516,68 Emors 1 4536-625 x 100% = 378% 3.536 2 5015-625 x 100% = -24.6% 3 3603-625 x 100% = 3.603 Conclusion: © Current Transformer Performance (@) HV CT Performance Ratio 400/5 (700/600/2 (.2PL 100 R015 2400/5, cof the diflerentil rela to reduce the burden of ‘The selection of a 600¥5 CT ratio would have been preferable. However with ‘atio there would not be suficient range on the Auwaliary CT ~. Retin © LV CT Performance Ratio 1200/5 021.100 ROS No saturation for maximum ful of 10,000 A, OK 6, 22kV Bosbar Ditierentil's (1 Relay MIDOS MV AC 34 (i I's 1500/5 02 PLIOO ROS Vin op = 1.1 RCT + Reads to summation) * 1Faul/(CT RATIO) = 11% + Rieads max) * 11,000 * 5 1,500 voltage of CT) Leads maximum lo = soto = os ue 7 1.111000 Based on the SOValt set including CT resistance , the maximum loop impedance from summation point ‘need to be a). focesr ||! \ & Hoe i 1 eg) 3 foxmper) |. 1 | Foveveine || 1 1 : (fE] Lp CDP sme 1 g fesse nis ! Note 7 Var i 1. Pot supply required if OC iso be g 4 meat UW t directional. ' perce \ 2, circuit breakers marked * may el have an at ecls faci ised z STATE ELECTRICITY COMMISION OF VICTORIA e|é SCV se subton g| eal a| 3 7 Sie esse a) E HOD} aa paso a| z eae pony al we = | [Generator oni] Ota) |peara S| [nstecion Lo a 3 5 5 ©tt— a Boe , g ‘Generator unit i 7 [essa : 8g eou—_ y 'SECV zone substation (B) 2 [Generator unit 1 a [wire & || oecton oh sey e 1 a : t = Oooo} ate an any) i g ‘Over frequency, Customer | SECV| ; “Under feng goats, s at Note: Reverse power protection, OV & UV prot: 8 ton net Gigacement protesion alsa tle steustomer zone sub. 66 EV bus = refer Fig. 3CHAPTER 20 TESTING AND MAINTENANCECHAPTER 20 ‘TESTING AND MAINTENANCE PART1- TESTING ft ensures the correct control and protection ofthe primary equip liability of the system. Therefore fds the opportuni andlor scheme will: ‘fault and, operate ' utside its specified zone, Pownn SYsTEMPROTECTION “The testing of secondary equipment (which isto be covered in this pa Sea to bring to the Design Engineers attention any shortcomings that may be detected. “Therefore tests axe usually conducted to demonstrate that the protection equipment esting may be divided into four stages. Periodic Maitenance Tests (Tobe covered in Part 2 ofthis pape). ‘comer 20-1‘The first sage isto verify atthe performance ofthe protective equipment daring its Gzrelopment ead monuficture wil mest al the Specie roqurements por 1 is ‘ne sesond tage i 0 lek tat the equipments ipmenuschemes supplied are caret, the insallion en fonconaiy scored sad hatte equpmetsschemes entity of ‘the specified secondary injection tests. sau abet “The third stage isto encrise the primary gem stem to cary load and to prove thatthe Secondary equpmentscoectd Gorey. These tess general flere 038 Oo oad tests and they are the last texts tobe cared ot before the primary ad secondary ‘systems are cleared for normal operational service. - ‘The last stage, which is carried out periodically afte are dispatched then they would If tesngisbsing cried out on potion shes cold sera 2 J wiring would normally be Checked and proven tobe conece Tess on schemes would normaly be cared OM 3 Wy the purchaser. Results ofall tests would be supplied to the purchaser to ‘Hove that they were completed satisfactorily. (in some cases the purchaser oF his Fepresentalive may witness the et). PRE-COMMISSIONING ON-SITE TESTS “These tests are carried out to prove the secondary equipmentschemes prior © the ‘Tounmissioning tests being out, some ofthese tests could inchde the following: ‘Once the earth grid has been extblished it should be tested to check {ts overall resistance to earth. This figure must be as low as possible ‘letrodes can be feed if necessary. This testis done with fe DC Systems [All wiring tobe "buzzed" to prove contimity and that it goes to he ‘Correct destination and is wired as designed and to the required Sanda ce at $00 volts, supp les. ‘arth alarm to be checked for correct and minimum Batteries ‘Battery connections fo be ehecked for soundness. ‘Number of cals to be checked for nominal rating. Dinatery discharge test toe performed as per Australian Standard spor caps of te ats ied "This can be a3 oF or test Battery Chargers owen Swern Paorzerion Gomi Ponsa SvermuPRoTacrioN (Cuarren20-3‘Bach transducer to be tested for accuracy af minimum and maximus values and at 3 other points. TFanE indicator to be tested for accuracy at minimum and maximum, ‘values and at 3 other points. Pa ecording meter to be tested for accuracy at minimum and AC Systems ‘maximum values and at 3 other posts. Ed energy (Wvattshour) meter to be tested against standard instruments A veg te poe co 43 ie te po conn, etn, den sl - Auto changeover systems checked for operation. —— si caageres pees tally of spins ted ning ofan cate bzw prove ti const an at ‘Current Transformers designed. | BBL sept rns be kd for option at 80% DC rit Eo ely ee aR efor onl scene be poved and ny “us rove Ratio check 10 prove type and wiring. 2 ‘Synchronising circuits checked for using test ‘voltages to prove meee ze ‘Spark gap setting correct. . ‘Any discrete control circuits to be checked for TB tig and ose cols checked fs ‘Voltage Transformers - tip = ae ca Mae sor - ‘CB anti-pump and phase discrepancy circuits to be pro on > Saker anna Srila oped pease Hest Cmte gate niin arms = am gem neces or ost peraion Pression hens ‘to and Relags ‘Disturbance Recorder ‘Wiking of each protect eee fon panel tobe “buzzed” to prove it is corect tothe design schedule and he Wing diagram. mire tobe cartied out on all items t9 prove iznod Tt is essential that these checks be pied. The checks are done t0 Dove cate all ested from their source to prove Correctness, aie Game protection operation of plant occurs when a fault is simulated, Pons Sven ProrBerion = ccanrren20-4 Powrn SvevmePROTECTION ‘Cuarezn20-$all interlocks in circuits are proven indications tothe control panel are correct ‘When doing the above checks it should be proved that the correct contol repeat relays operate as well asthe correct indication repeat and alarm repeat relays. It is advisable to have as much plant as possible available when doing the final functional checks as ‘any unwanted interaction may be exposed, sential in proving th protection thatthe CB tripping is correct and that the auto ‘and. CB fail protections are initiated correctly, The auto reclose blocking should also be checked for correct operation. All alarms, disturbance recorder ‘monitoring points and indications shoald also be checked for correctness. ‘A test that can be very beneficial is to check the overall polarity ofthe CT circuits from the primary through fo the CT links on the protection pauel. Whi is carried out just ptior to energsation it will give extra confidence ia ensuring that the protection Gircuits wil be operating inthe correct diecion. The final check of course is an on surement which checks the magnitude and phase angle of the CT and thas polarity and ratio ofthe CT. Specific tests which should be carried out on-site on the Protection Relays Schemes ‘include the following Insulation resistance measurement of all panel wiring and relays to any damage that may have occurred during shipment tobe tested on desired settings Distance relays polar curve for each zon, detector. switch-insault close-in fait no infeed tipping ‘permissive inertrip transmission blocking transmission ‘Biased Differential relays High and Mediam Impedance relays rminimam operation. ‘minimum operation with CT circuits normal. measure of resistance of CT circuit. Overcurrent relays (Current Check relays sinimam operation Arop oat of relay > 90% pick up). window of operation to be demonstrated using separate variable ‘roquency supplies. Frequency relays operation on setting reset rato Gas relays ‘minimam operation of surge detector by injection of nitrogen gas Tow oil level tip be check starting of oil pumps does not cause gas surge detector to operate “Temperature indicators Indicators checked for operation and setting End to End Tests on Distance Schemes at cach end f the line by et its on the yet prove the Secondary lection to reps {SrSutodn signaling andthe sceme operation” The injeced fas Powse SvsrancPromicnoy| cuarne20-6 ‘Powrn SvereuProrscrion carrer 20-7should be switched to each relay simultaneously to represent a true fault condition and to allow the relays fo operate im the correct ming. ‘switching atthe remote end. Faults interal and external to the ine ‘being protected shoald be simulated. Records should be taken at both ends that will indicate that the correct operation ofthe scheme has occurred, Its recommended that, these quantities are recorded on a memory recording device. These ‘quanties should include: secondary fault current and voltage applied fault detector zone 2 detector send signal receive signal tp output commnss “The commissioning tests are to energise the primary 10 carry load and to Stages with the corresponding secondary ¢ ‘correct before proceeding. If an error is discovered then it should be correct rechecked before proceeding any further. Imay be necessary to tune the matching nit so After the station has been energised the voltage regulating relay forthe low tension bus vk iue should be checked to take inlo acount the voltage drop from the cvr sgulating relay. This volt drop i greatest, This is necessary to ensure the correct primary tained ecked for magnitude and phase angle. This is to prove the ration of the Other sours ay be fom energy ns nding thee Teas component as ‘the load source or from Capacitor or Reactor banks. mm Use of Test Benches Primary injoction Secondary injection benches es can range from: the simple test bench provided with calibrated current and volte supplies and accurate ming, devices to, ‘the very complex and sophisticated test bench such asthe Transient Network Analyser (ENA) Test facility that is capable of accurately presenting the Lansient, dynamic and steady state pexformance of the relevant supply system that the protection equipment/schemes 18 to be applied. hich has an impedance of at least 6 times that of the igedble matching transformers are used for different rat sed on the control creat fr all current ratings. contact onthe tating contactor. By ross the relay i released and the timer stars. ‘when the relay "The method adopted for load ‘hme forthe current to be accurately set without overicadi ‘Sendy ammeter reading immediately on transfer of the eur pointer doesnot have o rise from zero. Bri 2p testing “These tests involve current being circulated through the primary circuit, The tests are Tinted by the manner in which curreat can be passed through the primary winding of ‘Powe Svein ProrEcrion crarrsn.20-9instead of the primary winding The current required for priary rimary injctio freatly reduced, but these test windings are not always provided because limitations in the main CT housing ‘The following example demonstrates a primary inj for an overcurrent and cart fault relay (Similar method is also used for other ‘Overcurrent and cath fault relays applications ‘the earth Fault setting of residually connected relay, Secondary injection “The ype ofthe relay to be tested determines the ype af test equipment used to provide ihe stony intone and lags x the more compen Tl common 10 use sophisticated flly programmable and automated dg ‘equipments (DOBLE, FREJA, etc). eat ws ‘the following example demonstrates a simple secondary injection test for an overcurrent and earth fault lay Poller anda i0 second register, which enables modern overcurrent relays to be ‘checked accurately ‘When using the set, the test curent should firs be set approximately withthe rly coil Shorted out to prevent nesessary heating. The coil can then be unshorted for the final ‘xjustment of the test current, Overcurrent relays should be checked as follows: operation at exch current setting ting takes place. ge shon circuiting device ‘The unshorting sw the timing device and the operation ofthe relay contacts ‘Hops it leaving the relay operating time registered onthe timer dil Pons Sveten PaoTscrion ‘Gaarraa20-10 owas SveTEM PROTECTION ‘canrren 20-11GENERAL ‘The prime objective of maintenance isto ensure thatthe equipment ordet 9 that when the device is ealled pon to operat, ened, re maintenance tests are most important to ensure that maloperation of the ive equipments will not occur due tothe following reasons. Switching eno, tesing ero and operation of lays fom mechanical turbance NANCE PRINCIPLES ‘To undertake maintenance all supply authorities, would have some form of standing instructions or procedures to follow, the following example demonstrates some of the principles used! Basic To prov ton Scheme the tester should not physically disconnect any witing 1 such things as paper to block contacts making should be ehecked for correct operation. isu fonctional tes equipment to devise tere is tobe no cleaning of contacts unless it is evident that this is very necestary. Contacs should be sert If contact cleaning is considered neces using a burnishing tol, The contacts of styles of differential rel supervision of experienc 1d only be cleaned and adjusted by, or under the F Sal [No adjustment should be made to contacts after rt contact adjustment prove necessary, then tests on the cing work on any relay, the tester must ensure that contacts and coils of test ae correct isolated. ‘Before removing any protective device from service, the tester must be satisfied there is tot necessary plant. Where adequate temporary protection is installed, itis essential thatthe correct setting, as determined by Protection Design staff, is applied prior to carrying cot onload tests and simulated trip checks, Le. measure vollage across open trip link with the relay contats closed. Whore iawout rays sre in service and_ony oe tipi tence nb ried eth lowing a Arane © Tema sly, wihdrw te dawou secon the pare ya weed fe aued This waval sont Tel can then be mained ling de ase of bese rely ns, single CT pects more han on faction en some loop Sint 9 a common CT) ation of In Toop substations, where all protection (eg ‘common relay, itis esteaial to arrange an outage of the primary ‘maintain the trip relay. (craozen 20-13‘Visual Inspection ‘Where intemal or external resistors are fitted, a visual inspection should be made to determine that they are in good condition. Capacitors should be inspected to detect ‘weeping or other damage fo the insulating material. Scal-in target contactors, should be inspected and tested for and mechanical operation “with covers fied in the normal position if possible Meggering All secondary wiring, including CT circuits should be meggered at a voltage aot exceeding $00 V, unless a specific lay application calls fora diferent value. c.2 high impedance protection CT circuits are meggered at 2500V, ‘is important that solid-state equipment, including blocking diodes should not be ted to voltages in excess of 500 V. These components are Tated to stand this ‘but higher voltages could lead to component failure 1 fs not necessary to de-energise primary plant before meggering, Moggering CTs ‘with primary circuits alive does not create @ hazard to ei purchased for the eh. system (up to and including 500 kV) have a voltage tap Drought out for DLA measurement, which is earthed during service. This earthed screen, plus the normal insulation between primary and secondary allows safe ‘access for meggering of CT secondaries. The megger must always be comnected between the CT secondary and earth before the earth is moved from the secondary cr the CT. Pilot circuits, other than v.£, should be meggered to ground only at 500 V. Pilots ‘MUST be discharged prior fo circuit restoration. OnLoad Tests ‘On-ad tests must be carried out prior othe equipment being restated to service. Powsn Svsten PRoTECTiON covern20-14 3 that will not function correctly mith is accepted tolerance ‘Any A this category should be reported on "Defective Equipment Report” Cony inthe case of major defect shoul a relay be removed fom the panel Cael ‘Suldcaion mus be given fo he implicton thatthe lous of the device could ease sai (On oceasions wien shoald be proven upto the open ‘possible, the continuity of the tip cireut ‘A record of his should be kept ‘At some suitable fare time full trip checks will need to be arranged on the circuit breakers concemed. Auto reclose operations, including imerocks, should be proven during these tip checks, in service provided thet the number of rip txts can be done with the prim a ra by .g. about 4 trips and closes are not circuit breaker operations is not ‘excessive for most ypes of circuit ‘Value not less than 70% ofthe tp seting. is should be carried out at 200%, 500% and 1000% of tap seting and theJnstantneons cone’ or volage ely shoul min op. within leans of 0% w+ 2 to 2.5% of tap setting. = = ome Differential Relavs Minimum operation as per relay manufacturer specifications. Contacts should be {inspected for pitting or burning and repairs or replacement carried out as necessary ‘Upper and loner pivots shouldbe inspected fr wear or damage, Distance Relays Incorporated in distance protection schemes are backward reach detectors, single zone distance and directional comparison (Check minimum operation on seing for ll one measuring rays and detectors usin portable test box. Check timer settings and ausliary relay performance at 802% and ‘normal battery voltage for correct operation - Do NOT inter with contact, Contact cleaning or austen shuld oly be eaten ya oper tat, "Wire abl 1 of oral a a bu fr mm pean i of rane ach fo he ‘time of the timing relays. to check sca A stu shuld be eed ended if permissive itrtip or caer basking ployed Hand operat te fonsonal tt equpment tnd deve a malncion peraon to equpet sacha ors ras Same sance ray, wien employing soi . sate componenss, have thir ov ‘ula power spy. Tha chul ced fo vag evel chasing ‘general physical condition ie Tove, charging rate and ‘The acepble tolerance for dane ray i +/-5% for minimum operation and “H=5% for times. An encepion isthe TS distance relay which has a tolerance +10% for times. = ‘ay which as 2k “ Ensure correct CT polarity and phase angle are used for minimum operations Pilot Wire Relavs Carry ou minimum operation checks onthe relay with shorted or open circuited. pilots fovording tothe type oF relay installed. Carry outa back-to-back test from each end fang check against previous history “The allowable tolerance for pilot wire relays is +/-5% for minimum operating and 415% for times. ‘When CTs are reconnected to relay and before trip links are closed, carry out a oil of these relays when energised from the remote end Anailiary Relavs ‘A functional test at 80% and full volts should be initiated to check for correct relay gperation, Contacts shotld be inspected and cleaned or aligned as necessary, Alarm SEaye and ‘relays associated with onload tap changers should be included in this category D.C Bus Series Rel Check operation using test button provided and. confirm that dropout of the relay is satisfactory. Minimum operation and dropout tests should be caried out and results checked Against Kaown values. Measure normal load passing through relay when in Servise. Check operation of alarm device when the relay contacts ae closed ‘Tolerance {important to realise that diferent relays have diferent tlerances. When a outside its tolerance, you should carefully consider which remedial~ imum tolerance of 0% 10 to be adjusted, then you show (Gepending on time accuracy) peried of time, If the minimum oper The relay is within tolerance twill almost certainly be ou side to fhext maintenance, especially as itis cbvious that the relay minimum operating is decreasing with time. “The sim of relay maintenance isto ensure tht the relay operates at a value within the accepied tolerance. If the relay is within tolerance, then it should not be touched. Power SyermaPRoTEcTion ‘cxaezan20-17fature drift i its operating value, Endeavour not to se tolerance because, more than likely, it will quite adjustme General Observation of the general condition ofthe station should be carried out and, if these conditions could adversely affect the performance af the protection, then they should be recorded and reported for corrective action. eg sun shining directly on relays or aunliry boxes, very dusty, hot or damp conditions, etc [Relays and panel labels should be checked for clarity and accuracy and temporary labels recorded and reported for carecive act ‘ensure the satisfactory overall performance ofthe equip ‘At the conclusion of maintenance in a station, “Def ‘covering defects found should be recorded and reported. ‘TIMING OF MAINTENANCE ‘The basic maintenance philosophy and principles tht have been applied to secondary protectiomeontral equipments in most supply authorities have ‘ollowed traditional ines of "time since last maintenance” concept. ‘Specifically routine maintenance frequency rates had been identified forall secondary equipment namely: Protction, Energy Metering and Functional Contols = 1 establish the condition of the equipment unless it ie called to operate or it is regularly tested. of the equipment, importance ofthe supply andthe ste conditions at which is installed ‘The programming and recording of maintenance tests is of great importance and the ‘various tests should be so scheduled in order to fit the system needs, The test sheets employed should specify exactly every test and inspection required as indicated in the previous sections. “However, the scope and timing of maintenance needs to be continually reviewed, to censure that there is a balance between costs and the resulting performance of the owas Seeman Prorzcrcx ‘CuarTeR20- 18 protection, system, The Snel decisions on the approach adopted will depend on the performance criteria established by a particular managment Tuding processes or improved practices, techniques, et with the implementation of maintenance were identified 2s: the low priority given to routine maintenance work which resulted in sociated. with the scheduling of routine ciate with the management of information and, ‘the Variation of work methods and procedures ‘The proposed approach is seen to: provide a realistic and achievable maintenance target which would, provide an acceptable level of reliability and, allow for the collection of data so that a useful data base could be established so that a more accurate asesstnent ofthe performace of undertaking "sample diagnostic testing", Powe Sysreu Paorscrow Carers 20-19‘undertaking "concentrated diagnostic testing” on specific, fuipments which have teen identified to have Timited rebabiity ‘without regular maintenance enerating. and recording statistical data on the performance of equipments, with the view of producing whole of life statistical ‘models that Will enable a better assessment to be made of the ‘optimum timing for maintenance, Implementing feplacement programs where these can be jusiied by cost benefit analysis dels of secondary protection systems, need to used cost effective period when maintenance should be “The major factors that nee tobe taken into account in developing the models are: Geterioration of the equipment with age, sume Schemes on different parts of the system have different cost impacts (different weighting required). ‘with limited funds, priorities need to be established (related to cost limpact and safety) for maintenance, refurbishment and replacement ‘of equipment. In simple tems the considerations are as follows: > Probability of progressing ——> | STATE 2 stom STATE 1 to STATE 2 | ‘without Maintenance | Undesirea 1 Cost to improve reliability < i ie Maintenance 1 Replace Equipment | Cost impact i ‘Refurbish Equipment [DoNothing | Option” ‘The models of the protection schemes and associated probability trees for scheme failure cam then be utilised in conjunction with computer software to study the impact ‘of component fallures and sensitivities ofthe protection system operation. The models could also be helpful in determining any inadequacies with regards 10 maintenance philosophy and protection design. ‘This concept could then be extended to representa station as a whole, and possibly extending this model to caver complete supply areas Pons SvermuProrscnon Cunoren 20 -20 ded Intervals Between Maint ‘The following is a list of frequency rates for FHV Stations and Subtransmission ‘lations, for foutine maintenance, tha i a useful starting point when considering the ‘Srategy that shouldbe applied to a partcalar system PROTECTION. 220KV and ABOVE (including transformers) 66KV and BELOW ROTATING PLANT. VOICE FREQUENCY CHECKS (other than FSK) ‘THERMALS ON FANS and PUMPS DISTURBANCE RECORDER CALIBRATION CARRIER TESTS (valve type) (soli state) (auto tes) INITIAL INSTALLATION RE-TEST ENERGY METERING: STATISTICAL METERING (nel volt drop checks) (CHARGEABLE METERING (eg ALCOA) RIBBON CHANGES (demand recording equip) Pow Syst PRoTECHON 3 YEARS 6 YEARS 3 YEARS 6 MONTHLY 3 YEARS YEARLY WEEKLY 2. WEEKLY TWICE DAILY 1 YEAR 3 YEARS 1 YEAR 4 MONTHS Cuore 20-21FUNCTIONAL CONTROLS: SF6 AUTO DE-ENERGISATION NON SELF-CHECKING (eg ALFC, LOAD SHED) DIESEL GENERATOR (OTHER AUX. EQUIPMENT (eg ALARMS, OLTC) owas Sysra Protaras ASPER200KV and ABOVE 6 MONTHLY AS PER 200KV and ABOVE AS PER 66K ‘and BELOW cuneren 20-22 ig. 3. teat owen Sveren Prorscnow CCunrran 20-23Fig. 5. Single phase injection a Fig. 6, Secondary injection ows Syste PRorection Ccumeren 20-24 CHAPTER 21 BIBLIOGRAPHYCHAPTER 21 BIBLIOGRAPHY ‘protective Relays - Theis Theory and Practice, Volume 2" ; AR Van C Warrington, (Chapman and Hall, London, 1969, “Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book" - Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pitsburg, Penn, 1950, 1986, Power Capacitors Shunt-Rated Voltages above *Australian Standards: AS 3000, SAA Wiring Rules, AS 1023.1-3 Thermal Detectors" transformers for measurement and prowestion (Current Transformers - Measurement and Protection thing Electial Relays (Instantaneous and Timing Relays) tage Transformers for Measurement and Protection, ‘Measurement of Partial Discharges" owen Sera Prorecrion canoe 2-1Australian Standard AS 1034-1978, British Standard BS 2692 Part I, 1956 & 1975 Recommended Protection Terminology, ESAA Study 2,16/9-Standard Terminology {or Substations, ESAA D(b)13 - 1972” “ESAA D(b)-13-1972: Standard Terminology for Substations", “ESAA/SECWA: Supply to Central Business Districts; Committee 2.5; Study 2.5/2 1983", ESAA C(Q)S-1968: Code of Minimum Electrical Protection’, 1968 “Code of Practice forthe Protection of Personnel nd Equipment Against Earth Potential [Rises Caused by High Voliage Power System Fauls” - ESAA & ATC 1984 "Low Frequency Introduction Code" : ESA & ATC. "Application Guide for the Low Frequency Induction Codo" : ESAA & ATC 1981 "Farthing Considerations forthe Transition From 2 Wood Pole to Concrete Pole Based Distribution System" " R. Coulter and J. Gubbins, Annual Conference Proceedings, ‘The Electricity Supply Association of N.S W. “Power System Protection’: The Electricity Council, Vol. 1-3, Peter Peregrimus Ltd, 1981. Protection of Large Transformers ESAA Report D(b) 20-197, “Protection of Industial Power Systems" ; T: 1984, Cleveland, Pergamon Press, "Electric Switch and Controlling Gear" : Garrard CC, Londoa, Emest Bena, 1927, "Busbar protection”: Hadley GA, GEC Measurements "Breaker Fal Protection’ Ng 1! GEC Measurements "Supply to Central Business Districts" : SECWA ESAA Committee 2.5 Study 2.5/2 1985, “Advanced Numerical Protection System for Generators and Generator - Transformer Units, including Communication with Station Control": M. Tar, ABB Relays AG, ch- 540) Baden, *A New Numerical Busbar Protection System with Bay-Oriented Structure’ : D, M. DPSP-93, UK IEE London, 1993. Ponsa SvermuPrombenow (Curren -2 “Analysis and Protection of Power System Course" :G, A. Hadley; Course Notes; GEC ‘Measurements, Melbourne, 1988 fox Protecdve Relay Applications to Power laying Commitee of the IFEE Power Engineering "Application Guidelines for Industrial Protection, Section 2 Generator Protection” Series of lectures by GEC ALSTHOM, GEC Measurements, Stafford, UK, 1987. “Application Guidelines for Industrial Protection, Section 4 Transformer Protection" Senes of lectures by GEC ALSTHOM, GEC Measurements; Stafford, UK, 1987, ide on Protection of Complex Transmission Network Configurations” 1Gos, May 1991 “Application of Expert System to Power Transformer Protection": A. Kalam, A Klebanowsii, D.Polon: Int, Cont. - Advances in Power System Control, Operation & ‘Management APSCOM -91, Hong Keng, 1991 "Buyers Guide 1991-1992" : ABB Relays, Asca Brown Boveri, 1990. "Computer Relaying for Power Systems" : A. G. Phadke, JS. Thorp, RSP [sd & Wiley & Sons in. 1988, “Protection Module" Designs for Power Transformer Protection & J. M. Theunissea, Eskom, South Africa, Fifth International ign and Application Aspe fs, Filth international Ci “Differential Protection’ : T. T. Nguyen, W. D. Humpage; Short Course ESAA & ESC Univ. West Australia, 1992. “Digital Station Protection 7SS5, Equipment Manual” : Translation from German; Siemens. Powan SyeTmu PROTECTION cueren21 3“Elektrocnergetyeena Automatyka Zabezpieczeniowa (Power System Automatic Protection im Polish) vol 2": J Zydanowice, WNT, Warsaw, 1985, “Fuzzy Set Approach to Transformer Diferential Relay"; A_ Wismniewsti, B. Kasrzenny, The Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland; Fifth Intemational ference on Developments in Power System Protection DPSP-93, UK, IEE London, 1 "Generator Protection Application Guide" : M. tien, Publication AGO3-4005E, ABB Relays AB, Vasteras, 1986, “IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection” : Power Syst, Relaying Commitee of IEEE. Suga, ¥. Murakami, K. ‘on Developments in "MIDOS Transformer Protection; GEC Measurements" : Synopsis for lecture; GEC ALSTHOM, Stafford, UK, 1987, “Mitsubishi Multicap Multiple Control and Protection Digital Relays" : Catalogue; ‘Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Tok. "Modular Protective Relays” : GEC Measurements; Catalogue; GEC ALSTHOM Stafford, UK, 1991. "Numerical Protection Systems for Generators and Generator Transformer units" :M. Tar, G Stranne; ABB Relays; ABB Review 1/93 "Power System Protection” : A. Kalam, R. Coulter, J. Gubbins, A. Klcbanowski, B et, H, MeDonalé, Short Course Program, ESAA & Victoria Univ. of Technology, "Power Transformer Protection Application Guide" : R.Nylen, Publication AGO3~ SO0SE ABB Relays, Vasteras, Sweden; 1988. "Protection of Motors by Semiconductor Methods" :R. J. Showers, Siemens, "Protective Relaying, vol 1, Generating Station Protection’ : General Electric Company, Philadephia, 1982 ive Relaing Equipment, Relays and Relay Combinations" = Catalog R, fe Relaying, Planning Machine Protection Systems" : Supplement to R - 3c, Siemens, 1989, Pons Sveria PaorEcTION (crarnen 21-4 “Protective Relaying, Generator Protection TUMSI" : Pamphlet, Siemens; Erlangen, 1989. "pyramid Transmission and Generation Seminar": ABB Relays AB, Vastras, 1992. "REG Caral ator Protection Terminal" : Pamphlet, ABB, Vasteras, Baden, “REG 216 Generating Station Protection Terminal” : Pamphlet, ABB, Vasteras, Baden, Coral Springs, 1987 "Residential Power System Course for Electrical Engineers, Protection Principles part" ‘A Palamarcauk, A. Klebanowski, SECV, Melbourne 195, “CHP & Combined Cycle Modern Power Systems" ; IBC Technical Services, Manchester, UK, 1992 “Cogeneration and Independent Power Production” : IBC Conferences, Sydney, 1994, "Guide to Cogeneration in Victoria”: SECV Report "Cogeneration: Helping the Customer, The State and the Environment" : J. Ball, SECV Report. “Cogeneration Handbook”: California Energy Commission, California, "Guide to Natural Gas Cogeneration” : N.E, Hay, American Gas Assocation, “Planning Cogeneration Systems’ =D. R. Limaye, The Fairmont Press, Atlanta, USA. “Cogeneration in Victoria® : D Greene, 198¢, SECV Report “Environment Protection Authority” : State Environment Protection Policy, Ministry {or Planning & Environment, Victoria "Special Report on Independent Power": Power, 1994 “Protection Principles" : Palamarczak A, Notes for SECV 1989 Power System Course foe Electrical Engineers, 1989. “protective Relaying Principles and Applications” : J. L, Blackburn, Marcel Dekker, [New York, 1987 9 mn Principles” : A. Palamarczuk, A. Klebanowski, Notes for SECV em Course for Electrical Engineers “Power System Protection Course”: A. Kalam , FIT, Melbourne “Current Trends in Transmission Line Protection”: A. Klcbanowski, Opening Session 1WESAA Course "Distance Protection", ESAA, Melbourne June 1991 owen Sveran PROTECTION Ccaaern 1-5‘Distance Protection” : TT. Nguyen, W. D. Humpage, ESA Course. Notes, ‘University of Western Austalia, June 1991 “The State of the Art of Muli-terminal Overhead ‘Transmission Line Protection ‘Systems Associated with Telecommunication Systems” - J. Kobayashi, Y. Ohura, K- Sto, K. Suzuki, MYoki, K, Hashisako, A. Tsuboi, F, Andow, CIGRE, pap. 34-201, 1990. Current Issues in Power System Protection” : A. Klebanowsld, AUPCECS, Conference Proceedings, Mefbourne, 1991 “Power System Studies forthe Determination of Distance Protection Performance” : J Rushton and W D Humpage, IEE Pros, Vol 119, No 6, pps77-688, 1972. “Applied Protective Relaying” : Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Relay ~ Instrament Division, Newark, NJ, 1976. "Technical Condition for the Operation of Private Generators with the SECY System =" Parts 1,2 and 3" : Distribution Eogincering Department, State Electricity ‘Commission of Vieioria, March 1985, “IEEE Standard 242 - 1975" : Recommended Practice for Protection and Co- ordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, The Institue of Electrical land Flectronic Engineers Inc, NY, (Chapter 13 - Service Supply Line Protection and Chapter 14 ~ Generator Protection), 1975 “American National Standard ANSVTEEE 37.95 ‘Protection Equipment for Standby ‘Bronnimann, Brown Boveri Review, 9, “Protection of Private Generating Plant Operat J. Mockler and G. Fielding, Elecical Review, persed Generation Dev mas on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol PAS- "Design Considerations for Operating On-Site Generators in Pall Service" : James M. Daley, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol 14-2), Nol, pp 69-80, 1985. “Technical Considerations for Private Generstors in Parallel with the Grid” : 1 Coleman, Paper 11, Proceedings TE Aust Symposium on Cogeneration, Melbourne, 1985. "Am Industrial View of Uslity Cogeneration Powell, IEEF Transactions on Industry Applicat owen Svevex Paorncion curse -6 “Interte Protection of Consumer-Owned Sources of Generation, 3MVA or Less™ Sommary Report of an IEEE Working Group Report IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Val 3, No2, pp924-929, 1990. Rice : IEEE Transactions on Industial Applications, Vol23, No 4, pp 7 “Monitoring and Control Requirements for Dispersed Storage and Gener tal IEEE Transactons on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol PA‘ Systems, Vol PAS 103, No 8, pp 2277. “Curent Operating Problems Associated with Noo-Uslty Generation A report”: te st Operational Problems Working Group - W. R. Prince, Chaimman, 1 Trefty, IEFE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol 4, Operating Problems from a Cogenerato P IEEE Transactions on Power Syste Goup Tatrin Report Retyng te Co Consumers Relaying" Co-ordination Sub-Commitoe, Commtee IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 616, sment of Digital Relay Performance" : D McLennan and A Klebanowski AGRE Atsttan Nana! Commtee Symposium, Aadaide 195 08s Applied to Power System Protection” : P J Moore, IEE DPSP gorithms for Di ‘York 1993 Distance Protection” PA Crossley, IEE DPSP 1993 Tutorial, ‘Sydney County Council. Fusing Standard 3000-23, British Electricity Supply Industry Standard 128 dated November, 1976. Ponsa SysrewPacracion (Cuarren 2-7