Instrumentation for ocean application
1) Anemometers 8) Water samplers
2) Tide and wave gauges 9) Thermistors
3) Multiparameter probes 10) Acoustic system
4) Strain gauges 11) CTD
12) Depth sounders
5) Load cells
13) Buoy systems
6) Accelerometers
14) Pressure sensors
7) Laser and radar
15) Current meters
systems
Requirement of Instruments
* An instrument normally consists of :
1) transducer or sensor
2) signal conditioner
3) read out or display device
Instruments must be accurate, sensitive, rugged, durable, convenient, simple, cost
effective and understandable.
Accuracy of an instrument is defined by three main parameters: (i) uncertainty, (ii)
sensitivity and (iii) repeatability
(i) Uncertainty or error: - it is difference between the measured value and the true
value of the parameter.
(ii) Sensitivity:- indicates the change in the measured parameter results w.r.t the
change in the output of the instrument.
(iii) Repeatability:- it is the measure of the instruments ability to produce the same
results in successive measurements.
Thermometers and pyrometers
Used to measure water temperature.
Temperature is usually defined as thermal state of a body. Expressed on a
centigrade of Fahrenheit scale.
Typical range of temperature is between -2 C to +40 C.
The accuracy required for :
deep ocean = +/-0.02 C
estuaries & coastal zones = +/- 0.2 C
meteorological = +/-0.5 C
liquid in glass thermometers have been in use for more than 100 years.
Bathythermograph developed in 1930s is used to measure temperature as a
function of depth in the upper layer of the ocean.
Bathythermograph
The liquid filled tube is wrapped around the tail fins and is
attached to a stylus that moves as the temperature changes.
A pressure bellows moves a slide in relation to the pressure
change and the motion is perpendicular to the temperature stylus
movement.
The slide moves in one direction with a change in depth while
the temperature stylus moves in a perpendicular direction with
the temperature variation.
Bathythermograph
Four materials are used for resistance thermometers or
thermistors : platinum, copper, nickel and semiconductor.
Expendable bathythermographs use the semiconductor
thermistor as a temperature sensor as shown in figure.
Temperature distribution is determined by the thermistor and the
time is used to determine the depth.
The device is designed to descend through the water column at a
constant rate.
Pyrometers
Pyrometers are capable of measuring temperature over a large
area and they provide good synoptic pictures.
These instrument contain infrared thermometers that can be used
on aircraft and satellites.
These devices are not as accurate as thermometers, but
pyrometers have the advantage of being able to cover large areas
in a relatively short period of time.
Echo sounder
Used to measure water depth.
This device transmits a sound signal from a transducer and the signal is
reflected by the sea bottom and returns to the transducer.
The depth can be determined if the speed of sound in water is known.
Knowledge of the sound velocity, which is a function of the salinity and
temperature of the water column is required.
The exact location of the transducer must also be known.
These transducers are typically located on the bottom of ships and other
vessels or instruments.
Electronic depth sounders
1. An ultrasonic instrument used to measure the depth of water
under a ship
2. to know the precise depth of the water at all times and thus
avoid underwater hazards and shoals.
3. Depth sounders work by the principle of "sonar.
Salinometer
Used to measure water salinity.
In lab the salinity of water samples collected from offshore and
coastal environment is determined by chemical titration or more
commonly by the use of laboratory salinometers.
Refractometers are also used based on the fact the refractive index of
water is a function of salinity.
Refractometers can achieve an accuracy of 0.05%.
Laboratory salinometer can attain an accuracy of +/-0.002%
Multiparameter Instrument
common practice to group several sensors into one instrument and measure multiple
parameters. (eg. Temperature, depth, conductivity [CTD]; salinity, temperature and
depth [STD]; environmental parameters such as pH, turbidity, reduced oxygen
potential [REDOX]; and dissolved oxygen [DO]. Water current and sound velocity
are sometimes added to the probe system.
The instruments can be raised or lowered through the water column on a cable
attached to an oceanographic winch.
Other probe systems are placed in situ on a moored system or attached to a fixed
pile and the data are stored in computer memory.
The decision as to which sensors to include in a multiparameter probe system
depends on the measurements required and the manufactures preference.
The conductivity senor may be an electrode or inductive type.
The salinity is then computed from the conductivity and temperature measurements.
Multiparameter Instrument
The temperature sensor is commonly a thermistor, and the depth
sensor is normally a semiconductor stain gauge transducer or
diaphragm.
Sound velocity sensors usually send a sound signal over a known
path, and the time it takes to travel the known path distance is used
to determine the sound velocity.
currently, multiparameter probes are mounted on autonomous
underwater vehicles to map water quality in the ocean as well as in
bays, rivers and other bodies of water.
Dissolved oxygen in seawater is necessary to support marine life,
and is frequently measured parameter.
Conductivity, Temperature, Depth (CTD)
Sensors
1. Primary tool for determining essential physical
properties of sea water
2. It gives scientists a precise and comprehensive
charting of the distribution and variation of water
temperature, salinity, and density that helps to
understand how the oceans affect life.
Advantages
1. Remote sensing
2. Very accurate
3. Light weight (CTD only)
4. Can be used at depths up to several thousand meters
5. Low powered CTD sensors are used on autonomous
instruments like moored profiler, gliders, profiling floats
Disadvantages
1. need to calibrate the individual
sensors.
2. the sensors must be stable for
the period of deployment, or
assumptions about the ocean
water properties must be made
and referenced to the sensor
data
Current Meters
1. devices used for measurement of depth and flow velocity
2. the rotating element current meters are found
to be common in India.
Propeller type: Axle is horizontal and parallel to the flow direction
Cup type: Vertical axle and perpendicular to the flow
Measured directly or indirectly
Directly- measure the flow itself
Indirectly measure some property to infer the flow
CURRENT METER
The principal of operation of the current meter
is based on the proportionality between the
local flow velocity and the speed of the rotor of
the current meter.
The rotor speed is measured using a signaling
device attached to the current meter
For establishing a relationship between the
rotor speed and the velocity of flow, the current
meter is first to be calibrated.
The normal speed range of the cup type
current meter is 0.15 to 4 m /s.
PRESSURE SENSORS
measures pressure of gases or liquids
In terms of pressure types pressure sensor divided into:
i) Absolute pressure sensor : measures the pressure relative
to perfect vacuum pressure.
ii) Atmospheric pressure sensor: is 14.7 PSI at sea level with
reference to vacuum.
iii) Gauge pressure sensor : measure the pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure at a given location
Vacuum pressure sensor : to measure pressure less
than the atmospheric pressure at a given location
Differential pressure sensor :measures the difference
between two or more pressures introduced as inputs
to the sensing unit (e.g., measuring the pressure drop
across an oil filter).
Sealed pressure sensor :previously calibrated by
manufacturers to measure pressure relative to sea
level pressure.
Uses
1. Level / depth sensing : used to calculate the level of
a fluid
2. Leak testing : used to sense the decay of pressure
due to a system leak.
3. Altitude sensing: Used in aircraft, rockets, satellites,
weather balloons and many other applications. They
make use of the relation between the change in
pressure relative to the altitude.
BUOY SYSTEMS
BUOY SYSTEM
1. Buoy: float and anchoring line
2. Defn: a floating structure deployed in ocean for
purpose of measuring environmental data
3. Buoy system:
i. Moored system
ii. Free drifting system
Principle
Measures amplitude and direction of
waves and swell, wave heights, tide
heights etc.
accelerometer are fixed on the top of
the buoy to measure movements.
Used to monitor sea condition for
worksite supervision.
Recorded data are transmitted through
wireless modem to shore for
processing.
