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The Great Circle
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Distance
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Mathematics SL Exploration

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Candidate Number 049046_0003

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003

Introduction

The great-circle distance1 is the shortest distance between two points on the surface

of a sphere, measured along the surface of the sphere. Euclidean geometry states

that on a flat map the length of the straight line between two points can be used to

calculate the distance between the points. While in Non-Euclidean, there are no

straight lines on sphere rather they are substituted by geodesics which on sphere is

referred to shortest course between two points on earth. Along the two points

located on sphere, which are not face to face, there always lies a unique great circle.

Though earth is not an accurate sphere, but still the same formulas used for

spherical calculations can be applicable in determining the great circle distance.

Since I love travelling, last time when I travelled on an airplane, I came across a

question that is how pilots determine their route. So I researched about what is that

the pilots do to navigate around in the sky. This was when I came to know about the

way pilots use spherical geometry and spherical trigonometry to find the shortest

distance between two places on Earth. So this was why I chose this topic. With this

investigation I am sure I will find how pilots determine their route with solid, more

scientific, mathematical theory and come to conclusions that could help me answer

my questions.

Introduction includes a clear description of the

A
aim and rationale

1
[Link]
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Statement of task

In my exploration, I am going to find the shortest distance between two places on

Earth with help of spherical geometry and spherical trigonometry. I will be using

globe for my numerical calculations. I will be choosing four countries on globe. Then

I am going to draw the great circle and find the longitude and latitude of the countries

on the great circle. Therefore with the use of spherical trigonometry I will be

calculating and finding the shortest distance.

Mathematical exploration relates

C
to personal Interest.

What is great circle distance and how does it matter?

Latitude2 - Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's

equator, or of the equator of a celestial object, usually expressed in degrees and

minutes. Key terms are well defined

B

Longitude3 Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the

Greenwich meridian, or west of the standard meridian of a celestial object, usually

expressed in degrees and minutes.

Figure 1 shows a part of world map. If we need to travel from Point A to Point B on a

world map, we can take the road from A to south till C and then from C to east till B

and then we reach the destination. The total distance travelled would then be length

of AC + length of CB. Also, if there is any straight road from Point A to Point B, then

we can simply travel through that road and the distance would be length of AB.

2
[Link]
3
[Link]
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B Useful explanation
appropriately
supported by the
diagram

FIGURE 1

If we are travelling on an aircraft and if we want to move from one city to another city

we will draw a straight line between those cities. This can be seen in figure 2 where

a straight line is drawn between point X and point Y on the flat world map. And if we

locate the same straight line between two points on a globe, the distance shown on

globe will not be equal to distance shown on a map. The reason for this is that the

straight line on a sphere when drawn on a sphere turns into a great circle. A great

circle basically is that circle which intersects and its plane travels through the centre

of the earth. Hence, any distance calculated on the Earths surface is fundamentally

a spherical distance or great circle distance. That is why its important to properly

and accurately calculate the shortest distance using because any difference between

the distance on map and great circle distance can mislead and misguide the person

extremely while travelling. So to calculate an accurate distance between two places

on earth, the great circle distance method is used.

 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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A
Appropriate Figure 2
explanation
How do we calculate great circle distance?

There are many methods to calculate distance but many of those are done on

computers using programming. So in my exploration I have chosen those two

methods where mathematical implementation can be done using mathematical

formulas. These methods are not very accurate as a GPS because Earth is not an

exact sphere. A perfect sphere4 has the same radius from the centre of the sphere to

every single point on the surface. As the earth is geographically assorted and is

spinning on its axis, it is actually an oblate sphere which is flat at the poles and

whose radius at the equator is slightly longer than the radius at the poles.

1. Northing/easting: This is the method where we firstly have to locate the centre

of the earth and the two places between which we will calculate distance. Then

4
[Link]
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we will draw a line from the centre of the earth to both the places. After that, we

will be calculating the difference between the latitude and longitude of the

chosen two places. This can be seen in the figure 3 where the difference is

represented by north south distance( ) and east west distance( ). Once we

have calculated the difference between the longitudes and latitudes of the two

places, we can use these to calculate the angle A and angle B which further

which help us to calculate the north-south distance and east-west distance.

C Evidence of Personal
engagement

Figure 3

The north-south distance will be represented by =

Where NS depicts the North and south difference

between the latitudes of two places. And re stands for mean radius of the earth

The east-west distance would be represented by =

Where Ew depicts the East and West difference

between longitudes of two places and re stands for mean radius of the earth
 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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After we have figured the angles, we can simply use the Pythagorean Theorem

because we will have calculated the north-south distance (length AB) and the east-

west distance (length BC).

With the help of Pythagorean Theorem formula we can now calculate the distance

(length AC) which can be represented by formula by

Good use of
= ( ) + ( )
B
notation
 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Practical implementation of the method

For my practical implementation of the Northing/Easting method to calculate the

shortest distance firstly I will be taking New York and Johannesburg as two cities

between which I will calculate the distance and then I will be calculating the distance

between Dakar and Cape Town.

Mean radius of the earth = 6371 km

C Good use of an
example

Distance between New York and Johannesburg

In degrees

NEW YORK, USA JOHANNESBURG, Africa

Latitude = 40.714 Latitude = -26.202

Longitude = -74.006 Longitude = 28.044

In Radians

NEW YORK, USA JOHANNESBURG, Africa

Latitude = 0.710593 Latitude = -0.457311

Longitude = -1.291648 Longitude = 0.489460

Actual distance between New York and Johannesburg = 12831.2997 km

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Northing/Easting

Difference between the latitude of New York and Johannesburg = 40.714-(-26.202)

= 66.916

Difference between the longitude of New York and Johannesburg = (-74.006)-28.044

= -102.05

2637166.916
North-South distance =
360

= 7440.720 km

26371(102.05)
East-West distance =
360
 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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= Mod(-11347.442 km)

=11347.442km

Shortest distance between New York and Johannesburg =

(7440.720)2 + (11347.442)2

= 13569.405 km

By this we can conclude that the distance calculated by this method is not very

accurate as there is 7.68% difference between the actual distance and the calculated

distance. Even though the percentage is small but in terms of distance this

percentage is huge as the difference between both cities is around 1000 km which is

a very large value.

Distance between Dakar and Cape Town

In degrees

Dakar, Senegal Cape Town, Africa

Latitude = 14.6937000 Latitude = -33.9258400

Longitude =-17.4440600 Longitude = 18.4232200

In Radians

Dakar, Senegal Cape Town, Africa

Latitude = 0.256453 Latitude = -0.592117

Longitude =-0.304457 Longitude = 0.321545

 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Actual distance between Dakar and Cape Town= 6,407 km

Northing/Easting

Difference between the latitude of Dakar and Cape Town = 14.6937-(-33.9258)

=48.62

Difference between the longitude of Dakar and Cape Town = (-17.4441)-18.4232

= -35.867

2637148.6195
North-South distance =
360

= 5406.2417 km

26371(35.8673 )
East-West distance =
360

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=Mod( -3988.2618 km)

=3988.2618

Shortest distance between Dakar and Cape Town = (5406.2417)2 + (3988.2618)2

= 6718.160574 km

By this we can conclude that the distance calculated by this method is not very accurate

as there is 4.86% difference between the actual distance and the calculated distance.

2. Haversine formula: In this method too, the first step is to locate the two cities and

the centre of the earth and then we will draw a line from the centre of the earth to

both the cities. Under this we will just find the central subtended angle, the angle

which is subtended at the centre of the earth by the two lines connecting the angle is

found, and it can be used to find distance.

For any two points on a sphere, the Haversine5 of the central angle between them is
given by
d
hav = hav 2 1 + cos 1 cos 2 hav(2 1 )
r
where hav is the haversine function:
1 cos ()
hav = sin2 =
2 2
B Variables are well defined

d is the distance between the two points,

r is the radius of the sphere,

1 , 2 : latitude of point 1 and latitude of point 2, in radians

5
[Link]

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1 , 2 : longitude of point 1 and longitude of point 2, in radians

d
On the left side of the equals sign is the central angle.
r

Solve for d by applying the inverse Haversine or by using the arcsine function:

d = rhav1 h = 2r arcsin( h )
d
Where h is hav or more explicitly:
r

C Good
demonstration

of personal = + ( )

involvement
Or

d = 2r arcsin( hav 2 1 + cos 1 cos 2 hav(2 1 )

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003

Practical implementation of the method

For my practical implementation of the Haversine formula to calculate the shortest

distance firstly I will be taking New York and Johannesburg as two cities between which

I will calculate the distance and then I will be calculating the distance between Dakar

and Cape Town.

Mean radius of the earth = 6371 km

Distance between New York and Johannesburg

In degrees

NEW YORK, USA JOHANNESBURG, Africa

Latitude = 40.714 Latitude = -26.202

Longitude = -74.006 Longitude = 28.044

In Radians

NEW YORK, USA JOHANNESBURG, Africa

Latitude = 0.710593 Latitude = -0.457311

Longitude = -1.291648 Longitude = 0.489460

Actual distance between New York and Johannesburg = 12831.2997 km

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003

Haversine Formula

Good mathematical
E
manipulation of
formula

(0.457311 ) 0.710593 0.489460 (1.291648 )

+ 0.710593 0.457311 (
)

(101679) 1.78111
= + 0.710593 0.457311 ( )

= . + 0.710593 0.457311 (. )

. + . (.
=
)(. )

= . + .

= .

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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= .

= .

= .

= . km

This value is still inaccurate but we can say that this value is more accurate than

northing/easting method as the difference between the actual and the calculated

distance is 5.75%.

Distance between Dakar and Cape Town

In degrees

Dakar, Senegal Cape Town, Africa

Latitude = 14.6937000 Latitude = -33.9258400

Longitude =-17.4440600 Longitude = 18.4232200

In Radians

Dakar, Senegal Cape Town, Africa

Latitude = 0.256453 Latitude = -0.592117

Longitude =-0.304457 Longitude = 0.321545

Actual distance between New York and Johannesburg = 12831.2997 km

C Student does a good work by showing

examples of different countries

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Haversine Formula

Good demonstration of
C
learning and describing
unfamiliar mathematics

(0.592117 ) 0.256453 0.321545 (0.304457 )

+ 0.256453 0.592117 (
)

(0.84857) 0.626002
= + 0.256453 0.592117 ( )

= . + 0.256453 0.592117 (. )

17
 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
049046-0003

. + . (.
=
)(. )

= . + . .

= .

= .

= .

= .

= .
B No explanation of how this
value is determined.

With this formula, the difference between the actual distance and the calculated

distance is 4.87%.

So, we can know that any method to calculate distance will always result in

inaccurate distance. These methods were used in the past when the technology was

not that advanced. However, today the technology has developed to the point where

we can find accurate distance through GPS.

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Limitations of Great distance formula:

Not exact distance can be calculated. There is always some difference

between calculated distance and actual distance.

D
Differences in radians and degrees values can lead to calculation of
Discussed
limitation of inaccurate distance.
the result
High chance of math error while calculating distance.

Conclusion

This exploration was really fascinating for me as I could link my exploration to the

experiences of life by applying my conceptual knowledge of mathematics to develop

theories. This exploration helped me to clear my doubts and made it easy for me to

understand the concept of navigation. With the help of geodesic, I was able to

understand the spherical geometry and trigonometry in a better way and could

actually use it with ease in my exploration. The biggest lesson I learnt from this

research is that any work will look hard till the time you put your effort on researching

on it. The same thing happened during my project. At the starting of my project I was

not at all confident on whether I will be able to complete my project or not but as I

investigated on it, I came across a totally new field, learned many new things and

was finally able to do my project. So, overall I enjoyed doing this exploration as

through this not only I learned non-Euclidean geometry and broadened my view on

maths but also it was a fun activity for me as I gathered information about different

countries through this exploration.

Student relates the mathematical ideas and consider the significance of

A
the result.

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Bibliography

Great Circle Distance. (2013). YouTube. Retrieved from

[Link]

Great Circle ( GC) Track. Calculation of GC dist, initial and final course Part 1.

(2015). YouTube. Retrieved from

[Link]

World Map: A clickable map of world countries :-). [Link]. Retrieved

from [Link]

Inc, G. Calculating Distance between Two Sets of

Coordinates. [Link]. Retrieved from

[Link]

York, N. Geographic coordinates of New York, New York, USA. Latitude,

longitude, and elevation above sea level of New York. [Link].

Retrieved from [Link]

Geographic coordinates of Johannesburg, South Africa. Latitude, longitude,

and elevation above sea level of Johannesburg. [Link]. Retrieved

from [Link]

Town, C. Geographic coordinates of Cape Town, South Africa. Latitude,

longitude, and elevation above sea level of Cape Town. [Link].

Retrieved from [Link]

Geographic coordinates of Dakar, Senegal. Latitude, longitude, and elevation

above sea level of Dakar. [Link]. Retrieved from

[Link]

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Assessment

Criterion A B C D E Total

Achievement level awarded by teacher 3 2 3 2 4 14

Maximum Possible Achievement level 4 3 4 3 6 20

Comments

Criteria A :Communication:

A3:The work is concise and easy to follow. It fulfills the aim and its complete.

CriteriaB:Mathematical representation

B2:There is good definition of terms. Good use of photography to generate the

visual view of the problem.

Criteria C:Personal Engagement

C3:The student has created some examples. Some personal interest is expressed

with the evidence of thinking independently.

Criteria D:Reflection

D2:It links with the area of maths. Student needs to put some more efforts for

meaningful reflection.

Criteria E:Use of Mathematics:

E4:Relevent mathematics is used. Thorough knowledge and understanding is

demonstrated.

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 Mathematics SL Internal Assessment
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Background Information

Before beginning with an exploration, student has made a deep study about the

spherical geometry and mathematical term associated with it. Student has also gone

through the Euclidean and non Euclidean geometry.

22