MPLAB XC8 C Compiler

Users Guide

2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002053E

Note the following details of the code protection feature on Microchip devices:
Microchip products meet the specification contained in their particular Microchip Data Sheet.

Microchip believes that its family of products is one of the most secure families of its kind on the market today, when used in the
intended manner and under normal conditions.

There are dishonest and possibly illegal methods used to breach the code protection feature. All of these methods, to our
knowledge, require using the Microchip products in a manner outside the operating specifications contained in Microchips Data
Sheets. Most likely, the person doing so is engaged in theft of intellectual property.

Microchip is willing to work with the customer who is concerned about the integrity of their code.

Neither Microchip nor any other semiconductor manufacturer can guarantee the security of their code. Code protection does not
mean that we are guaranteeing the product as unbreakable.

Code protection is constantly evolving. We at Microchip are committed to continuously improving the code protection features of our
products. Attempts to break Microchips code protection feature may be a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. If such acts
allow unauthorized access to your software or other copyrighted work, you may have a right to sue for relief under that Act.

Information contained in this publication regarding device Trademarks

applications and the like is provided only for your convenience The Microchip name and logo, the Microchip logo, dsPIC,
and may be superseded by updates. It is your responsibility to FlashFlex, flexPWR, JukeBlox, KEELOQ, KEELOQ logo, Kleer,
ensure that your application meets with your specifications. LANCheck, MediaLB, MOST, MOST logo, MPLAB,
MICROCHIP MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR OptoLyzer, PIC, PICSTART, PIC32 logo, RightTouch, SpyNIC,
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND WHETHER EXPRESS OR SST, SST Logo, SuperFlash and UNI/O are registered
IMPLIED, WRITTEN OR ORAL, STATUTORY OR trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the
OTHERWISE, RELATED TO THE INFORMATION, U.S.A. and other countries.
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ITS CONDITION,
QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, MERCHANTABILITY OR The Embedded Control Solutions Company and mTouch are
FITNESS FOR PURPOSE. Microchip disclaims all liability registered trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated
arising from this information and its use. Use of Microchip in the U.S.A.
devices in life support and/or safety applications is entirely at Analog-for-the-Digital Age, BodyCom, chipKIT, chipKIT logo,
the buyers risk, and the buyer agrees to defend, indemnify and CodeGuard, dsPICDEM, [Link], ECAN, In-Circuit
hold harmless Microchip from any and all damages, claims, Serial Programming, ICSP, Inter-Chip Connectivity, KleerNet,
suits, or expenses resulting from such use. No licenses are KleerNet logo, MiWi, MPASM, MPF, MPLAB Certified logo,
conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under any Microchip MPLIB, MPLINK, MultiTRAK, NetDetach, Omniscient Code
intellectual property rights. Generation, PICDEM, [Link], PICkit, PICtail,
RightTouch logo, REAL ICE, SQI, Serial Quad I/O, Total
Endurance, TSHARC, USBCheck, VariSense, ViewSpan,
WiperLock, Wireless DNA, and ZENA are trademarks of
Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other
countries.
SQTP is a service mark of Microchip Technology Incorporated
in the U.S.A.
Silicon Storage Technology is a registered trademark of
Microchip Technology Inc. in other countries.
GestIC is a registered trademarks of Microchip Technology
Germany II GmbH & Co. KG, a subsidiary of Microchip
Technology Inc., in other countries.
All other trademarks mentioned herein are property of their
respective companies.
2012-2015, Microchip Technology Incorporated, Printed in
the U.S.A., All Rights Reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63276-935-0

QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Microchip received ISO/TS-16949:2009 certification for its worldwide
CERTIFIED BY DNV headquarters, design and wafer fabrication facilities in Chandler and
Tempe, Arizona; Gresham, Oregon and design centers in California
and India. The Companys quality system processes and procedures
== ISO/TS 16949 == are for its PIC MCUs and dsPIC DSCs, KEELOQ code hopping
devices, Serial EEPROMs, microperipherals, nonvolatile memory and
analog products. In addition, Microchips quality system for the design
and manufacture of development systems is ISO 9001:2000 certified.

DS50002053E-page 2 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 MPLAB XC8 C COMPILER
USERS GUIDE

Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 1. Compiler Overview
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 13
1.2 Compiler Description and Documentation .................................................... 13
1.3 Device Description ....................................................................................... 14
Chapter 2. Common C Interface
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Background The Desire for Portable Code ............................................... 15
2.3 Using the CCI ............................................................................................... 18
2.4 ANSI Standard Refinement .......................................................................... 19
2.5 ANSI Standard Extensions ........................................................................... 27
2.6 Compiler Features ........................................................................................ 41
Chapter 3. How Tos
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 43
3.2 Installing and Activating the Compiler .......................................................... 43
3.3 Invoking the Compiler ................................................................................... 45
3.4 Writing Source Code .................................................................................... 48
3.5 Getting My Application to Do What I Want ................................................... 60
3.6 Understanding the Compilation Process ...................................................... 65
3.7 Fixing Code That Does Not Work ................................................................. 73
Chapter 4. XC8 Command-line Driver
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 77
4.2 Invoking the Compiler ................................................................................... 78
4.3 The Compilation Sequence .......................................................................... 81
4.4 Runtime Files ............................................................................................... 87
4.5 Compiler Output ........................................................................................... 89
4.6 Compiler Messages ...................................................................................... 91
4.7 MPLAB XC8 Driver Options ......................................................................... 96
4.8 Option Descriptions ...................................................................................... 97
4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents ..................................................................... 129
Chapter 5. C Language Features
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 137
5.2 ANSI C Standard Issues ............................................................................ 137
5.3 Device-Related Features ............................................................................ 139
5.4 Supported Data Types and Variables ........................................................ 151
5.5 Memory Allocation and Access .................................................................. 173
5.6 Operators and Statements ......................................................................... 190

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5.7 Register Usage ........................................................................................... 192

5.8 Functions .................................................................................................... 193
5.9 Interrupts .................................................................................................... 203
5.10 Main, Runtime Startup and Reset ............................................................ 209
5.11 Library Routines ....................................................................................... 213
5.12 Mixing C and Assembly Code .................................................................. 215
5.13 Optimizations ............................................................................................ 224
5.14 Preprocessing .......................................................................................... 226
5.15 Linking Programs ..................................................................................... 237
Chapter 6. Macro Assembler
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 261
6.2 MPLAB XC8 Assembly Language .............................................................. 262
6.3 Assembly-Level Optimizations ................................................................... 290
6.4 Assembly List Files ..................................................................................... 291
Chapter 7. Linker
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 301
7.2 Operation .................................................................................................... 301
7.3 Relocation and Psects ................................................................................ 310
Chapter 8. Utilities
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 317
8.2 Librarian ..................................................................................................... 318
8.3 HEXMATE .................................................................................................. 321
Appendix A. Library Functions
A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 331
Appendix B. Embedded Compiler Compatibility Mode
B.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 423
B.2 Compiling in Compatibility Mode ................................................................ 423
B.3 Syntax Compatibility .................................................................................. 424
B.4 Data Type .................................................................................................. 425
B.5 Operator ..................................................................................................... 425
B.6 Extended Keywords ................................................................................... 426
B.7 Intrinsic Functions ...................................................................................... 427
B.8 Pragmas ..................................................................................................... 428
Appendix C. Error and Warning Messages
C.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 429
Appendix D. Implementation-Defined Behavior
D.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 545
D.2 Translation (G.3.1) ..................................................................................... 545
D.3 Environment (G.3.2) .................................................................................. 545
D.4 Identifiers (G.3.3) ....................................................................................... 546
D.5 Characters (G.3.4) ..................................................................................... 546
D.6 Integers (G.3.5) .......................................................................................... 547
D.7 Floating-Point (G.3.6) ................................................................................ 548

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 D.8 Arrays and Pointers (G.3.7) ....................................................................... 548
D.9 Registers (G.3.8) ....................................................................................... 548
D.10 Structures, Unions, Enumerations, and Bit-Fields (G.3.9) ....................... 549
D.11 Qualifiers (G.3.10) ................................................................................... 549
D.12 Declarators (G.3.11) ................................................................................ 549
D.13 Statements (G.3.12) ................................................................................ 549
D.14 Preprocessing Directives (G.3.13) ........................................................... 550
D.15 Library Functions (G.3.14) ....................................................................... 551
Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 553
Index ........................................................................................................................... 573
Worldwide Sales and Service .................................................................................. 586

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
NOTES:

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 MPLAB XC8 C COMPILER
USERS GUIDE

Preface

NOTICE TO CUSTOMERS
All documentation becomes dated, and this manual is no exception. Microchip tools and
documentation are constantly evolving to meet customer needs, so some actual dialogs
and/or tool descriptions can differ from those in this document. Please refer to our web site
([Link]) to obtain the latest documentation available.
Documents are identified with a DS number. This number is located on the bottom of each
page, in front of the page number. The numbering convention for the DS number is
DSXXXXXA, where XXXXX is the document number and A is the revision level of the
document.
For the most up-to-date information on development tools, see the MPLAB IDE online help.
Select the Help menu, and then Topics to open a list of available online help files.

INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains general information that will be useful to know before using the
MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide. Items discussed in this chapter include:
Document Layout
Conventions Used in this Guide
Recommended Reading
Recommended Reading
The Microchip Web Site
Development Systems Customer Change Notification Service
Customer Support
Document Revision History

DOCUMENT LAYOUT
The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide is organized as follows:
Chapter 1. Compiler Overview
Chapter 2. Common C Interface
Chapter 3. How Tos
Chapter 4. XC8 Command-line Driver
Chapter 5. C Language Features
Chapter 6. Macro Assembler
Chapter 7. Linker
Chapter 8. Utilities
Appendix A. Library Functions
Appendix B. Embedded Compiler Compatibility Mode
Appendix C. Error and Warning Messages
Appendix D. Implementation-Defined Behavior
Glossary
Index

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS GUIDE

This manual uses the following documentation conventions:

DOCUMENTATION CONVENTIONS
Description Represents Examples
Arial font:
Italic characters Referenced books MPLAB IDE Users Guide
Emphasized text ...is the only compiler...
Initial caps A window the Output window
A dialog the Settings dialog
A menu selection select Enable Programmer
Quotes A field name in a window or Save project before build
dialog
Underlined, italic text with A menu path File>Save
right angle bracket
Bold characters A dialog button Click OK
A tab Click the Power tab
NRnnnn A number in verilog format, 4b0010, 2hF1
where N is the total number of
digits, R is the radix and n is a
digit.
Text in angle brackets < > A key on the keyboard Press <Enter>, <F1>
Courier New font:
Plain Courier New Sample source code #define START
Filenames [Link]
File paths c:\mcc18\h
Keywords _asm, _endasm, static
Command-line options -Opa+, -Opa-
Bit values 0, 1
Constants 0xFF, A
Italic Courier New A variable argument file.o, where file can be
any valid filename
Square brackets [ ] Optional arguments mcc18 [options] file
[options]
Curly brackets and pipe Choice of mutually exclusive errorlevel {0|1}
character: { | } arguments; an OR selection
Ellipses... Replaces repeated text var_name [,
var_name...]
Represents code supplied by void main (void)
user { ...
}

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 Preface

RECOMMENDED READING
This users guide describes how to use MPLAB XC8 C Compiler. Other useful docu-
ments are listed below. The following Microchip documents are available and
recommended as supplemental reference resources.
Readme for MPLAB XC8 C Compiler
For the latest information on using MPLAB XC8 C Compiler, read MPLAB XC8 C
Compiler Release Notes (an HTML file) in the Docs subdirectory of the compilers
installation directory. The release notes contain update information and known issues
that cannot be included in this users guide.
Readme Files
For the latest information on using other tools, read the tool-specific Readme files in
the Readmes subdirectory of the MPLAB IDE installation directory. The Readme files
contain update information and known issues that cannot be included in this users
guide.

THE MICROCHIP WEB SITE

Microchip provides online support via our web site at [Link]. This web
site is used as a means to make files and information easily available to customers.
Accessible by using your favorite Internet browser, the web site contains the following
information:
Product Support Data sheets and errata, application notes and sample
programs, design resources, users guides and hardware support documents,
latest software releases and archived software
General Technical Support Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), technical
support requests, online discussion groups, Microchip consultant program
member listing
Business of Microchip Product selector and ordering guides, latest Microchip
press releases, listing of seminars and events, listings of Microchip sales offices,
distributors and factory representatives

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS CUSTOMER CHANGE NOTIFICATION SERVICE

Microchips customer notification service helps keep customers current on Microchip
products. Subscribers will receive e-mail notification whenever there are changes,
updates, revisions or errata that are related to a specified product family or
development tool of interest.
To register, access the Microchip web site at [Link], click on Customer
Change Notification and follow the registration instructions.
The Development Systems product group categories are:
Compilers The latest information on Microchip C compilers, assemblers, linkers
and other language tools. These include all MPLAB C compilers; all MPLAB
assemblers (including MPASM assembler); all MPLAB linkers (including
MPLINK object linker); and all MPLAB librarians (including MPLIB object
librarian).
Emulators The latest information on Microchip in-circuit [Link]
includes the MPLAB REAL ICE and MPLAB ICE 2000 in-circuit emulators.
In-Circuit Debuggers The latest information on the Microchip in-circuit
debuggers. This includes MPLAB ICD 3 in-circuit debuggers and PICkit 3
debug express.
MPLAB IDE The latest information on Microchip MPLAB IDE, the Windows
Integrated Development Environment for development systems tools. This list is
focused on the MPLAB IDE, MPLAB IDE Project Manager, MPLAB Editor and
MPLAB SIM simulator, as well as general editing and debugging features.
Programmers The latest information on Microchip programmers. These include
production programmers such as MPLAB REAL ICE in-circuit emulator, MPLAB
ICD 3 in-circuit debugger and MPLAB PM3 device programmers. Also included
are nonproduction development programmers such as PICSTART Plus and
PICkit 2 and 3.

CUSTOMER SUPPORT
Users of Microchip products can receive assistance through several channels:
Distributor or Representative
Local Sales Office
Field Application Engineer (FAE)
Technical Support
Customers should contact their distributor, representative or field application engineer
(FAE) for support. Local sales offices are also available to help customers. A listing of
sales offices and locations is included in the back of this document.
Technical support is available through the web site at:
[Link]

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 Preface

DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

Revision E (January 2015)
Added new How Tos
Detailed the compilers use of hardware multiply instructions
Updated information relating to psect definitions and their effect on optimizations
Corrected information relating to maximum reentrant-function stack sizes
Updated compiler warning and error messages; improved message descriptions
relating to fixup errors and malformed arrays
Added further information relating to customizing user-defined psects
Improved printf library function description and expanded code example
Added new --MAXIPIC and --NOFALLBACK options
Many general corrections and improvements

Revision D (Dec 2013)

Added new information relating to the software stack and function reentrancy.
Added information relating to code profiling features offered by the compiler.
Removed information pertaining to MPLAB IDE v8.
Added new How Tos
Removed sections on OBJTOHEX and CROMWELL.
Added additional information relating to assembly code formats and operators.
Corrected Fletcher algorithms used by HEXMATE.
Added new driver options and updated existing option descriptions.
Added and updated macros, built-ins and functions in Library Function chapter.
Updated compiler warning and error messages.

Revision C (May 2013)

Added Embedded Compiler Compatibility Mode chapter.
Added information relating to new ELF/DWARF debugging files.
Added new driver options and updated existing option descriptions.
Updated MPLAB X IDE option dialog descriptions relating to compiler options.
Expanded information relating to the available optimizations.
Added code to illustrate checksum algorithms used by HEXMATE.
Updated compiler warning and error messages.
Updated information relating to list and map file contents.
Added information about multiplication routines.
Expanded information about eeprom variables and bit objects.
Expanded information relating to the configuration pragma.
Added information and examples using the __section() specifier.
Expanded and extended information relating to assembly code deviations and
assembler directives.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

Revision B (July 2012)

Added How Tos chapter.
Expanded section relating to PIC18 erratas.
Updated the section relating to compiler optimization settings.
Updated MPLAB v8 and MPLAB X IDE project option dialogs.
Added sections describing PIC18 far qualifier and in-line function qualifier.
Expanded section describing the operation of the main() function
Expanded information about equivalent assembly symbols for Baseline parts.
Updated the table of predefined macro symbols.
Added section on #pragma addrqual
Added sections to do with in-lining functions
Updated diagrams and text associated with call graphs in the list file
Updated library function section to be consistent with packaged libraries
Added new compiler warnings and errors.
Added new chapter describing the Common C Interface Standard (CCI)

Revision A (February 2012)

Initial release of this document.

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 MPLAB XC8 C COMPILER
USERS GUIDE

Chapter 1. Compiler Overview

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is an overview of the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler, including these topics.
Compiler Description and Documentation
Device Description

1.2 COMPILER DESCRIPTION AND DOCUMENTATION

The MPLAB XC8 C Compiler is a free-standing, optimizing ISO C90 (popularly known
as ANSI C) compiler. It supports all 8-bit PIC microcontrollers: PIC10, PIC12, PIC16
and PIC18 series devices, as well as the PIC14000 device.
The compiler is available for several popular operating systems, including 32- and
64-bit Windows (excluding Windows Server), Linux and Mac OS X.
The compiler is available in three operating modes: Free, Standard or PRO. The Stan-
dard and PRO operating modes are licensed modes and require a serial number to
enable them. Free mode is available for unlicensed customers. The basic compiler
operation, supported devices and available memory are identical across all modes.
The modes only differ in the level of optimization employed by the compiler.

1.2.1 Conventions
Throughout this manual, the term compiler is used. It can refer to all, or a subset of,
the collection of applications that comprise the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler. When it is not
important to identify which application performed an action, it will be attributed to the
compiler.
In a similar manner, compiler is often used to refer to the command-line driver;
although specifically, the driver for the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler package is named xc8.
The driver and its options are discussed in Section 4.7 MPLAB XC8 Driver Options.
Accordingly, compiler options commonly refers to command-line driver options.
In a similar fashion, compilation refers to all or a selection of steps involved in
generating an executable binary image from source code.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

1.3 DEVICE DESCRIPTION

This compiler supports 8-bit Microchip PIC devices with baseline, mid-range,
Enhanced mid-range, and PIC18 cores. The following descriptions indicate the
distinctions within those device cores:
The baseline core uses a 12-bit-wide instruction set and is available in PIC10, PIC12
and PIC16 part numbers.
The enhanced baseline core also uses a 12-bit instruction set, but this set includes
additional instructions. Some of the enhanced baseline chips support interrupts and the
additional instructions used by interrupts. These devices are available in PIC12 and
PIC16 part numbers.
The mid-range core uses a 14-bit-wide instruction set that includes more instructions
than the baseline core. It has larger data memory banks and program memory pages,
as well. It is available in PIC12, PIC14 and PIC16 part numbers.
The Enhanced mid-range core also uses a 14-bit-wide instruction set but incorporates
additional instructions and features. There are both PIC12 and PIC16 part numbers
that are based on the Enhanced mid-range core.
The PIC18 core instruction set is 16 bits wide and features additional instructions and
an expanded register set. PIC18 core devices have part numbers that begin with
PIC18.
The compiler takes advantage of the target devices instruction set, addressing modes,
memory, and registers whenever possible.
See Section 4.8.19 --CHIPINFO: Display List of Supported Devices for information on
finding the full list of devices that are supported by the compiler.

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 MPLAB XC8 C COMPILER
USERS GUIDE

Chapter 2. Common C Interface

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The Common C Interface (CCI) is available with all MPLAB XC C compilers and is
designed to enhance code portability between these compilers. For example,
CCI-conforming code would make it easier to port from a PIC18 MCU using the MPLAB
XC8 C compiler to a PIC24 MCU using the MPLAB XC16 C compiler.
The CCI assumes that your source code already conforms to the ANSI Standard. If you
intend to use the CCI, it is your responsibility to write code that conforms. Legacy proj-
ects will need to be migrated to achieve conformance. A compiler option must also be
set to ensure that the operation of the compiler is consistent with the interface when the
project is built.
The following topics are examined in this chapter of the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users
Guide:
Background The Desire for Portable Code
Using the CCI
ANSI Standard Refinement
ANSI Standard Extensions
Compiler Features

2.2 BACKGROUND THE DESIRE FOR PORTABLE CODE

All programmers want to write portable source code.
Portability means that the same source code can be compiled and run in a different
execution environment than that for which it was written. Rarely can code be one hun-
dred percent portable, but the more tolerant it is to change, the less time and effort it
takes to have it running in a new environment.
Embedded engineers typically think of code portability as being across target devices,
but this is only part of the situation. The same code could be compiled for the same
target but with a different compiler. Differences between those compilers might lead to
the code failing at compile time or runtime, so this must be considered as well.
You can only write code for one target device and only use one brand of compiler, but
if there is no regulation of the compilers operation, simply updating your compiler
version can change your codes behavior.
Code must be portable across targets, tools, and time to be truly flexible.
Clearly, this portability cannot be achieved by the programmer alone, since the com-
piler vendors can base their products on different technologies, implement different fea-
tures and code syntax, or improve the way their product works. Many a great compiler
optimization has broken many an unsuspecting project.
Standards for the C language have been developed to ensure that change is managed
and code is more portable. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) pub-
lishes standards for many disciplines, including programming languages. The ANSI C
Standard is a universally adopted standard for the C programming language.

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2.2.1 The ANSI Standard

The ANSI C Standard has to reconcile two opposing goals: freedom for compilers ven-
dors to target new devices and improve code generation, with the known functional
operation of source code for programmers. If both goals can be met, source code can
be made portable.
The standard is implemented as a set of rules which detail not only the syntax that a
conforming C program must follow, but the semantic rules by which that program will
be interpreted. Thus, for a compiler to conform to the standard, it must ensure that a
conforming C program functions as described by the standard.
The standard describes implementation, the set of tools, and the runtime environment
on which the code will run. If any of these change, e.g., you build for, and run on, a dif-
ferent target device, or if you update the version of the compiler you use to build, then
you are using a different implementation.
The standard uses the term behavior to mean the external appearance or action of the
program. It has nothing to do with how a program is encoded.
Since the standard is trying to achieve goals that could be construed as conflicting,
some specifications appear somewhat vague. For example, the standard states that an
int type must be able to hold at least a 16-bit value, but it does not go as far as saying
what the size of an int actually is; and the action of right-shifting a signed integer can
produce different results on different implementations; yet, these different results are
still ANSI C compliant.
If the standard is too strict, device architectures cannot allow the compiler to conform.1
But, if it is too weak, programmers would see wildly differing results within different
compilers and architectures, and the standard would lose its effectiveness.
The standard organizes source code whose behavior is not fully defined into groups
that include the following behaviors:

Implementation-defined This is unspecified behavior in which each

behavior implementation documents how the choice is made.
Unspecified behavior The standard provides two or more possibilities and
imposes no further requirements on which possibility is
chosen in any particular instance.
Undefined behavior This is behavior for which the standard imposes no
requirements.
Code that strictly conforms to the standard does not produce output that is dependent
on any unspecified, undefined, or implementation-defined behavior. The size of an
int, which was used as an example earlier, falls into the category of behavior that is
defined by implementation. That is to say, the size of an int is defined by which com-
piler is being used, how that compiler is being used, and the device that is being
targeted.
All the MPLAB XC compilers conform to the ANS X3.159-1989 Standard for program-
ming languages (with the exception of the MPLAB XC8 compilers inability to allow
recursion, as mentioned in the footnote). This is commonly called the C89 Standard.
Some features from the later standard, C99, are also supported.

1. For example, the mid-range PIC microcontrollers do not have a data stack. Because a compiler
targeting this device cannot implement recursion, it (strictly speaking) cannot conform to the ANSI
C Standard. This example illustrates a situation in which the standard is too strict for mid-range
devices and tools.

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 Common C Interface
For freestanding implementations (or for what we typically call embedded applications),
the standard allows non-standard extensions to the language, but obviously does not
enforce how they are specified or how they work. When working so closely to the
device hardware, a programmer needs a means of specifying device setup and inter-
rupts, as well as utilizing the often complex world of small-device memory
architectures. This cannot be offered by the standard in a consistent way.
While the ANSI C Standard provides a mutual understanding for programmers and
compiler vendors, programmers need to consider the implementation-defined behavior
of their tools and the probability that they may need to use extensions to the C language
that are non-standard. Both of these circumstances can have an impact on code
portability.

2.2.2 The Common C Interface

The Common C Interface (CCI) supplements the ANSI C Standard and makes it easier
for programmers to achieve consistent outcomes on all Microchip devices when using
any of the MPLAB XC C compilers.
It delivers the following improvements, all designed with portability in mind.

Refinement of the The CCI documents specific behavior for some code in which
ANSI C Standard actions are implementation-defined behavior under the ANSI
C Standard. For example, the result of right-shifting a signed
integer is fully defined by the CCI. Note that many
implementation-defined items that closely couple with device
characteristics, such as the size of an int, are not defined by
the CCI.
Consistent syntax The CCI non-standard extensions are mostly implemented
for non-standard using keywords with a uniform syntax. They replace keywords,
extensions macros and attributes that are the native compiler implementa-
tion. The interpretation of the keyword can differ across each
compiler, and any arguments to the keywords can be device
specific.
Coding guidelines The CCI can indicate advice on how code should be written so
that it can be ported to other devices or compilers. While you
may choose not to follow the advice, it will not conform to the
CCI.

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2.3 USING THE CCI

The CCI allows enhanced portability by refining implementation-defined behavior and
standardizing the syntax for extensions to the language.
The CCI is something you choose to follow and put into effect, thus it is relevant for new
projects, although you can choose to modify existing projects so they conform.
For your project to conform to the CCI, you must do the following things.
Enable the CCI
Select the MPLAB IDE widget Use CCI Syntax in your project, or use the
command-line option that is equivalent.
Include <xc.h> in every module
Some CCI features are only enabled if this header is seen by the compiler.
Ensure ANSI compliance
Code that does not conform to the ANSI C Standard does not confirm to the CCI.
Observe refinements to ANSI by the CCI
Some ANSI implementation-defined behavior is defined explicitly by the CCI.
Use the CCI extensions to the language
Use the CCI extensions rather than the native language extensions.
The next sections detail specific items associated with the CCI. These items are seg-
regated into those that refine the standard, those that deal with the ANSI C Standard
extensions, and other miscellaneous compiler options and usage. Guidelines are
indicated with these items.
If any implementation-defined behavior or any non-standard extension is not discussed
in this document, then it is not part of the CCI. For example, GCC case ranges, label
addresses, and 24-bit short long types are not part of the CCI. Programs which use
these features do not conform to the CCI. The compiler may issue a warning or error
to indicate a non-CCI feature has been used and the CCI is enabled.

DS50002053E-page 18 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface

2.4 ANSI STANDARD REFINEMENT

The following topics describe how the CCI refines the implementation-defined
behaviors outlined in the ANSI C Standard.

2.4.1 Source File Encoding

Under the CCI, a source file must be written using characters from the 7-bit ASCII set.
Lines can be terminated using a line feed ('\n') or carriage return ('\r') that is immediately
followed by a line feed. Escaped characters can be used in character constants or
string literals to represent extended characters that are not in the basic character set.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a string constant being defined that uses escaped characters.
const char myName[] = "Bj\370rk\n";

[Link] DIFFERENCES
All compilers have used this character set.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.2 The Prototype for main

The prototype for the main() function is:
int main(void);

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows an example of how main() might be defined:
int main(void)
{
while(1)
process();
}

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers used a void return type for this function.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Each program has one definition for the main() function. Confirm the return type for
main() in all projects previously compiled for 8-bit targets.

2.4.3 Header File Specification

Header file specifications that use directory separators do not conform to the CCI.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following example shows two conforming include directives.
#include <usb_main.h>
#include "global.h"

2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002053E-page 19

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] DIFFERENCES
Header file specifications that use directory separators have been allowed in previous
versions of all compilers. Compatibility problems arose when Windows-style separa-
tors \ were used and the code was compiled under other host operating systems.
Under the CCI, no directory separators should be used.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Any #include directives that use directory separators in the header file specifications
should be changed. Remove all but the header file name in the directive. Add the direc-
tory path to the compilers include search path or MPLAB IDE equivalent. This will force
the compiler to search the directories specified with this option.
For example, the following code:
#include <inc/lcd.h>
should be changed to:
#include <lcd.h>
and the path to the inc directory added to the compilers header search path in your
MPLAB IDE project properties, or on the command-line as follows:
-Ilcd

2.4.4 Include Search Paths

When you include a header file under the CCI, the file should be discoverable in the
paths searched by the compiler that are detailed below.
Header files specified in angle bracket delimiters < > should be discoverable in the
search paths that are specified by -I options (or the equivalent MPLAB IDE option), or
in the standard compiler include directories. The -I options are searched in the
order in which they are specified.
Header files specified in quote characters " " should be discoverable in the current
working directory or in the same directories that are searched when the header files are
specified in angle bracket delimiters (as above). In the case of an MPLAB X project, the
current working directory is the directory in which the C source file is located. If unsuc-
cessful, the search paths should be to the same directories searched when the header
file is specified in angle bracket delimiters.
Any other options to specify search paths for header files do not conform to the CCI.

[Link] EXAMPLE
If including a header file, as in the following directive:
#include "myGlobals.h"
The header file should be locatable in the current working directory, or the paths spec-
ified by any -I options, or the standard compiler directories. A header file being located
elsewhere does not conform to the CCI.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The compiler operation under the CCI is not changed. This is purely a coding guideline.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Remove any option that specifies header file search paths other than the -I option (or
the equivalent MPLAB IDE option), and use the -I option in place of this. Ensure the
header file can be found in the directories specified in this section.

DS50002053E-page 20 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface

2.4.5 The Number of Significant Initial Characters in an Identifier

At least the first 255 characters in an identifier (internal and external) are significant.
This extends upon the requirement of the ANSI C Standard that states a lower number
of significant characters are used to identify an object.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following example shows two poorly named variables, but names which are
considered unique under the CCI.
int stateOfPortBWhenTheOperatorHasSelectedAutomaticModeAndMotorIsRunningFast;
int stateOfPortBWhenTheOperatorHasSelectedAutomaticModeAndMotorIsRunningSlow;

[Link] DIFFERENCES
Former 8-bit compilers used 31 significant characters by default, but an option allowed
this to be extended.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers did not impose a limit on the number of significant
characters.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required. You can take advantage of the less restrictive naming scheme.

2.4.6 Sizes of Types

The sizes of the basic C types, e.g., char, int and long, are not fully defined by the
CCI. These types, by design, reflect the size of registers and other architectural fea-
tures in the target device. They allow the device to efficiently access objects of this type.
The ANSI C Standard does, however, indicate minimum requirements for these types,
as specified in <limits.h>.
If you need fixed-size types in your project, use the types defined in <stdint.h>, e.g.,
uint8_t or int16_t. These types are consistently defined across all XC compilers,
even outside of the CCI.
Essentially, the C language offers a choice of two groups of types: those that offer sizes
and formats that are tailored to the device you are using, or those that have a fixed size,
regardless of the target.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following example shows the definition of a variable, native, whose size will allow
efficient access on the target device; and a variable, fixed, whose size is clearly indi-
cated and remains fixed, even though it may not allow efficient access on every device.
int native;
int16_t fixed;

[Link] DIFFERENCES
This is consistent with previous types implemented by the compiler.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

If you require a C type that has a fixed size, regardless of the target device, use one of
the types defined by <stdint.h>.

2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002053E-page 21

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

2.4.7 Plain char Types

The type of a plain char is unsigned char. It is generally recommended that all
definitions for the char type explicitly state the signedness of the object.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following example
char foobar;
defines an unsigned char object called foobar.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have always treated plain char as an unsigned type.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers used signed char as the default plain char type. The
-funsigned-char option on those compilers changed the default type to be
unsigned char.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Any definition of an object defined as a plain char and using the 16- or 32-bit compilers
needs review. Any plain char that was intended to be a signed quantity should be
replaced with an explicit definition, for example.
signed char foobar;
You can use the -funsigned-char option on MPLAB XC16 and XC32 to change the
type of plain char, but since this option is not supported on MPLAB XC8, the code is
not strictly conforming.

2.4.8 Signed Integer Representation

The value of a signed integer is determined by taking the twos complement of the
integer.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable, test, that is assigned the value -28 decimal.
signed char test = 0xE4;

[Link] DIFFERENCES
All compilers have represented signed integers in the way described in this section.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.9 Integer Conversion

When converting an integer type to a signed integer of insufficient size, the original
value is truncated from the most-significant bit to accommodate the target size.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows an assignment of a value that is truncated.
signed char destination;
unsigned int source = 0x12FE;
destination = source;
Under the CCI, the value of destination after the alignment is -2 (i.e., the bit pattern
0xFE).

DS50002053E-page 22 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface
[Link] DIFFERENCES
All compilers have performed integer conversion in an identical fashion to that
described in this section.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.10 Bitwise Operations on Signed Values

Bitwise operations on signed values act on the twos complement representation,
including the sign bit. See also Section 2.4.11 Right-shifting Signed Values.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows an example of a negative quantity involved in a bitwise AND
operation.
signed char output, input = -13;
output = input & 0x7E;
Under the CCI, the value of output after the assignment is 0x72.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
All compilers have performed bitwise operations in an identical fashion to that
described in this section.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.11 Right-shifting Signed Values

Right-shifting a signed value will involve sign extension. This will preserve the sign of
the original value.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows an example of a negative quantity involved in a bitwise AND
operation.
signed char input, output = -13;
output = input >> 3;
Under the CCI, the value of output after the assignment is -2 (i.e., the bit pattern
0xFE).

[Link] DIFFERENCES
All compilers have performed right-shifting as described in this section.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002053E-page 23

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

2.4.12 Conversion of Union Member Accessed Using Member With

Different Type
If a union defines several members of different types and you use one member identi-
fier to try to access the contents of another (whether any conversion is applied to the
result) is implementation-defined behavior in the standard. In the CCI, no conversion is
applied and the bytes of the union object are interpreted as an object of the type of the
member being accessed, without regard for alignment or other possible invalid
conditions.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows an example of a union defining several members.
union {
signed char code;
unsigned int data;
float offset;
} foobar;
Code that attempts to extract offset by reading data is not guaranteed to read the
correct value.
float result;
result = [Link];

[Link] DIFFERENCES
All compilers have not converted union members accessed via other members.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.13 Default Bit-field int Type

The type of a bit-field specified as a plain int is identical to that of one defined using
unsigned int. This is quite different from other objects where the types int, signed
and signed int are synonymous. It is recommended that the signedness of the
bit-field be explicitly stated in all bit-field definitions.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows an example of a structure tag containing bit-fields that are
unsigned integers and with the size specified.
struct OUTPUTS {
int direction :1;
int parity :3;
int value :4;
};

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have previously issued a warning if type int was used for bit-fields,
but would implement the bit-field with an unsigned int type.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have implemented bit-fields defined using int as having
a signed int type, unless the option -funsigned-bitfields was specified.

DS50002053E-page 24 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface
[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI
Any code that defines a bit-field with the plain int type should be reviewed. If the inten-
tion was for these to be signed quantities, then the type of these should be changed to
signed int. For example, in the following example:
struct WAYPT {
int log :3;
int direction :4;
};
the bit-field type should be changed to signed int, as in:
struct WAYPT {
signed int log :3;
signed int direction :4;
};

2.4.14 Bit-fields Straddling a Storage Unit Boundary

The standard indicates that implementations can determine whether bit-fields cross a
storage unit boundary. In the CCI, bit-fields do not straddle a storage unit boundary; a
new storage unit is allocated to the structure, and padding bits fill the gap.
Note that the size of a storage unit differs with each compiler, as this is based on the
size of the base data type (e.g., int) from which the bit-field type is derived. On 8-bit
compilers this unit is 8-bits in size; for 16-bit compilers, it is 16 bits; and for 32-bit
compilers, it is 32 bits in size.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a structure containing bit-fields being defined.
struct {
unsigned first : 6;
unsigned second :6;
} order;
Under the CCI and using MPLAB XC8, the storage allocation unit is byte sized. The
bit-field, second, is allocated a new storage unit since there are only 2 bits remaining
in the first storage unit in which first is allocated. The size of this structure, order,
is 2 bytes.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
This allocation is identical with that used by all previous compilers.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.15 The Allocation Order of Bit-fields

The memory ordering of bit-fields into their storage unit is not specified by the ANSI C
Standard. In the CCI, the first bit defined is the least significant bit of the storage unit in
which it is allocated.

2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002053E-page 25

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a structure containing bit-fields being defined.
struct {
unsigned lo : 1;
unsigned mid :6;
unsigned hi : 1;
} foo;
The bit-field lo is assigned the least significant bit of the storage unit assigned to the
structure foo. The bit-field mid is assigned the next 6 least significant bits; and hi, the
most significant bit of that same storage unit byte.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
This is identical with the previous operation of all compilers.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.16 The NULL Macro

The NULL macro is defined in <stddef.h>; however, its definition is
implementation-defined behavior. Under the CCI, the definition of NULL is the expres-
sion (0).

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a pointer being assigned a null pointer constant via the NULL
macro.
int * ip = NULL;
The value of NULL, (0), is implicitly converted to the destination type.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 32-bit compilers previously assigned NULL the expression ((void *)0).

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No action required.

2.4.17 Floating-point Sizes

Under the CCI, floating-point types must not be smaller than 32 bits in size.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows the definition for outY, which is at least 32 bits in size.
float outY;

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have allowed the use of 24-bit float and double types.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

When using 8-bit compilers, the float and double type will automatically be made
32 bits in size once the CCI mode is enabled. Review any source code that may have
assumed a float or double type and may have been 24 bits in size.
No migration is required for other compilers.

DS50002053E-page 26 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface

2.5 ANSI STANDARD EXTENSIONS

The following topics describe how the CCI provides device-specific extensions to the
standard.

2.5.1 Generic Header File

A single header file <xc.h> must be used to declare all compiler- and device-specific
types and SFRs. You must include this file into every module to conform with the CCI.
Some CCI definitions depend on this header being seen.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows this header file being included, thus allowing conformance with the
CCI, as well as allowing access to SFRs.
#include <xc.h>

[Link] DIFFERENCES
Some 8-bit compilers used <htc.h> as the equivalent header. Previous versions of
the 16- and 32-bit compilers used a variety of headers to do the same job.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Change:
#include <htc.h>
previously used in 8-bit compiler code, or family-specific header files, e.g., from:
#include <p32xxxx.h>
#include <p30fxxxx.h>
#include <p33Fxxxx.h>
#include <p24Fxxxx.h>
#include "p30f6014.h"
to:
#include <xc.h>

2.5.2 Absolute Addressing

Variables and functions can be placed at an absolute address by using the __at()
construct. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the __at()
specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows two variables and a function being made absolute.
int scanMode __at(0x200);
const char keys[] __at(123) = { r, s, u, d};

int modify(int x) __at(0x1000) {

return x * 2 + 3;
}

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used an @ symbol to specify an absolute address.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the address attribute to specify an objects
address.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI
Avoid making objects and functions absolute if possible.
In MPLAB XC8, change absolute object definitions, e.g., from:
int scanMode @ 0x200;
to:
int scanMode __at(0x200);
In MPLAB XC16 and XC32, change code, e.g., from:
int scanMode __attribute__((address(0x200)));
to:
int scanMode __at(0x200);

[Link] CAVEATS
If the __at() and __section() specifiers are both applied to an object when using
MPLAB XC8, the __section() specifier is currently ignored.

2.5.3 Far Objects and Functions

The __far qualifier can be used to indicate that variables or functions are located in
far memory. Exactly what constitutes far memory is dependent on the target device,
but it is typically memory that requires more complex code to access. Expressions
involving far-qualified objects usually generate slower and larger code.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this qualifier.
Some devices may not have such memory implemented; in which case, use of this
qualifier is ignored. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the
__far specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable and function qualified using __far.
__far int serialNo;
__far int ext_getCond(int selector);

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier far to indicate this meaning. Functions
could not be qualified as far.
The 16-bit compilers have used the far attribute with both variables and functions.
The 32-bit compilers have used the far attribute with functions, only.

DS50002053E-page 28 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface
[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI
For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the far qualifier, e.g., from:
far char template[20];
to:
__far, i.e., __far char template[20];
In the 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the far attribute, e.g., from:
void bar(void) __attribute__ ((far));
int tblIdx __attribute__ ((far));
to:
void __far bar(void);
int __far tblIdx;

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.4 Near Objects

The __near qualifier can be used to indicate that variables or functions are located in
near memory. Exactly what constitutes near memory is dependent on the target
device, but it is typically memory that can be accessed with less complex code. Expres-
sions involving near-qualified objects generally are faster and result in smaller code.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this qualifier.
Some devices may not have such memory implemented; in which case, use of this
qualifier is ignored. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the
__near specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable and function qualified using __near.
__near int serialNo;
__near int ext_getCond(int selector);

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier near to indicate this meaning. Functions
could not be qualified as near.
The 16-bit compilers have used the near attribute with both variables and functions.
The 32-bit compilers have used the near attribute for functions, only.

2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc. DS50002053E-page 29

MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI
For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the near qualifier, e.g., from:
near char template[20];
to:
__near, i.e., __near char template[20];
In 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the near attribute, e.g., from:
void bar(void) __attribute__ ((near));
int tblIdx __attribute__ ((near));
to:
void __near bar(void);
int __near tblIdx;

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.5 Persistent Objects

The __persistent qualifier can be used to indicate that variables should not be
cleared by the runtime startup code.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this qualifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable qualified using __persistent.
__persistent int serialNo;

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier, persistent, to indicate this meaning.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the persistent attribute with variables to
indicate they were not to be cleared.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

With 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the persistent qualifier, e.g., from:
persistent char template[20];
to:
__persistent, i.e., __persistent char template[20];
For the 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the persistent attribute,
e.g., from:
int tblIdx __attribute__ ((persistent));
to:
int __persistent tblIdx;

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

DS50002053E-page 30 2012-2015 Microchip Technology Inc.

 Common C Interface

2.5.6 X and Y Data Objects

The __xdata and __ydata qualifiers can be used to indicate that variables are
located in special memory regions. Exactly what constitutes X and Y memory is depen-
dent on the target device, but it is typically memory that can be accessed independently
on separate buses. Such memory is often required for some DSP instructions.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of these qualifiers.
Some devices may not have such memory implemented; in which case, use of these
qualifiers is ignored.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable qualified using __xdata, as well as another variable
qualified with __ydata.
__xdata char data[16];
__ydata char coeffs[4];

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 16-bit compilers have used the xmemory and ymemory space attribute with
variables.
Equivalent specifiers have never been defined for any other compiler.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the space attributes xmemory or
ymemory, e.g., from:
char __attribute__((space(xmemory)))template[20];
to:
__xdata, or __ydata, i.e., __xdata char template[20];

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.7 Banked Data Objects

The __bank(num) qualifier can be used to indicate that variables are located in a par-
ticular data memory bank. The number, num, represents the bank number. Exactly what
constitutes banked memory is dependent on the target device, but it is typically a sub-
division of data memory to allow for assembly instructions with a limited address width
field.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of these qualifiers.
Some devices may not have banked data memory implemented; in which case, use of
this qualifier is ignored. The number of data banks implemented will vary from one
device to another.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable qualified using __bank().
__bank(0) char start;
__bank(5) char stop;

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the four qualifiers bank0, bank1, bank2 and bank3 to
indicate the same, albeit more limited, memory placement.
Equivalent specifiers have never been defined for any other compiler.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the bankx qualifiers, e.g., from:
bank2 int logEntry;
to:
__bank(), i.e., __bank(2) int logEntry;

[Link] CAVEATS
This feature is not yet implemented in MPLAB XC8.

2.5.8 Alignment of Objects

The __align(alignment) specifier can be used to indicate that variables must be
aligned on a memory address that is a multiple of the alignment specified. The align-
ment term must be a power of 2. Positive values request that the objects start address
be aligned; negative values imply the objects end address be aligned.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows variables qualified using __align() to ensure they end on an
address that is a multiple of 8, and start on an address that is a multiple of 2,
respectively.
__align(-8) int spacer;
__align(2) char coeffs[6];

[Link] DIFFERENCES
An alignment feature has never been implemented on 8-bit compilers.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers used the aligned attribute with variables.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the aligned attribute, e.g.,
from:
char __attribute__((aligned(4)))mode;
to:
__align, i.e., __align(4) char mode;

[Link] CAVEATS
This feature is not yet implemented on MPLAB XC8.

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 Common C Interface

2.5.9 EEPROM Objects

The __eeprom qualifier can be used to indicate that variables should be positioned in
EEPROM.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this qualifier.
Some devices may not implement EEPROM. Use of this qualifier for such devices
generates a warning. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the
__eeprom specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable qualified using __eeprom.
__eeprom int serialNos[4];

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier, eeprom, to indicate this meaning for some
devices.
The 16-bit compilers have used the space attribute to allocate variables to the memory
space used for EEPROM.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the eeprom qualifier, e.g., from:
eeprom char title[20];
to:
__eeprom, i.e., __eeprom char title[20];
For 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the eedata space attribute, e.g.,
from:
int mainSw __attribute__ ((space(eedata)));
to:
int __eeprom mainSw;

[Link] CAVEATS
MPLAB XC8 does not implement the __eeprom qualifiers for any PIC18 devices; this
qualifier works as expected for other 8-bit devices.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

2.5.10 Interrupt Functions

The __interrupt(type) specifier can be used to indicate that a function is to act as
an interrupt service routine. The type is a comma-separated list of keywords that
indicate information about the interrupt function.
The current interrupt types are:
<empty> Implement the default interrupt function.
low_priority The interrupt function corresponds to the low priority interrupt
source.
(MPLAB XC8 - PIC18 only)
high_priority The interrupt function corresponds to the high priority interrupt
source.
(MPLAB XC8)
save(symbol-list) Save on entry and restore on exit the listed symbols.
(XC16)
irq(irqid) Specify the interrupt vector associated with this interrupt.
(XC16)
altirq(altirqid) Specify the alternate interrupt vector associated with this
interrupt.
(XC16)
preprologue(asm) Specify assembly code to be executed before any
compiler-generated interrupt code.
(XC16)
shadow Allow the ISR to utilize the shadow registers for context
switching
(XC16)
auto_psv The ISR will set the PSVPAG register and restore it on exit.
(XC16)
no_auto_psv The ISR will not set the PSVPAG register.
(XC16)
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this specifier.
Some devices may not implement interrupts. Use of this qualifier for such devices
generates a warning. If the argument to the __interrupt specifier does not make
sense for the target device, a warning or error is issued by the compiler.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a function qualified using __interrupt.
__interrupt(low_priority) void getData(void) {
if (TMR0IE && TMR0IF) {
TMR0IF=0;
++tick_count;
}
}

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 Common C Interface
[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the interrupt and low_priority qualifiers to
indicate this meaning for some devices. Interrupt routines were, by default, high priority.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the interrupt attribute to define interrupt
functions.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the interrupt qualifier, e.g., from:
void interrupt myIsr(void)
void interrupt low_priority myLoIsr(void)
to the following, respectively:
void __interrupt(high_priority) myIsr(void)
void __interrupt(low_priority) myLoIsr(void)
For 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the interrupt attribute, e.g., from:
void _attribute_((interrupt(auto_psv,irq(52))))
_T1Interrupt(void);
to:
void __interrupt(auto_psv,irq(52))) _T1Interrupt(void);
For 32-bit compilers, the __interrupt() keyword takes two parameters, the vector
number and the (optional) IPL value. Change code that uses the interrupt attribute,
similar to these examples:
void __attribute__((vector(0), interrupt(IPL7AUTO), nomips16))
myisr0_7A(void) {}

void __attribute__((vector(1), interrupt(IPL6SRS), nomips16))

myisr1_6SRS(void) {}

/* Determine IPL and context-saving mode at runtime */

void __attribute__((vector(2), interrupt(), nomips16))
myisr2_RUNTIME(void) {}
to:
void __interrupt(0,IPL7AUTO) myisr0_7A(void) {}

void __interrupt(1,IPL6SRS) myisr1_6SRS(void) {}

/* Determine IPL and context-saving mode at runtime */

void __interrupt(2) myisr2_RUNTIME(void) {}

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

2.5.11 Packing Objects

The __pack specifier can be used to indicate that structures should not use memory
gaps to align structure members, or that individual structure members should not be
aligned.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this specifier.
Some compilers cannot pad structures with alignment gaps for some devices, and use
of this specifier for such devices is ignored.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a structure qualified using __pack, as well as a structure where
one member has been explicitly packed.
__pack struct DATAPOINT {
unsigned char type;
int value;
} x-point;
struct LINETYPE {
unsigned char type;
__pack int start;
long total;
} line;

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The __pack specifier is a new CCI specifier that is available with MPLAB XC8. This
specifier has no apparent effect since the device memory is byte addressable for all
data objects.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the packed attribute to indicate that a
structure member was not aligned with a memory gap.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

No migration is required for MPLAB XC8.
For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the packed attribute, e.g.,
from:
struct DOT
{
char a;
int x[2] __attribute__ ((packed));
};
to:
struct DOT
{
char a;
__pack int x[2];
};
Alternatively, you can pack the entire structure, if required.

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

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 Common C Interface

2.5.12 Indicating Antiquated Objects

The __deprecate specifier can be used to indicate that an object has limited longev-
ity and should not be used in new designs. It is commonly used by the compiler vendor
to indicate that compiler extensions or features can become obsolete, or that better fea-
tures have been developed and should be used in preference.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a function that uses the __deprecate keyword.
void __deprecate getValue(int mode)
{
//...
}

[Link] DIFFERENCES
No deprecate feature was implemented on 8-bit compilers.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the deprecated attribute (note the different
spelling) to indicate that objects should be avoided, if possible.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the deprecated attribute,
e.g., from:
int __attribute__(deprecated) intMask;
to:
int __deprecate intMask;

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.13 Assigning Objects to Sections

The __section() specifier can be used to indicate that an object should be located
in the named section (or psect, using MPLAB XC8 terminology). This is typically used
when the object has special and unique linking requirements that cannot be addressed
by existing compiler features.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this specifier.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a variable which uses the __section keyword.
int __section("comSec") commonFlag;

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the #pragma psect directive to redirect objects to a
new section, or psect. The operation of the __section() specifier differs from this
pragma in several ways, as described below.
Unlike with the pragma, the new psect created with __section() does not inherit the
flags of the psect in which the object would normally have been allocated. This means
that the new psect can be linked in any memory area, including any data bank. The
compiler also makes no assumptions about the location of the object in the new sec-
tion. Objects redirected to new psects using the pragma must always be linked in the
same memory area, albeit at any address in that area.
The __section() specifier allows objects that are initialized to be placed in a different
psect. Initialization of the object is still performed, even in the new psect. This requires
the automatic allocation of an additional psect (its name is the same as the new psect,
prefixed with the letter i), that will contain the initial values. The pragma cannot be used
with objects that are initialized.
Objects allocated a different psect with __section()are cleared by the runtime
startup code, unlike objects that use the pragma.
You must reserve memory, and locate via a linker option, for any new psect created with
a __section() specifier in the current MPLAB XC8 compiler implementation.
The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the section attribute to indicate a different
destination section name. The __section() specifier works in a similar way to the
attribute.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For MPLAB XC8, change any occurrence of the #pragma psect directive, such as:
#pragma psect text%%u=myText
int getMode(int target) {
//...
}
to the __section() specifier, as in:
int __section ("myText") getMode(int target) {
//...
}
For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the section attribute, e.g.,
from:
int __attribute__((section("myVars"))) intMask;
to:
int __section("myVars") intMask;

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.14 Specifying Configuration Bits

The #pragma config directive can be used to program the Configuration bits for a
device. The pragma has the form:
#pragma config setting = state|value
where setting is a configuration setting descriptor (e.g., WDT), state is a descriptive
value (e.g., ON) and value is a numerical value.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this directive.

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 Common C Interface
[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows Configuration bits being specified using this pragma.
#pragma config WDT=ON, WDTPS = 0x1A

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used the __CONFIG() macro for some targets that did not
already have support for the #pragma config.
The 16-bit compilers have used a number of macros to specify the configuration set-
tings.
The 32-bit compilers supported the use of #pragma config.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For the 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the __CONFIG() macro, e.g.,
__CONFIG(WDTEN & XT & DPROT)
to the #pragma config directive, e.g.,
#pragma config WDTE=ON, FOSC=XT, CPD=ON
No migration is required if the #pragma config was already used.
For the 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the _FOSC() or _FBORPOR()
macros attribute, e.g., from:
_FOSC(CSW_FSCM_ON & EC_PLL16);
to:
#pragma config FCKSMEM = CSW_ON_FSCM_ON, FPR = ECIO_PLL16
No migration is required for 32-bit code.

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.15 Manifest Macros

The CCI defines the general form for macros that manifest the compiler and target
device characteristics. These macros can be used to conditionally compile alternate
source code based on the compiler or the target device.
The macros and macro families are details in Table 2-1.

TABLE 2-1: MANIFEST MACROS DEFINED BY THE CCI

Name Meaning if defined Example
__XC__ Compiled with an MPLAB XC compiler __XC__
__CCI__ Compiler is CCI compliant and CCI enforce- __CCI__
ment is enabled
__XC##__ The specific XC compiler used (## can be 8, __XC8__
16 or 32)
__DEVICEFAMILY__ The family of the selected target device __dsPIC30F__
__DEVICENAME__ The selected target device name __18F452__

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows code that is conditionally compiled dependent on the device hav-
ing EEPROM memory.
#ifdef __XC16__
void __interrupt(__auto_psv__) myIsr(void)
#else
void __interrupt(low_priority) myIsr(void)
#endif

[Link] DIFFERENCES
Some of these CCI macros are new (for example __CCI__), and others have different
names to previous symbols with identical meaning (e.g., __18F452 is now
__18F452__).

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Any code that uses compiler-defined macros needs review. Old macros will continue to
work as expected, but they are not compliant with the CCI.
[Link] CAVEATS
None.

2.5.16 In-line Assembly

The asm() statement can be used to insert assembly code in-line with C code. The
argument is a C string literal that represents a single assembly instruction. Obviously,
the instructions contained in the argument are device specific.
Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on
the semantics of this statement.

[Link] EXAMPLE
The following shows a MOVLW instruction being inserted in-line.
asm("MOVLW _foobar");

[Link] DIFFERENCES
The 8-bit compilers have used either the asm() or #asm ... #endasm constructs to
insert in-line assembly code.
This is the same syntax used by the 16- and 32-bit compilers.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

For 8-bit compilers, change any instance of #asm ... #endasm, so that each instruction
in the #asm block is placed in its own asm()statement, e.g., from:
#asm
MOVLW 20
MOVWF _i
CLRF Ii+1
#endasm
to:
asm("MOVLW20");
asm("MOVWF _i");
asm("CLRFIi+1");
No migration is required for the 16- or 32-bit compilers.
[Link] CAVEATS
None.

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 Common C Interface

2.6 COMPILER FEATURES

The following item details the compiler options used to control the CCI.

2.6.1 Enabling the CCI

It is assumed that you are using the MPLAB X IDE to build projects that use the CCI.
The widget in the MPLAB X IDE Project Properties to enable CCI conformance is Use
CCI Syntax in the Compiler category.
If you are not using this IDE, then the command-line options are --EXT=cci for
MPLAB XC8 or -mcci for MPLAB XC16 and XC32.

[Link] DIFFERENCES
This option has never been implemented previously.

[Link] MIGRATION TO THE CCI

Enable the option.

[Link] CAVEATS
None.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
NOTES:

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 MPLAB XC8 C COMPILER
USERS GUIDE

Chapter 3. How Tos

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This section contains help and references for situations that are frequently encountered
when building projects for Microchip 8-bit devices. Click the links at the beginning of
each section to assist in finding the topic relevant to your question. Some topics are
indexed in multiple sections.
Start here:
Installing and Activating the Compiler
Invoking the Compiler
Writing Source Code
Getting My Application to Do What I Want
Understanding the Compilation Process
Fixing Code That Does Not Work

3.2 INSTALLING AND ACTIVATING THE COMPILER

This section details questions that might arise when installing or activating the compiler.
How Do I Install and Activate My Compiler?
How Can I Tell if the Compiler has Activated Successfully?
Can I Install More Than One Version of the Same Compiler?

3.2.1 How Do I Install and Activate My Compiler?

Installation of the compiler and activation of the license are performed simultaneously
by the XC compiler installer. The guide Installing and Licensing MPLAB XC C Compil-
ers (DS52059) is available on [Link]. It provides details on single-user
and network licenses, as well as how to activate a compiler for evaluation purposes.

3.2.2 How Can I Tell if the Compiler has Activated Successfully?

If you think the compiler cannot have installed correctly or is not working, it is best to
verify its operation outside of MPLAB IDE to isolate possible problems. Try running the
compiler from the command line to check for correct operation. You do not have to
actually compile code.
From your terminal or DOS-prompt, run the compiler driver xc8 (see
Section 4.2 Invoking the Compiler) with the option --VER. This option instructs the
compiler to print version information and exit. Under Windows, for example, type the
following line (replacing the path information with a path that is relevant to your instal-
lation).
"C:\Program Files\Microchip\xc8\v1.00\bin\xc8" --ver
The compiler should run, print an informative banner and quit.
The operating mode is printed by the compiler each time you build. Note that if it is not
activated properly, the compiler will continue to operate, but only in the Free mode. If
an error is displayed, or the compiler indicates Free mode, your activation was not
successful.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

3.2.3 Can I Install More Than One Version of the Same Compiler?
Yes, the compilers and installation process has been designed to allow you to have
more than one version of the same compiler installed, and you can easily move
between the versions by changing options in MPLAB IDE; see Section 3.3.4 How Can
I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?.
Compilers should be installed into a directory whose name is related to the compiler
version. This is reflected in the default directory specified by the installer. For example,
the 1.00 and 1.10 MPLAB XC8 compilers would typically be placed in separate
directories.
C:\Program Files\Microchip\xc8\v1.00\
C:\Program Files\Microchip\xc8\v1.10\

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 How Tos

3.3 INVOKING THE COMPILER

This section discusses how the compiler is run, on the command-line or from the
MPLAB IDE. It includes information about how to get the compiler to do what you want
it to do, in terms of options and the build process itself.
How Do I Compile From Within MPLAB X IDE?
How Do I Compile on the Command-line?
How Do I Compile Using a Make Utility?
How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?
How Can I Change the Compiler's Operating Mode?
How Do I Build Libraries?
How Do I Know What Compiler Options Are Available and What They Do?
How Do I Know What the Build Options in MPLAB X IDE Do?
What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug Build?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?
How Do I Use Library Files in My Project?
How Do I Place a Function Into a Unique Section?
What Optimizations Are Employed by the Compiler?

3.3.1 How Do I Compile From Within MPLAB X IDE?

MPLAB X IDE users guide and online help provide directions for setting up a project
in the MPLAB X integrated development environment.
If you have one or more MPLAB XC8 compilers installed, you select the compiler you
wish to use in the Configuration category in the Project Properties dialog. The options
for that compiler are then shown in the XC8 Compiler and XC8 Linker categories. Note
that each of these compiler categories have several Option categories.

3.3.2 How Do I Compile on the Command-line?

The compiler driver is called xc8 for all 8-bit PIC devices; e.g., in Windows, it is named
[Link]. This application should be invoked for all aspects of compilation. It is located
in the bin directory of the compiler distribution. Avoid running the individual compiler
applications (such as the assembler or linker) explicitly. You can compile and link in the
one command, even if your project is spread among multiple source files.
The driver is introduced in Section 4.2 Invoking the Compiler. See
Section 3.3.4 How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?, to ensure you
are running the correct driver if you have more than one installed. The command-line
options to the driver are detailed in Section 4.7 MPLAB XC8 Driver Options. The files
that can be passed to the driver are listed and described in Section 4.2.3 Input File
Types.

3.3.3 How Do I Compile Using a Make Utility?

When compiling using a make utility (such as make), the compilation is usually per-
formed as a two-step process: first generating the intermediate files, then the final com-
pilation and link step to produce one binary output. This is described in
Section 4.3.3 Multi-Step Compilation.
The MPLAB XC8 compiler uses a unique technology called OCG that uses an interme-
diate file format that is different than traditional compilers (including XC16 and XC32).
The intermediate file format used by XC8 is a p-code file (.p1 extension), not an object
file. Generating object files as an intermediate file for multi-step compilation defeats
many of the advantages of this technology.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

3.3.4 How Can I Select Which Compiler I Want to Build With?

The compilation and installation process has been designed to allow you to have more
than one compiler installed at the same time. You can create a project in MPLAB X IDE
and then build this project with different compilers by simply changing a setting in the
project properties.
To select which compiler is actually used when building a project under MPLAB X IDE,
go to the Project Properties dialog. Select the Configuration category in the Project
Properties dialog (Conf: [default]). A list of MPLAB XC8 compilers is shown in the
Compiler Toolchain, on the far right. Select the compiler that you require.
Once selected, the controls for that compiler are then shown by selecting the MPLAB
XC8 global options, MPLAB XC8 Compiler and MPLAB XC8 Linker categories. These
reveal a pane of options on the right. Note that each category has several panes which
can be selected from a pull-down menu that is near the top of the pane.

3.3.5 How Can I Change the Compiler's Operating Mode?

The compilers operating mode (Free, Standard or PRO, see Section 1.2 Compiler
Description and Documentation) can be specified as a command line option when
building on the command line; see Section 4.8.39 --MODE: Choose Compiler Operat-
ing Mode. If you are building under MPLAB X IDE, there is a Project Properties selec-
tor in the XC8 Compiler category, under the Optimizations option selector; see
Section 4.9.2 Compiler Category.
You can only select modes that your license entitles you to use. The Free mode is
always available; Standard or PRO can be selected if you have purchased a license for
those modes.

3.3.6 How Do I Build Libraries?

Note that XC8 uses a different code generation framework (OCG) that uses additional
library files to those used by traditional compilers (including XC16 and XC32). See
Section 4.3.1 The Compiler Applications, for general information on the library types
available and how they fit into the compilation process.
When you have functions and data that are commonly used in applications, you can
either make all the C source and header files available so that other developers can
copy these into their projects. Alternatively you can bundle these source files up into a
library which, along with the accompanying header files, can be linked into a project.
Libraries are more convenient because there are fewer files to deal with. Compiling
code from a library can also be fractionally faster. However, libraries do need to be
maintained. XC8 must use LPP libraries for library routines written in C; the old-style
LIB libraries are used for library routines written in assembly source. It is recommended
that even these libraries be rebuilt if your project is moving to a new compiler version.
Using the compiler driver, libraries can be built by listing all of the files that are to be
included into the library on the command line. None of these files should contain a
main() function, nor settings for Configuration bits or any other such data. Use the
--OUTPUT=lpp option; see Section 4.8.47 --OUTPUT= type: Specify Output File
Type, to indicate that a library file is required. For example:
XC8 --chip=16f877a --output=lpp lcd.c utils.c io.c
creates a library file called [Link]. You can specify another name using the -O
option; see Section 4.8.9 -O: Specify Output File, or just rename the file.

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 How Tos
To build a library in MPLAB X IDE, create a regular project.1 Add your source files in
the usual way. Add in the option --OUTPUT=lpp to the Additional Options field in the
MPLAB XC8 Linker category. Click Build. The IDE will issue a warning about the HEX
file being missing, but this can be ignored. The library output can be found in the
dist/default/production folder of the project directory.

3.3.7 How Do I Know What Compiler Options Are Available and What
They Do?
A list of all compiler options can be obtained by using the --HELP option on the com-
mand line; see Section 4.8.34 --HELP: Display Help. If you give the --HELP option
an argument, being an option name, it will give specific information on that option, for
example --HELP=runtime.
Alternatively, all options are all listed in Section 4.8 Option Descriptions in this users
guide. If you are compiling in MPLAB X IDE, see Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option
Equivalents.

3.3.8 How Do I Know What the Build Options in MPLAB X IDE Do?
Each of the widgets and controls, in the MPLAB X IDE Project Properties, map directly
to one command-line driver option or suboption, in most instances. Section 4.8 Option
Descriptions in this users guide lists all command-line driver options and includes
cross references, where appropriate, to corresponding sections that relate to access-
ing those options from the IDE. (see Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents).

3.3.9 What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug Build?

In MPLAB X, there are distinct build buttons and menu items to build (production) a
project and to debug a project.
While there are many differences between the builds in the IDE in the XC8 compiler,
there is very little that is different between the two types of build. The main difference
is the setting of a preprocessor macro called __DEBUG, which is assigned 1 when a
performing a debug build. This macro is not defined for production builds.
You can make code in your source conditional on this macro using #ifdef directives,
etc., (see Section 5.14.2 Preprocessor Directives); so that you can have your pro-
gram behave differently when you are still in a development cycle. Some compiler
errors are easier to track down after performing a debug build.
In MPLAB X IDE, memory is reserved for your debugger (if selected) only when you
perform a debug build. See Section 3.5.3 What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to
Use a Debugger? for more information.

1. At present, the IDE library projects are incompatible with MPLAB XC8.

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide

3.4 WRITING SOURCE CODE

This section presents issues that pertain to the source code you write. It has been
subdivided into the sections listed below.
C Language Specifics
Device-Specific Features
Memory Allocation
Variables
Functions
Interrupts
Assembly Code

3.4.1 C Language Specifics

This section discusses source code issues that directly relate to the C language itself,
but are commonly asked.
When Should I Cast Expressions?
Can Implicit Type Conversions Change the Expected Results of My Expressions?
How Do I Enter Non-English Characters Into My Program?
How Can I Use a Variable Defined in Another Source File?

[Link] WHEN SHOULD I CAST EXPRESSIONS?

Expressions can be explicitly case using the cast operator -- a type in round brackets,
e.g., (int). In all cases, conversion of one type to another must be done with caution
and only when absolutely necessary.
Consider the example:
unsigned long l;
unsigned int i;

i = l;
Here, a long type is being assigned to an int type, and the assignment will truncate
the value in l. The compiler will automatically perform a type conversion from the type
of the expression on the right of the assignment operator (long) to the type of the
lvalue on the left of the operator (int).This is called an implicit type conversion. The
compiler typically produces a warning concerning the potential loss of data by the trun-
cation.
A cast to type int is not required and should not be used in the above example if a
long to int conversion was intended. The compiler knows the types of both operands
and performs the conversion accordingly. If you did use a cast, there is the potential for
mistakes if the code is later changed. For example, if you had:
i = (int)l;
the code works the same way; but if, in future, the type of i is changed to a long, for
example, then you must remember to adjust the cast, or remove it, otherwise the con-
tents of l will continue to be truncated by the assignment, which cannot be correct.
Most importantly, the warning issued by the compiler will not be produced if the cast is
in place.

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 How Tos
Only use a cast in situations where the types used by the compiler are not the types
that you require. For example, consider the result of a division assigned to a floating
point variable:
int i, j;
float fl;

fl = i/j;
In this case, integer division is performed, then the rounded integer result is converted
to a float format. So, if i contained 7 and j contained 2, the division yields 3 and this
is implicitly converted to a float type (3.0) and then assigned to fl. If you wanted the
division to be performed in a float format, then a cast is necessary:
fl = (float)i/j;
(Casting either i or j forces the compiler to encode a floating-point division.) The
result assigned to fl now is 3.5.
An explicit cast can suppress warnings that might otherwise have been produced. This
can also be the source of many problems. The more warnings the compiler produces,
the better chance you have of finding potential bugs in your code.

[Link] CAN IMPLICIT TYPE CONVERSIONS CHANGE THE EXPECTED

RESULTS OF MY EXPRESSIONS?
Yes! The compiler will always use integral promotion and there is no way to disable this;
see Section 5.6.1 Integral Promotion. In addition, the types of operands to binary
operators are usually changed so that they have a common type, as specified by the C
Standard. Changing the type of an operand can change the value of the final expres-
sion, so it is very important that you understand the type C Standard conversion rules
that apply when dealing with binary operators. You can manually change the type of an
operand by casting; see Section [Link] When Should I Cast Expressions?.

[Link] HOW DO I ENTER NON-ENGLISH CHARACTERS INTO MY PROGRAM?

The ANSI standard (and accordingly, the MPLAB XC8 C compiler) does not support
extended characters set in character and string literals in the source character set. See
Section 5.4.6 Constant Types and Formats, to see how these characters can be
entered using escape sequences.

[Link] HOW CAN I USE A VARIABLE DEFINED IN ANOTHER SOURCE FILE?

Provided the variable defined in the other source file is not static (see
Section [Link].1 Static Variables) or auto (see Section [Link] Auto Variable Allo-
cation and access), then adding a declaration for that variable into the current file will
allow you to access it. A declaration consists of the keyword extern in addition to the
type and the name of the variable, as specified in its definition, e.g.,
extern int systemStatus;
This is part of the C language. Your favorite C textbook will give you more information.
The position of the declaration in the current file determines the scope of the variable.
That is, if you place the declaration inside a function, it will limit the scope of the variable
to that function. If you place it outside of a function, it allows access to the variable in
all functions for the remainder of the current file.
Often, declarations are placed in header files and then they are #included into the C
source code; see Section 5.14.2 Preprocessor Directives.

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3.4.2 Device-Specific Features

This section discusses the code that needs to be written to set up or control a feature
that is specific to Microchip PIC devices.
How Do I Set the Configuration Bits?
How Do I Use the PIC Devices ID Locations?
How Do I Determine the Cause of Reset on Mid-range Parts?
How Do I Access SFRs?
How Do I Place a Function Into a Unique Section?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?

[Link] HOW DO I SET THE CONFIGURATION BITS?

These should be set in your code using either a macro or a pragma. Earlier versions of
MPLAB IDE allowed you to set these bits in a dialog, but MPLAB X IDE requires that
they be specified in your source code. See Section 5.3.5 Configuration Bit Access, for
details about how these are set.

[Link] HOW DO I USE THE PIC DEVICES ID LOCATIONS?

There is a supplied macro or pragma that allows these values to be programmed; see
Section 5.3.7 ID Locations.

[Link] HOW DO I DETERMINE THE CAUSE OF RESET ON MID-RANGE

PARTS?
The TO and PD bits in the STATUS register allow you to determine the cause of a
Reset. However, these bits are quickly overwritten by the runtime startup code that is
executed before main is executed; see Section 5.10.1 Runtime Startup Code. You
can have the STATUS register saved into a location that is later accessible from C
code, so that the cause of Reset can be determined by the application after it is running
again; see Section [Link] STATUS Register Preservation.

[Link] HOW DO I ACCESS SFRS?

The compiler ships with header files; see Section 5.3.3 Device Header Files, that
define the variables that are mapped over the top of memory-mapped SFRs. Since
these are C variables, they can be used like any other C variables and no new syntax
is required to access these registers.
Bits within SFRs can also be accessed. Individual bit-wide variables are defined that
are mapped over the bits in the SFR. Bit-fields are also available in structures that map
over the SFR as a whole. You can use either in your code; see Section 5.3.6 Using
SFRs From C Code.
The name assigned to the variable is usually the same as the name specified in the
device data sheet. See Section [Link] How Do I Find The Names Used to Represent
SFRs and Bits?, if these names are not recognized.

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[Link] HOW DO I FIND THE NAMES USED TO REPRESENT SFRS AND BITS?
Special function registers and the bits within them are accessed via special variables
that map over the register; see Section [Link] How Do I Access SFRs?. However,
the names of these variables sometimes differ from those indicated in the data sheet
for the device you are using.
If required, you can examine the <xc.h> header file to find the device-specific header
file that is relevant for your device. This file will define the variables that allow access
to these special variables. However, an easier way to find these variable names is to
look in any of the preprocessed files left behind from a previous compilation. Provided
the corresponding source file included <xc.h>, the preprocessed file will show the
definitions for all the SFR variables and bits for your target device.
If you are compiling under MPLAB X IDE, the preprocessed file(s) are left under the
build/default/production directory of your project for regular builds, or under
build/default/debug for debug builds. They are typically left in the source file
directory if you are compiling on the command line. These files have a .pre extension.

3.4.3 Memory Allocation

Here are questions relating to how your source code affects memory allocation.
How Do I Position Variables at an Address I Nominate?
How Do I Place a Variable Into a Unique Section?
How Do I Position a Variable Into an Address Range?
How Do I Position Functions at an Address I Nominate?
How Do I Place Variables in Program Memory?
How Do I Place a Function Into a Unique Section?
How Do I Position a Function Into an Address Range?
How Do I Place a Function Into a Unique Section?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
Why Are Some Objects Positioned Into Memory That I Reserved?

[Link] HOW DO I POSITION VARIABLES AT AN ADDRESS I NOMINATE?

The easiest way to do this is to make the variable absolute by using the @ address
construct, see Section 5.5.4 Absolute Variables. This means that the address you
specify is used in preference to the variables symbol in generated code. Since you
nominate the address, you have full control over where objects are positioned. But, you
must also ensure that absolute variables do not overlap. Variables placed in the middle
of banks can cause havoc with the allocation of other variables and lead to Cant find
space errors; see Section 3.7.6 How Do I Fix a Cant find space... Error?. See also,
Section 5.5.2 Variables in Data Space Memory and Section 5.5.3 Variables in
Program Space for information on moving variables.

[Link] HOW DO I PLACE A VARIABLE INTO A UNIQUE SECTION?

Use the __section() specifier to have the variable positioned in a new section
(psect). After this has been done, the section can be linked to the desired address by
using the -L- driver option. See Section 5.15.4 Changing and Linking the Allocated
Section for examples of both these operations.

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[Link] HOW DO I POSITION A VARIABLE INTO AN ADDRESS RANGE?
You need to move the variable into a unique psect (section), define a memory range,
and then place the new section in that range.
Use the __section() specifier to have the variable positioned in a new section. Use
the -L- driver option to define a memory range and to place the new section in that
range. See Section 5.15.4 Changing and Linking the Allocated Section for examples
of all these operations.

[Link] HOW DO I POSITION FUNCTIONS AT AN ADDRESS I NOMINATE?

The easiest way to do this is to make the functions absolute by using the @ address
construct, see Section 5.8.4 Changing the Default Function Allocation. This means
that the address you specify is used in preference to the functions symbol in generated
code. Since you nominate the address, you have full control over where functions are
positioned, but must also ensure that absolute functions do not overlap. Functions
placed in the middle of pages can cause havoc with the allocation of other functions
and lead to Cant find space errors, see Section 3.7.6 How Do I Fix a Cant find
space... Error?.

[Link] HOW DO I PLACE VARIABLES IN PROGRAM MEMORY?

The const qualifier implies that the qualified variable is read-only. As a consequence
of this, any variables (except for auto variables or function parameters) that are
qualified const are placed in program memory, thus freeing valuable data RAM. See
Section 5.5.3 Variables in Program Space, for more information. Variables that are
qualified const can also be made absolute, so that they can be positioned at an
address you nominate; see Section [Link] Absolute Objects in Program Memory.

[Link] HOW DO I PLACE A FUNCTION INTO A UNIQUE SECTION?

Use the __section() specifier to have the function positioned into a new section
(psect). When this has been done, the section can be linked to the desired address by
using the -L- driver option. See Section 5.15.4 Changing and Linking the Allocated
Section for examples of both these operations.

[Link] HOW DO I POSITION A FUNCTION INTO AN ADDRESS RANGE?

Having one or more functions located in a special area of memory might mean that you
can ensure they are code protected, for example. To do this, you need to move the
function into a unique section (psect), define a memory range, and then place the new
section in that range.
Use the __section() specifier to have the function positioned into a new section.
Use the -L- driver option to define a memory range and to place the new section into
that range. See Section 5.15.4 Changing and Linking the Allocated Section for exam-
ples of all these operations.

[Link] HOW DO I STOP THE COMPILER FROM USING CERTAIN MEMORY

LOCATIONS?
Memory can be reserved when you build. The --RAM and --ROM options allow you to
adjust the ranges of data and program memory, respectively, when you build; see
Section 4.8.52 --RAM: Adjust RAM Ranges, and Section 4.8.53 --ROM: Adjust ROM
Ranges. By default, all the available on-chip memory is available for use. However,
these options allow you to reserve parts of this memory.

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3.4.4 Variables
This sections examines questions that relate to the definition and usage of variables
and types within a program.
Why Are My Floating-point Results Not Quite What I Am Expecting?
How Can I Access Individual Bits of a Variable?
How Long Can I Make My Variable and Macro Names?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?
How Do I Position Variables at an Address I Nominate?
How Do I Place Variables in Program Memory?
How Do I Place Variables in the PIC18 Devices External Program Memory?
How Can I Rotate a Variable?
How Do I Utilize/Allocate the RAM Banks on My Device?
How Do I Utilize the Linear Memory on Enhanced Mid-range PIC Devices?
How Do I Find Out Where Variables and Functions Have Been Positioned?

[Link] WHY ARE MY FLOATING-POINT RESULTS NOT QUITE WHAT I AM

EXPECTING?
First, if you are watching floating-point variables in MPLAB X IDE, make sure that their
type and size agree with the way in which they are defined. For 24-bit floating point vari-
ables (whether they have type float or double), ensure that in MPLAB X IDE the
Display Column Value As popup menu to IEEE Float (24 bit). If the variable is a 32-bit
floating point object, set the types to IEEE Float.
The size of the floating point type can be adjusted for both float and double types;
see Section 4.8.32 --FLOAT: Select Kind of Float Types, and
Section 4.8.24 --DOUBLE: Select Kind of Double Types.
Since floating-point variables only have a finite number of bits to represent the values
they are assigned, they will hold an approximation of their assigned value; see
Section 5.4.3 Floating-Point Data Types. A floating-point variable can only hold one
of a set of discrete real number values. If you attempt to assign a value that is not in
this set, it is rounded to the nearest value. The more bits used by the mantissa in the
floating-point variable, the more values can be exactly represented in the set, and the
average error due to the rounding is reduced.
Whenever floating-point arithmetic is performed, rounding also occurs. This can also
lead to results that do not appear to be correct.

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[Link] HOW CAN I ACCESS INDIVIDUAL BITS OF A VARIABLE?
There are several ways of doing this. The simplest and most portable way is to define
an integer variable and use macros to read, set, or clear the bits within the variable
using a mask value and logical operations, such as the following.
#define testbit(var, bit) ((var) & (1 <<(bit)))
#define setbit(var, bit) ((var) |= (1 << (bit)))
#define clrbit(var, bit) ((var) &= ~(1 << (bit)))
These, respectively, test to see if bit number, bit, in the integer, var, is set; set the
corresponding bit in var; and clear the corresponding bit in var. Alternatively, a
union of an integer variable and a structure with bit-fields (see
Section [Link] Bit-Fields in Structures) can be defined, e.g.,
union both {
unsigned char byte;
struct {
unsigned b0:1, b1:1, b2:1, b3:1, b4:1, b5:1, b6:1, b7:1;
} bitv;
} var;
This allows you to access byte as a whole (using [Link]), or any bit within that
variable independently (using [Link].b0 through [Link].b7).
Note that the compiler does support bit variables (see Section [Link] Bit Data Types
and Variables), as well as bit-fields in structures.

[Link] HOW LONG CAN I MAKE MY VARIABLE AND MACRO NAMES?

The C Standard indicates that a only a specific number of initial characters in an iden-
tifier are significant, but it does not actually state what this number is and it varies from
compiler to compiler. For XC8, the first 255 characters are significant, but this can be
reduced using the -N option; see Section 4.8.8 -N: Identifier Length. The fewer char-
acters there are in your variable names, the more portable your code. Using the -N
option allows the compiler to check that your identifiers conform to a specific length.
This option affects variable and function names, as well as preprocessor macro names.
If two identifiers only differ in the non-significant part of the name, they are considered
to represent the same object, which will almost certainly lead to code failure.

3.4.5 Functions
This section examines questions that relate to functions.
What is the Optimum Size For Functions?
How Do I Stop An Unused Function Being Removed?
How Do I Make a Function Inline?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?
How Do I Position Functions at an Address I Nominate?
How Do I Know Which Resources Are Being Used by Each Function?
How Do I Find Out Where Variables and Functions Have Been Positioned?
How Do I Use Interrupts in C?

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[Link] WHAT IS THE OPTIMUM SIZE FOR FUNCTIONS?
Generally speaking, the source code for functions should be kept small, as this aids in
readability and debugging. It is much easier to describe and debug the operation of a
function that performs a small number of tasks. And, they typically have fewer side
effects, which can be the source of coding errors.
In the embedded programming world, a large number of small functions, and the calls
necessary to execute them, can result in excessive memory and stack usage, so a
compromise is often necessary.
The PIC10/12/16 devices employ pages in the program memory that are used to store
and execute function code. Although you are able to write C functions that will generate
more than one page of assembly code, functions of such a size should be avoided and
split into smaller routines where possible. The assembly call and jump sequences to
locations in other pages are much longer than those made to destinations in the same
page. If a function is so large as to cross a page boundary, then loops (or other code
constructs that require jumps within that function) can use the longer form of jump on
each iteration; see Section 5.8.3 Allocation of Executable Code.
PIC18 devices are less affected by internal memory paging and the instruction set
allows for calls and jumps to any destination with no penalty. But you should still
endeavor to keep functions as small as possible.
Interrupt functions must be written so that they do not exceed the size of a memory
page. They cannot be split to occupy more than one page.
With all devices, the smaller the function, the easier it is for the linker to allocate it to
memory without errors.

[Link] HOW DO I STOP AN UNUSED FUNCTION BEING REMOVED?

If a C functions symbol is referenced in hand-written assembly code, the function will
never be removed, even if it is not called or never had its address taken in C code.
Create an assembly source file and add this file to your project. You only have to
reference the symbol in this file; so, the file can contain the following
GLOBAL _myFunc
where myFunc is the C name of the function in question (note the leading underscore
in the assembly name, see Section [Link] Equivalent Assembly Symbols). This is
sufficient to prevent the function removal optimization from being performed.

[Link] HOW DO I MAKE A FUNCTION INLINE?

You can ask the compiler to inline a function by using the inline specifier (see
Section [Link] Inline Specifier) or #pragma inline. This is only a suggestion to the
compiler and cannot always be obeyed. Do not confuse this specifier/pragma with the
intrinsic pragma1 (see Section [Link] The #pragma Intrinsic Directive), which
is for functions that have no corresponding source code and which will be specifically
expanded by the code generator during compilation.

1. This specifier was originally named in-line but was changed to avoid confusion.

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3.4.6 Interrupts
Interrupt and interrupt service routine questions are discussed in this section.
How Do I Use Interrupts in C?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?
How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?

[Link] HOW DO I USE INTERRUPTS IN C?

First, be aware of what sort of interrupt hardware is available on your target device.
Baseline PIC devices do not implement interrupts at all; mid-range devices utilize a sin-
gle interrupt vector, and PIC18 devices implement two separate interrupt vector
locations and use a simple priority scheme.
In C source code, a function can be written to act as the interrupt service routine by
using the interrupt qualifier; see Section 5.9.1 Writing an Interrupt Service Rou-
tine. Such functions save/restore program context before/after executing the function
body code and a different return instruction is used; see Section 5.9.4 Context Switch-
ing. There must be no more than one interrupt function for each interrupt vector imple-
mented on the target device.
Aside from the interrupt qualifier, the function prototype must specify no parameters
and a void return type. If you wish to implement the low priority interrupt function on
PIC18 devices, use the low_priority keyword as well as the interrupt qualifier.
Code inside the interrupt function can do anything you like, but see Section 3.6.7 How
Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster? for suggestions to enhance real-time perfor-
mance.
Prior to any interrupt occurring, your program must ensure that peripherals are
correctly configured and that interrupts are enabled; see Section 5.9.5 Enabling
Interrupts. On PIC18 devices, you must specify the priority of interrupt sources by
writing the appropriate SFRs.

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3.4.7 Assembly Code

This section examines questions that arise when writing assembly code as part of a C
project.
How Should I Combine Assembly and C Code?
What Do I Need Other than Instructions in an Assembly Source File?
How Do I Access C Objects from Assembly Code?
How Can I Access SFRs from Within Assembly Code?
What Things Must I Manage When Writing Assembly Code?

[Link] HOW SHOULD I COMBINE ASSEMBLY AND C CODE?

Ideally, any hand-written assembly should be written as separate routines that can be
called. This offers some degree of protection from interaction between compiler-gener-
ated and hand-written assembly code. Such code can be placed into a separate
assembly module that can be added to your project; see Section 5.12.1 Integrating
Assembly Language Modules.
If necessary, assembly code can be added in-line with C code using either of two meth-
ods; see Section 5.12.2 #asm, #endasm and asm(). The code added in-line should
ideally be limited to instructions such as NOP, SLEEP or CLRWDT. Macros are already
provided which in-line all these instructions; see Appendix A. Library Functions. More
complex in-line assembly that changes register contents and the device state can
cause code failure if precautions are not taken and should be used with caution. See
Section 5.7 Register Usage for those registers used by the compiler.

[Link] WHAT DO I NEED OTHER THAN INSTRUCTIONS IN AN ASSEMBLY

SOURCE FILE?
Assembly code typically needs assembler directives as well as the instructions them-
selves. The operation of all the directives are described in the subsections of
Section 6.2.9 Assembler Directives. Common directives required are mentioned
below.
All assembly code must be placed in a psect so it can be manipulated as a whole by
the linker and placed in memory. See Section 5.15.1 Program Sections for general
information on psects; see Section [Link] PSECT for information on the directive
used to create and specify psects.
The other commonly used directive is GLOBAL, defined in Section [Link] GLOBAL
which is used to make symbols accessible across multiple source files.

[Link] HOW DO I ACCESS C OBJECTS FROM ASSEMBLY CODE?

Most C objects are accessible from assembly code. There is a mapping between the
symbols used in the C source and those used in the assembly code generated from
this source. Your assembly should access the assembly-equivalent symbols which are
detailed in Section 5.12.3 Interaction between Assembly and C Code.
Instruct the assembler that the symbol is defined elsewhere by using the GLOBAL
assembler directive; see Section [Link] GLOBAL. This is the assembly equivalent of
a C declaration, although no type information is present. This directive is not needed
and should not be used if the symbol is defined in the same module as your assembly
code.
Any C variable accessed from assembly code will be treated as if it were qualified
volatile; see Section [Link] Volatile Type Qualifier. Specifically specifying the
volatile qualifier in C code is preferred as it makes it clear that external code can
access the object.

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[Link] HOW CAN I ACCESS SFRS FROM WITHIN ASSEMBLY CODE?
The safest way to gain access to SFRs in assembly code is to have symbols defined
in your assembly code that equate to the corresponding SFR address. Header files are
provided with the compiler so that you do not need to define these yourselves, and they
are detailed in Section [Link] Accessing Registers from Assembly Code.
There is no guarantee that you will be able to access symbols generated by the
compilation of C code, even the code that accesses the SFR that you require.

[Link] WHAT THINGS MUST I MANAGE WHEN WRITING ASSEMBLY CODE?

When writing assembly code by hand, you assume responsibility for managing certain
features of the device and formatting your assembly instructions and operands. The
following list describes some of the actions you must take.
Whenever you access a RAM variable, you must ensure that the bank of the vari-
able is selected before you read or write the location. This is done by one or more
assembly instructions. The exact code is based on the device you are using and
the location of the variable. Bank selection is not be required if the object is in
common memory, (which is called the access bank on PIC18 devices) or if you
are using an instruction that takes a full address (such as the MOVFF instruction on
PIC18 devices). Check your device data sheet to see the memory architecture of
your device, and the instructions and registers which control bank selection. Fail-
ure to select the correct bank will lead to code failure.
The BANKSEL pseudo instruction can be used to simplify this process; see
Section [Link] Bank and Page Selection.
You must ensure that the address of the RAM variable you are accessing has
been masked so that only the bank offset is being used as the instructions file
register operand. This should not be done if you are using an instruction that takes
a full address (such as the MOVFF instruction on PIC18 devices). Check your
device data sheet to see what address operand instructions requires. Failure to
mask an address can lead to a fixup error (see Section 3.7.8 How Do I Fix a
Fixup Overflow Error?) or code failure.
The BANKMASK macro can truncate the address for you; see
Section [Link] Accessing Registers from Assembly Code.
Before you call or jump to any routine, you must ensure that you have selected
the program memory page of this routine using the appropriate instructions. You
can either use the PAGESEL pseudo instruction; see Section [Link] Bank and
Page Selection, or the FCALL or LJMP pseudo instructions (not required on
PIC18 devices); see Section [Link] Long Jumps and Calls which will
automatically add page selection instructions, if required.
You must ensure that any RAM used for storage has memory reserved. If you are
only accessing variables defined in C code, then reservation is already done by
the compiler. You must reserve memory for any variables you only use in the
assembly code using an appropriate directive such as DS or DABS; see
Section [Link] DS or Section [Link] DABS. It is often easier to define
objects in C code rather than in assembly code.

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You must place any assembly code you write in a psect (see
Section [Link] PSECT for the directive to do this, and Section 5.15.1 Program
Sections for general information about psects). A psect you define may need
flags (options) to be specified. Take particular notice of the delta, space, reloc
and class flags (see Section [Link].4 Delta, and Section [Link].17 Space,
Section [Link].15 Reloc and Section [Link].3 Class). If these are not set cor-
rectly, compile errors or code failure will almost certainly result. If the psect speci-
fies a class and you are happy with it being placed anywhere in the memory range
defined by that class (see Section 7.2.1 -Aclass =low-high,...), it does not need
any additional options to be linked; otherwise, you will need to link the psect using
a linker option (see Section 7.2.19 -Pspec for the usual way to link psects and
Section 4.8.6 -L-: Adjust Linker Options Directly which indicates how you can
specify this option without running the linker directly).
Assembly code that is placed in-line with C code will be placed in the same psect
as the compiler-generated assembly and you should not place this into a separate
psect.
You must ensure that any registers you write to in assembly code are not already
in used by compiler-generated code. If you write assembly in a separate module,
then this is less of an issue because the compiler will, by default, assume that all
registers are used by these routines (see Section 5.7 Register Usage). No
assumptions are made for in-line assembly (although the compiler will assume
that the selected bank was changed by the assembly, see Section 5.12.2 #asm,
#endasm and asm()) and you must be careful to save and restore any resources
that you use (modify) and which are already in use by the surrounding com-
piler-generated code.

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3.5 GETTING MY APPLICATION TO DO WHAT I WANT

This section provides programming techniques, applications and examples. It also
examines questions that relate to making an application perform a specific task.
What Can Cause Glitches on Output Ports?
How Do I Link Bootloaders and Downloadable Applications?
What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?
How Can I Have Code Executed Straight After Reset?
How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?
How Can I Prevent Misuse of My Code?
How Do I Use Printf to Send Text to a Peripheral?
How Do I Calibrate the Oscillator on My Device?
How Do I Place Variables in the PIC18 Devices External Program Memory?
How Can I Implement a Delay in My Code?
How Can I Rotate a Variable?
How Can I Stop Variables Being Cleared at Startup?

3.5.1 What Can Cause Glitches on Output Ports?

In most cases, this is caused by using ordinary variables to access port bits or the entire
port itself. These variables should be qualified volatile.
The value stored in a variable mapped over a port (hence the actual value written to
the port) directly translates to an electrical signal. It is vital that the values held by these
variables only change when the code intends them to, and that they change from their
current state to their new value in a single transition. See Section [Link] Volatile Type
Qualifier. The compiler attempts to write to volatile variables in one operation.

3.5.2 How Do I Link Bootloaders and Downloadable Applications?

Exactly how this is done depends on the device you are using and your project require-
ments, but the general approach when compiling applications that use a bootloader is
to allocate discrete program memory space to the bootloader and application so they
have their own dedicated memory. In this way the operation of one cannot affect the
other. This will require that either the bootloader or the application is offset in memory.
That is, the Reset and interrupt location are offset from address 0 and all program code
is offset by the same amount.
On PIC18 devices, typically the application code is offset, and the bootloader is linked
with no offset so that it populates the Reset and interrupt code locations. The boot-
loader Reset and interrupt code merely contains code which redirects control to the real
Reset and interrupt code defined by the application and which is offset.
On mid-range devices, this is not normally possible to perform when interrupts are
being used. Consider offsetting all of the bootloader with the exception of the code
associated with Reset, which must always be defined by the bootloader. The applica-
tion code can define the code linked at the interrupt location. The bootloader will need
to remap any application code that attempts to overwrite the Reset code defined by the
bootloader.
The option --CODEOFFSET, (see Section 4.8.21 --CODEOFFSET: Offset Program
Code to Address), allows the program code (Reset and vectors included) to be moved
by a specified amount. The option also restricts the program from using any program
memory from address 0 (Reset vector) to the offset address. Always check the map
file; see Section 7.3.3 Contents, to ensure that nothing remains in reserved areas.

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The contents of the HEX file for the bootloader can be merged with the code of the
application by adding the HEX file as a project file, either on the command line, or in
MPLAB IDE. This results in a single HEX file that contains the bootloader and applica-
tion code in the one image. HEX files are merged by the HEXMATE application; see
Section 8.3 HEXMATE. Check for warnings from this application about overlap, which
can indicate that memory is in use by both bootloader and the downloadable applica-
tion.

3.5.3 What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use a Debugger?

You can use debuggers, such as ICD3 or REALICE, to debug code built with the
MPLAB XC8 compiler. These debuggers use some of the data and program memory
of the device for its own use, so it is important that your code does not also use these
resources.
There is a command-line option; see Section 4.8.23 --DEBUGGER: Select Debugger
Type, that can be used to tell the compiler which debugger is to be used. The compiler
can then reserve the memory used by the debugger so that your code will not be
located in these locations.
In the MPLAB X IDE, the appropriate debugger option is specified if you perform a
debug build. It will not be specified if you perform a regular Build Project or Clean and
Build.
Since some device memory is being used up by the debugger, there is less available
for your program and it is possible that your code or data might not fit in the device when
a debugger is selected.
Note that which specific memory locations used by the debuggers is an attribute of
MPLAB IDE, not the device. If you move a project to a new version of the IDE, the
resources required can change. For this reason, you should not manually reserve
memory for the debugger, or make any assumptions in your code as to what memory
is used. A summary of the debugger requirements is available in the MPLAB IDE help
files.
To verify that the resources reserved by the compiler match those required by the
debugger, do the following. Compile your code with and without the debugger selected
and keep a copy of the map file produced for both builds. Compare the linker options
in the map files and look for changes in the -A options; see Section 7.2.1 -Aclass
=low-high,.... For example, the memory defined for the CODE class with no debugger
might be specified by this option:
-ACODE=00h-0FFh,0100h-07FFh,0800h-0FFFhx3
and with the ICD3 selected as the debugger, it becomes:
-ACODE=00h-0FFh,0100h-07FFh,0800h-0FFFhx2,01800h-01EFFh
This shows that a memory range from 1F00 to 1FFF has been removed by the compiler
and cannot be used by your program. See also Section 3.6.16 Why Are Some Objects
Positioned Into Memory That I Reserved?.

3.5.4 How Can I Have Code Executed Straight After Reset?

A special hook has been provided so you can easily add special powerup assembly
code which will be linked to the Reset vector; see Section 5.10.2 The Powerup Rou-
tine. This code will be executed before the runtime startup code is executed, which in
turn is executed before the main function; see Section 5.10 Main, Runtime Startup
and Reset.

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3.5.5 How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?

Variables accessed from both interrupt and main-line code can easily become cor-
rupted or mis-read by the program. The volatile qualifier (see
Section [Link] Volatile Type Qualifier) tells the compiler to avoid performing optimi-
zations on such variables. This will fix some of the issues associated with this problem.
The other issues relates to whether the compiler/device can access the data atomically.
With 8-bit PIC devices, this is rarely the case. An atomic access is one where the entire
variable is accessed in only one instruction. Such access is uninterruptible. You can
determine if a variable is being accessed atomically by looking at the assembly code
the compiler produces in the assembly list file; see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files. If
the variable is accessed in one instruction, it is atomic. Since the way variables are
accessed can vary from statement to statement it is usually best to avoid these issues
entirely by disabling interrupts prior to the variable being accessed in main-line code,
then re-enable the interrupts afterwards; see Section 5.9.5 Enabling Interrupts.

3.5.6 How Can I Prevent Misuse of My Code?

First, many devices with flash program memory allow all or part of this memory to be
write protected. The device Configuration bits need to be set correctly for this to take
place; see Section 5.3.5 Configuration Bit Access and your device data sheet.
Second, you can prevent third-party code being programmed at unused locations in the
program memory by filling these locations with a value rather than leaving them in their
default unprogrammed state. You can chose a fill value that corresponds to an instruc-
tion or set all the bits so as the values cannot be further modified. (Consider what will
happen if you program somehow reaches and starts executing from these filled values.
What instruction will be executed?)
The compilers HEXMATE utility (see Section 8.3 HEXMATE) has the capability to fill
unused locations and this operation can be requested using a command-line driver
option; see Section 4.8.31 --FILL: Fill Unused Program Memory. As HEXMATE only
works with HEX files, this feature is only available when producing HEX/COF file out-
puts (as opposed to binary, for example), which is the default operation.
And last, if you wish to make your library files or intermediate p-code files available to
others but do not want the original source code to be viewable, then you can obfuscate
the files using the --SHROUD option; see Section 4.8.58 --SHROUD: Obfuscate
P-code Files

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3.5.7 How Do I Use Printf to Send Text to a Peripheral?

The printf function does two things: it formats text based on the format string and
placeholders you specify, and sends (prints) this formatted text to a destination (or
stream); see Appendix A. Library Functions. The printf function performs all the for-
matting; then it calls a helper function, called putch, to send each byte of the formatted
text. By customizing the putch function you can have printf send data to any periph-
eral or location; see Section 5.11.1 The printf Routine. You can choose the printf
output go to an LCD, SPI module or USART, for example.
A stub for the putch function can be found in the compilers sources directory. Copy
it into your project then modify it to send the single byte parameter passed to it to the
required destination. Before you can use printf, peripherals that you use will need to
be initialized in the usual way. Here is an example of putch for a USART on a mid-range
device.
void putch(char data) {
while( ! TXIF) // check buffer
continue; // wait till ready
TXREG = data; // send data
}
You can get printf to send to one of several destinations by using a global variable
to indicate your choice. Have the putch function send the byte to one of several des-
tinations based on the contents of this variable.

3.5.8 How Do I Calibrate the Oscillator on My Device?

Some devices allow for calibration of their internal oscillators; see your device data
sheet. The runtime startup code generated by the compiler, (see
Section 5.10.1 Runtime Startup Code), will by default provide code that performs
oscillator calibration. This can be disabled, if required, using an option; see
Section 4.8.54 --RUNTIME: Specify Runtime Environment.

3.5.9 How Do I Place Variables in the PIC18 Devices External

Program Memory?
If all you mean to do is place read-only variables in program memory, qualify them as
const; see Section 5.5.3 Variables in Program Space. If you intend the variables to
be located in the external program memory then use the far qualifier and specify the
memory using the --RAM option; see Section 4.8.52 --RAM: Adjust RAM Ranges.
The compiler will allow far-qualified variables to be modified. Note that the time to
access these variables will be longer than for variables in the internal data memory. The
access mode to external memory can be specified with an option; see
Section 4.8.26 --EMI: Select External Memory Interface Operating Mode.

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3.5.10 How Can I Implement a Delay in My Code?

If an accurate delay is required, or if there are other tasks that can be performed during
the delay, then using a timer to generate an interrupt is the best way to proceed.
If these are not issues in your code, then you can use the compilers in-built delay
pseudo-functions: _delay, __delay_ms or __delay_us; see Appendix A. Library
Functions. These all expand into in-line assembly instructions or a (nested) loop of
instructions which will consume the specified number of cycles or time. The delay argu-
ment must be a constant and less than approximately 179,200 for PIC18 devices and
approximately 50,659,000 for other devices.
Note that these code sequences will only use the NOP instruction and/or instructions
which form a loop. The alternate PIC18-only versions of these pseudo-functions, e.g.,
_delaywdt, can use the CLRWDT instruction as well. See also, Appendix A. Library
Functions.

3.5.11 How Can I Rotate a Variable?

The C language does not have a rotate operator, but rotations can be performed using
the shift and bitwise OR operators. Since the PIC devices have a rotate instruction, the
compiler will look for code expressions that implement rotates (using shifts and ORs)
and use the rotate instruction in the generated output wherever possible; see
Section 5.6.2 Rotation.

3.5.12 How Can I Stop Variables Being Cleared at Startup?

Use the persistent qualifier (see Section [Link] Persistent Type Qualifier), which
will place the variables in a different psect that is not cleared by the runtime startup
code.

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3.6 UNDERSTANDING THE COMPILATION PROCESS

This section tells you how to find out what the compiler did during the build process,
how it encoded output code, where it placed objects, etc. It also discusses the features
that are supported by the compiler.
Whats the Difference Between the Free, Standard and PRO Modes?
How Can I Make My Code Smaller?
How Can I Reduce RAM Usage?
How Can I Make My Code Faster?
How Can I Speed Up Programming Times
How Does the Compiler Place Everything in Memory?
How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?
How Big Can C Variables Be?
How Do I Utilize/Allocate the RAM Banks on My Device?
How Do I Utilize the Linear Memory on Enhanced Mid-range PIC Devices?
What Devices are Supported by the Compiler?
How Do I Know What Code the Compiler Is Producing?
How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?
How Do I Know Which Resources Are Being Used by Each Function?
How Do I Find Out Where Variables and Functions Have Been Positioned?
Why Are Some Objects Positioned Into Memory That I Reserved?
How Do I Know How Much Memory Is Still Available?
How Do I Use Library Files in My Project?
What Optimizations Are Employed by the Compiler?
Why Do I Get Out-of-memory Errors When I Select a Debugger?
How Do I Know Which Stack Model the Compiler Has Assigned to a Function?
How Do I Know What Value Has Been Programmed in the Configuration Bits or ID
Location?
See, also, the following linked information in other sections.
How Do I Find Out What an Warning/error Message Means?
What is Different About an MPLAB X IDE Debug Build?
How Do I Stop An Unused Function Being Removed?
How Do I Build Libraries?

3.6.1 Whats the Difference Between the Free, Standard and PRO
Modes?
These modes (see Section 1.2 Compiler Description and Documentation) mainly dif-
fer in the optimizations that are performed when compiling. Compilers operating in Free
(formerly called Lite) and Standard mode can compile for all the same devices as sup-
ported by the Pro mode. The code compiled in Free and Standard mode can use all the
available memory for the selected device. What will be different is the size and speed
of the generated compiler output. Free mode output will be much less efficient when
compared to that produced in Standard mode, which in turn will be less efficient than
that produce when in Pro mode.
All these modes use the OCG compiler framework, so the entire C program is compiled
in one step and the source code does not need many non-standard extensions.

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There are a small number of command-line options disabled in Free mode, but these
do not relate to code features; merely how the compiler can be executed. Most
customers never need to use these options. The options are --GETOPTION (see
Section 4.8.33 --GETOPTION: Get Command-line Options) and --SETOPTION (see
Section 4.8.57 --SETOPTION: Set the Command-line Options for Application).

3.6.2 How Can I Make My Code Smaller?

There are a number of ways that this can be done, but results vary from one project to
the next. Use the assembly list file, (see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files), to observe
the assembly code produced by the compiler to verify that the following tips are relevant
to your code.
Use the smallest data types possible as less code is needed to access these. (This also
reduces RAM usage.) Note that a bit type and non-standard 24-bit integer type
(short long) exists for this compiler. Avoid multi-bit bit-fields whenever possible. The
code used to access these can be very large. See Section 5.4 Supported Data Types
and Variables, for all data types and sizes.
There are two sizes of floating-point type, as well, and these are discussed in the same
section. Avoid floating-point if at all possible. Consider writing fixed-point arithmetic
code.
Use unsigned types, if possible, instead of signed types; particularly if they are used in
expressions with a mix of types and sizes. Try to avoid an operator acting on operands
with mixed sizes whenever possible.
Whenever you have a loop or condition code, use a strong stop condition, i.e., the fol-
lowing:
for(i=0; i!=10; i++)
is preferable to:
for(i=0; i<10; i++)
A check for equality (== or !=) is usually more efficient to implement than the weaker
< comparison.
In some situations, using a loop counter that decrements to zero is more efficient than
one that starts at zero and counts up by the same number of iterations. This is more
likely to be the case if the loop index is a byte-wide type. So you might be able to rewrite
the above as:
for(i=10; i!=0; i--)
There might be a small advantage in changing the order of function parameters so that
the first parameter is byte sized. A register is used if the first parameter is byte-sized.
For example consider:
char calc(char mode, int value);
over
char calc(int value, char mode);
Ensure that all optimizations are enabled; see Section 4.8.45 --OPT: Invoke Compiler
Optimizations. Be aware of what optimizations the compiler performs (see
Section 5.13 Optimizations, and Section 6.3 Assembly-Level Optimizations) so you
can take advantage of them and dont waste your time manually performing optimiza-
tions in C code that the compiler already handles, e.g., dont turn a multiply-by-4 oper-
ation into a shift-by-2 operation as this sort of optimization is already detected.

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3.6.3 How Can I Reduce RAM Usage?

Use the smallest data types possible. (This also reduces code size as less code is
needed to access these.) Note that a bit type and non-standard 24-bit integer type
(short long) exists for this compiler. See Section 5.4 Supported Data Types and
Variables for all data types and sizes. There are two sizes of floating-point type, as
well, and these are discussed in the same section.
Consider using auto variables over global or static variables as there is the poten-
tial that these can share memory allocated to other auto variables that are not active
at the same time. Memory allocation of auto variables is made on a compiled stack,
described in Section [Link] Auto Variable Allocation and access.
Rather than pass large objects to, or from, functions, pass pointers which reference
these objects. This is particularly true when larger structures are being passed, but
there might be RAM savings to be made even when passing long variables.
Objects that do not need to change throughout the program can be located in program
memory using the const qualifier; see Section [Link] Const Type Qualifier, and
Section 5.5.3 Variables in Program Space. This frees up precious RAM, but slows
execution.
Ensure that all optimizations are enabled; see Section 4.8.45 --OPT: Invoke Compiler
Optimizations. Be aware of which optimizations the compiler performs (see
Section 5.13 Optimizations), so that you can take advantage of them and dont waste
your time manually performing optimizations in C code that the compiler already han-
dles.

3.6.4 How Can I Make My Code Faster?

To a large degree, smaller code is faster code, so efforts to reduce code size often
decrease execution time; see Section 3.6.2 How Can I Make My Code Smaller?. See
also, Section 3.6.7 How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?. However, there are
ways some sequences can be sped up at the expense of increased code size.
One of the compiler optimization settings is for speed (the alternate setting is for
space), so ensure this is selected; see Section 4.8.45 --OPT: Invoke Compiler
Optimizations. This will use alternate output in some instances that is faster, but larger.
Some library multiplication routines operate faster when one of their operands is a
smaller value. See Section 5.3.9 Multiplication for more information on how to take
advantage of this.
Generally, the biggest gains to be made in terms of speed of execution come from the
algorithm used in a project. Identify which sections of your program need to be fast.
Look for loops that might be linearly searching arrays and choose an alternate search
method such as a hash table and function. Where results are being recalculated, con-
sider if they can be cached.

3.6.5 How Can I Speed Up Programming Times

The linker can allocate sections to both ends of program memory: some sections ini-
tially placed at a low address and built up through memory; other sections assembled
at a high address and extended down. This does not affect code operation and makes
linking easier, but it can produce a HEX file covering the entire device memory space.
Programming this HEX file into the device may take a long time.
To reduce programming times in this situation, instruct the linker to not use all the
devices program memory. Use the --ROM option to reserve the upper part of program
memory, see Section 4.8.53 --ROM: Adjust ROM Ranges.

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3.6.6 How Does the Compiler Place Everything in Memory?

In most situations, assembly instructions and directives associated with both code and
data are grouped into sections, called psects, and these are then positioned into con-
tainers that represent the device memory. An introductory explanation into this process
is given in Section 5.15.1 Program Sections. The exception is for absolute variables
(see Section 5.5.4 Absolute Variables), which are placed at a specific address when
they are defined and which are not placed in a psect.

3.6.7 How Can I Make My Interrupt Routine Faster?

Consider suggestions made in Section 3.6.2 How Can I Make My Code Smaller?
(code size) for any interrupt code. Smaller code is often faster code.
In addition to the code you write in the ISR there is the code the compiler produces to
switch context. This is executed immediately after an interrupt occurs and immediately
before the interrupt returns, so must be included in the time taken to process an inter-
rupt; see Section 5.9.4 Context Switching. This code is optimal in that only registers
used in the ISR will be saved by this code. Thus, the less registers used in your ISR
will mean potentially less context switch code to be executed.
Mid-range devices have only a few registers that are used by the compiler, and there
is little context switch code. Even fewer registers are considered for saving when com-
piling for enhanced mid-range device. PIC18 devices will benefit most from the above
suggestion as they use a larger set of registers in generated code; see
Section 5.7 Register Usage.
Generally simpler code will require less resources than more complicated expressions.
Use the assembly list file to see which registers are being used by the compiler in the
interrupt code; see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files.
Consider having the ISR simply set a flag and return. The flag can then be checked in
main-line code to handle the interrupt. This has the advantage of moving the compli-
cated interrupt-processing code out of the ISR so that it no longer contributes to its reg-
ister usage. Always use the volatile qualifier (see Section [Link] Volatile Type
Qualifierfor variables shared by the interrupt and main-line code; see
Section 3.5.5 How Do I Share Data Between Interrupt and Main-line Code?.

3.6.8 How Big Can C Variables Be?

This question specifically relates to the size of individual C objects, such as arrays or
structures. The total size of all variables is another matter.
To answer this question you need to know in which memory space the variable will be
located. Objects qualified const will be located in program memory; other objects will
be placed in data memory. Program memory object sizes are discussed in
Section [Link] Size Limitations of Const Variables. Objects in data memory are
broadly grouped into autos and non-autos and the size limitations of these objects,
respectively, are discussed in Section [Link].3 Size Limits of Auto Variables and
Section [Link].2 Non-Auto Variable Size Limits.

3.6.9 How Do I Utilize/Allocate the RAM Banks on My Device?

The compiler will automatically use all the available RAM banks on the device you are
programming. It is only if you wish to alter the default memory allocation that you need
take any action. Special bank qualifiers; see Section [Link] Bank0, Bank1, Bank2 and
Bank3 Type Qualifiers, and an option (see Section 4.8.15 --ADDRQUAL: Set Com-
piler Response to Memory Qualifiers) to indicate how these qualifiers are interpreted
are used to manually allocate variables.
Note that there is no guarantee that all the memory on a device can be utilized as data
and code is packed in sections, or psects.

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3.6.10 How Do I Utilize the Linear Memory on Enhanced Mid-range PIC

Devices?
The linear addressing mode is a means of accessing the banked data memory as one
contiguous and linear block; see Section 5.5.1 Address Spaces. Use of the linear
memory is fully automatic. Objects that are larger than a data bank can be defined in
the usual way and will be accessed using the linear addressing mode; see
Section [Link].2 Software Stack Operation, and Section [Link].2 Non-Auto Vari-
able Size Limits. If you define absolute objects at a particular location in memory, you
can use a linear address, if you prefer, or the regular banked address; see
Section [Link] Absolute Variables in Data Memory.

3.6.11 What Devices are Supported by the Compiler?

Support for new devices usually takes place with each compiler release. To find
whether a device is supported by your compiler, you can do several things; see also,
Section 5.3.1 Device Support.
HTML listings are provided in the compilers docs directory. Open these in your
favorite web browser. They are called pic_chipinfo.html and
pic18_chipinfo.html.
Run the compiler driver on the command line (see Section 4.2 Invoking the Com-
piler) with the --CHIPINFO option; see Section 4.8.19 --CHIPINFO: Display List
of Supported Devices. A full list of all devices is printed to the screen.

3.6.12 How Do I Know What Code the Compiler Is Producing?

The assembly list file (see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files) shows the assembly out-
put for almost the entire program, including library routines linked in to your program,
as well a large amount of the runtime startup code; see Section 5.10.1 Runtime
Startup Code. The list file is produced by default if you are using MPLAB IDE. If you
are using the command-line, the option --ASMLIST will produce this file for you; see
Section 4.8.16 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler List Files. The assembly list file will
have a .lst extension.
The list file shows assembly instructions, some assembly directives and information
about the program, such as the call graph (see Section 6.4.6 Call Graph), pointer
reference graph (see Section 6.4.5 Pointer Reference Graph), and information for
every function. Not all assembly directives are shown in the list file if the assembly
optimizers are enabled (they are produced in the intermediate assembly file).
Temporarily disable the assembly optimizers (see Section 4.8.45 --OPT: Invoke
Compiler Optimizations), if you wish to see all the assembly directives produced by the
compiler.

3.6.13 How Can I Tell How Big a Function Is?

Information that includes the size of functions is presented in the map file. Look for the
header MODULE INFORMATION near the bottom of the file. This information is
discussed in Section [Link] Module Information.

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3.6.14 How Do I Know Which Resources Are Being Used by Each

Function?
In the assembly list file there is information printed for every C function, including library
functions; see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files. This information indicates what regis-
ters the function used, what functions it calls (this is also found in the call graph; see
Section 6.4.6 Call Graph), and how many bytes of data memory it requires. Note that
auto, parameter and temporary variables used by a function can overlap with those
from other functions as these are placed in a compiled stack by the compiler; see
Section [Link].1 Compiled Stack Operation.

3.6.15 How Do I Find Out Where Variables and Functions Have Been
Positioned?
You can determine where variables and functions have been positioned from either the
assembly list file, see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files; or the map file, see
Section 7.3.1 Map Files. Only global symbols are shown in the map file; all symbols
(including locals) are listed in the assembly list file, but only for the code represented
by that list file. (Each assembly module has its own list file.)
There is a mapping between C identifiers and the symbols used in assembly code,
which are the symbols shown in both of these files; see Section [Link] Equivalent
Assembly Symbols. The symbol associated with a variable is assigned the address of
the lowest byte of the variable; for functions it is the address of the first instruction gen-
erated for that function.

3.6.16 Why Are Some Objects Positioned Into Memory That I

Reserved?
The memory reservation options (see Section [Link] How Do I Place a Function Into
a Unique Section?) will adjust the range of addresses associated with classes used by
the linker. Most variables and function are placed into psects (see
Section 5.15.1 Program Sections) that are linked anywhere inside these class ranges
and so are affected by these reservation options.
Some psects are explicitly placed at an address rather than being linked anywhere in
an address range, e.g., the psect that holds the code to be executed at Reset is always
linked to address 0 because that is where the Reset location is defined to be for 8-bit
devices. Such a psect will not be affected by the --ROM option, even if you use it to
reserve memory address 0. Psects that hold code associated with Reset and interrupts
can be shifted using the --CODEOFFSET option; see Section 4.8.21 --CODEOFFSET:
Offset Program Code to Address.
Check the assembly list file (see Section 6.4 Assembly List Files) to determine the
names of psects that hold objects and code. Check the linker options in the map file;
see Section 7.3.1 Map Files, to see if psects have been linked explicitly or if they are
linked anywhere in a class. See also, the linker options -p (Section 7.2.19 -Pspec)
and -A (Section 7.2.1 -Aclass =low-high,...).

3.6.17 How Do I Know How Much Memory Is Still Available?

Although the memory summary printed by the compiler after compilation, (see
Section 4.8.61 --SUMMARY: Select Memory Summary Output Type options), or the
memory gauge available in MPLAB IDE both indicate the amount of memory used and
the amount still available, neither of these features indicate whether this memory is one
contiguous block or broken into many small chunks. Small blocks of free memory can-
not be used for larger objects and so out-of-memory errors can be produced even
though the total amount of memory free is apparently sufficient for the objects to be
positioned. (See Section 3.7.6 How Do I Fix a Cant find space... Error?.)

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The UNUSED ADDRESS RANGES section (see Section [Link] Unused Address
Ranges) in the map file indicates exactly what memory is still available in each linker
class. It also indicated the largest contiguous block in that class if there are memory
bank or page divisions.

3.6.18 How Do I Use Library Files in My Project?

See Section 3.3.6 How Do I Build Libraries? for information on how you build your
own library files. The compiler will automatically include any applicable standard library
into the build process when you compile, so you never need to control these files.
To use one or more library files that were built by yourself or a colleague, include them
in the list of files being compiled on the command line. The library files can be specified
in any position in the file list relative to the source files, but if there is more than one
library file, they will be searched in the order specified in the command line. The LPP
libraries do not need to be specified if you are compiling to an intermediate file, i.e.,
using the --PASS1 option (see Section 4.8.49 --PASS1: Compile to P-code). For
example:
xc8 --chip=16f1937 main.c int.c [Link]
If you are using MPLAB X IDE to build a project, add the library file(s) to the Libraries
folder that will shown in your project, in the order in which they should be searched. The
IDE will ensure that they are passed to the compiler at the appropriate point in the build
sequence.

3.6.19 What Optimizations Are Employed by the Compiler?

Optimizations are employed at both the C and assembly level of compilation. This is
described in Section 5.13 Optimizations and Section 6.3 Assembly-Level Optimiza-
tions, respectively. The options that control optimization are described in
Section 4.8.45 --OPT: Invoke Compiler Optimizations.

3.6.20 Why Do I Get Out-of-memory Errors When I Select a Debugger?

If you use a hardware tool debugger, such as the REAL ICE or ICD3, these require
memory for the on-board debug executive. When you select a debugger using the com-
pilers --DEBUGGER option (Section 4.8.23 --DEBUGGER: Select Debugger Type),
or the IDE equivalent, the memory required for debugging is removed from that avail-
able to your project. See Section 3.5.3 What Do I Need to Do When Compiling to Use
a Debugger?

3.6.21 How Do I Know Which Stack Model the Compiler Has Assigned
to a Function?
Look in the function information section in the assembly list file, see
Section 6.4.3 Function Information. The last line of this block will indicate whether the
function uses a reentrant or non-reentrant model.

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3.6.22 How Do I Know What Value Has Been Programmed in the

Configuration Bits or ID Location?
Check the file [Link] (see Section 4.8.54 --RUNTIME: Specify Runtime Envi-
ronment). This contains the output of the #pragma config directive. You will see the
numerical value programmed to the appropriate locations. In the following example, the
configuration value programmed is 0xFFBF. A breakdown of what this value means is
also printed.
; Config register CONFIG @ 0x2007
; BOREN = OFF, BOR disabled
; ...
; PWRTE = 0x1, unprogrammed default

psect config
org 0x0
dw 0xFFBF

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 How Tos

3.7 FIXING CODE THAT DOES NOT WORK

This section examines issues relating to projects that do not build due to compiler
errors, or those that build, but do not work as expected.
How Do I Find Out What an Warning/error Message Means?
How Do I Find the Code that Caused Compiler Errors or Warnings in My
Program?
How Can I Stop Spurious Warnings From Being Produced?
Why Cant I Even Blink an LED?
How Do I Know If the Hardware Stack Has Overflowed?
How Do I Fix a Cant find space... Error?
How Do I Fix a Cant generate code... Error?
How Do I Fix a Fixup Overflow Error?
What Can Cause Corrupted Variables and Code Failure When Using Interrupts?

3.7.1 How Do I Find Out What an Warning/error Message Means?

Each warning or error message has a description, and possibly sample code that might
trigger such an error, listed in the messages chapter, see Appendix C. Error and Warn-
ing Messages. The compiler prints with each message a unique ID number in brackets.
Use this number to look up the message in the manual. This number also allows you
to control message behavior using options and pragmas, see Section 4.6.5 Changing
Message Behavior.

3.7.2 How Do I Find the Code that Caused Compiler Errors or

Warnings in My Program?
In most instances, where the error is a syntax error relating to the source code, the
message produced by the compiler indicates the offending line of code, see
Section 4.6 Compiler Messages. If you are compiling in MPLAB IDE, then you can
double-click the message and have the editor take you to the offending line. But
identifying the offending code is not always so easy.
In some instances, the error is reported on the line of code following the line that needs
attention. This is because a C statement is allowed to extend over multiple lines of the
source file. It is possible that the compiler cannot be able to determine that there is an
error until it has started to scan to statement following. So in the following code
input = PORTB // oops - forgot the semicolon
if(input>6)
// ...
The missing semicolon on the assignment statement will be flagged on the following
line that contains the if() statement.
In other cases, the error might come from the assembler, not the code generator. If the
assembly code was derived from a C source file then the compiler will try to indicate
the line in the C source file that corresponds to the assembly that is at fault. If the
source being compiled is an assembly module, the error directly indicates the line of
assembly that triggered the error. In either case, remember that the information in the
error relates to some problem is the assembly code, not the C code.
Finally, there are errors that do not relate to any particular line of code at all. An error
in a compiler option or a linker error are examples of these. If the program defines too
many variables, there is no one particular line of code that is at fault; the program as a
whole uses too much data. Note that the name and line number of the last processed
file and source can be printed in some situations even though that code is not the direct
source of the error.

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To determine the application that generated the error or warning, take a note of its
unique number printed in the message, see Section 4.6.1 Messaging Overview, and
check the message section of the manual, see Appendix C. Error and Warning Mes-
sages. At the top of each message description, on the right in brackets, is the name of
the application that produced this message. Knowing the application that produced the
error makes it easier to track down the problem. The compiler application names are
indicated in Section 4.3 The Compilation Sequence. If you need to see the assembly
code generated by the compiler, look in the assembly list file, see
Section 6.4 Assembly List Files. For information on where the linker attempted to
position objects, see the map file discussed in Section 7.3.1 Map Files.

3.7.3 How Can I Stop Spurious Warnings From Being Produced?

Warnings indicate situations that could possibly lead to code failure. In many situations
the code is valid and the warning is superfluous. Always check your code to confirm
that it is not a possible source of error and in cases where this is so, there are several
ways that warnings can be hidden.
The warning level threshold can be adjusted so that only warnings of a certain
importance are printed, see Section [Link] Disabling Messages
All warnings with a specified ID can be inhibited
In some situations, a pragma can be used to inhibit a warning with a specified ID
for certain lines of source code, see Section [Link] The #pragma warning
Directive.

3.7.4 Why Cant I Even Blink an LED?

Even if you have set up the TRIS register and written a value to the port, there are
several things that can prevent such a seemingly simple program from working.
Make sure that the devices Configuration registers are set up correctly, see
Section 5.3.5 Configuration Bit Access. Make sure that you explicitly specify
every bit in these registers and dont just leave them in their default state. All the
configuration features are described in your device data sheet. If the Configura-
tion bits that specify the oscillator source are wrong, for example, the device clock
cannot even be running.
If the internal oscillator is being used, in addition to Configuration bits there can be
SFRs you need to initialize to set the oscillator frequency and modes, see
Section 5.3.6 Using SFRs From C Code and your device data sheet.
Either turn off the Watch Dog Timer in the Configuration bits or clear the Watch
Dog Timer in your code (see Section Appendix A. Library Functions) so that the
device does not reset. If the device is resetting, it can never reach the lines of
code in your program that blink the LED. Turn off any other features that can
cause device Reset until your test program is working.
The device pins used by the port bits are often multiplexed with other peripherals.
A pin might be connected to a bit in a port, or it might be an analog input, or it
might the output of a comparator, for example. If the pin connected to your LED is
not internally connected to the port you are using, then your LED will never oper-
ate as expected. The port function tables shown in your device data sheets will
show other uses for each pin that will help you identify peripherals to investigate.

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 How Tos
Make sure you do not have a read-modify-write problem. If the device you are
using does not have a separate latch register (as is the case with mid-range PIC
devices) this problem can occur, particularly if the port outputs are driving large
loads, such as an LED. You can see that setting one bit turns off another or other
unusual events. Create your own latch by using a temporary variable. Rather than
read and write the port directly, make modifications to the latch variable. After
modifications are complete, copy the latch as a whole to the port. This means you
are never reading the port to modify it. Check the device literature for more
detailed information.

3.7.5 How Do I Know If the Hardware Stack Has Overflowed?

The 8-bit PIC devices have a limited hardware stack that is only used for function (and
interrupt function) return addresses, see Section 5.3.4 Stacks. If the nesting of func-
tion calls and interrupts is too deep, the stack will overflow (wraps around and over-
writes previous entries). Code will then fail at a later point sometimes much later in
the call sequence when it accesses the corrupted return address.
The compiler attempts to track stack depth and, when required, swap to a method of
calling that does not need the hardware stack (PIC10/12/16 devices only). You have
some degree of control over what happens when the stack depth has apparently over-
flowed, see Section 4.8.54 --RUNTIME: Specify Runtime Environment and the
stackcall suboption.
A call graph shows the call hierarchy and depth that the compiler has determined. This
graph is shown in the assembly list file. To understand the information in this graph, see
Section 6.4.6 Call Graph.
Since the runtime behavior of the program cannot be determined by the compiler, it can
only assume the worst case and can report that overflow is possible even though it is
not. However, no overflow should go undetected if the program is written entirely in C.
Assembly code that uses the stack is not considered by the compiler and this must be
taken into account.

3.7.6 How Do I Fix a Cant find space... Error?

There are a number of different variants of this message, but all essentially imply a sim-
ilar situation. They all relate to there being no free space large enough to place a block
of data or instructions. Due to memory paging, banking or other fragmentation, this
message can be issued when seemingly there is enough memory remaining. See
Appendix C. Error and Warning Messages for more information on your particular error
number.

3.7.7 How Do I Fix a Cant generate code... Error?

This is a catch-all message which is generated if the compiler has exhausted all possi-
ble means of compiling a C expression, see Appendix C. Error and Warning Messages.
It does not usually indicate a fault in your code. The inability to compile the code can
be a deficiency in the compiler, or an expression that requires more registers or
resources than are available at that point in the code. This is more likely to occur on
baseline devices. In any case, simplifying the offending expression, or splitting a state-
ment into several smaller statements, usually allows the compilation to continue. You
can need to use another variable to hold the intermediate results of complicated
expressions.

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3.7.8 How Do I Fix a Fixup Overflow Error?

Fixup the linker action of replacing a symbolic reference with an actual address can
overflow if the address assigned to the symbol is too large to fit in the address field of
an assembly instruction. Most 8-bit PIC assembly instructions specify a file address
that is an offset into the currently selected memory bank. If a full unmasked address is
specified with these instructions, the linker will be unable to encode the large address
value into the instruction and this error will be generated. For example, a mid-range
device instruction only allows for file addresses in the range of 0 to 0x7F. However, if
such a device has 4 data banks of RAM, the addresses of variables can range from 0
to 0x1FF.
For example, if the symbol of a variable that will be located at address 0x1D0 has been
specified with one of these instructions, then when the symbol is replaced with its final
value, this value will not fit in the address field of the instruction.
Many of the jump and call instructions also take a destination operand that is a trun-
cated address. (The PIC18 CALL and GOTO instructions work with a full address, but
the branch and relative call instructions do not.) If the destination label to any of these
instructions is not masked, a fixup error can result.
The fixup process applies to the operands of assembler directives, as well as instruc-
tions; so if the operand to a directive overflows, a fixup error can also result. For
example, if the symbol error is resolved by the linker to be the value 0x238, the
directive:
DB error
which expects a byte value, will generate a fixup overflow error.
In most cases, fixup errors are caused by hand-written assembly code. When writing
assembly, it is the programmers responsibility to add instructions to select the destina-
tion bank or page, and then mask the address being used in the instruction (see
Section [Link] What Things Must I Manage When Writing Assembly Code?).
In some situations assembly code generated from C code can produce a fixup overflow
message. Typically this will be related to jumps that are out of range. C switch state-
ments that have become too large can trigger such a message. Changing how a com-
piler-generated psect is linked can also cause fixup overflow, as the new psect location
may break an assumption made by the compiler.
It is important to remember that this is an issue with an assembly instruction, and that
you need to find the instruction at fault before you can proceed. See the relevant error
number in Appendix C. Error and Warning Messages for specific details about how to
track down the offending instruction.

3.7.9 What Can Cause Corrupted Variables and Code Failure When
Using Interrupts?
This is usually caused by having variables used by both interrupt and main-line code.
If the compiler optimizes access to a variable or access is interrupted by an interrupt
routine, then corruption can occur. See Section 3.5.5 How Do I Share Data Between
Interrupt and Main-line Code? for more information.

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USERS GUIDE

Chapter 4. XC8 Command-line Driver

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The name of the command-line driver is xc8. MPLAB XC8 can be invoked to perform
all aspects of compilation, including C code generation, assembly, and link steps. Even
if an IDE is used to assist with compilation, the IDE will ultimately call xc8.
Although the internal compiler applications can be called explicitly from the command
line, the xc8 driver is the recommended way to use the compiler as it hides the com-
plexity of all the internal applications used and provides a consistent interface for all
compilation steps.
This chapter describes the steps that the driver takes during compilation, the files that
the driver can accept and produce, as well as the command-line options that control
the compilers operation. The relationship between these command-line options and
the controls in the MPLAB IDE Build Options dialog is also described.
The following topics are examined in this chapter of the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users
Guide:
Invoking the Compiler
The Compilation Sequence
Runtime Files
Compiler Output
Compiler Messages
MPLAB XC8 Driver Options
MPLAB X Option Equivalents

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4.2 INVOKING THE COMPILER

This section explains how to invoke xc8 on the command line, as well as the files that
it can read.

4.2.1 Driver Command-line Format

The xc8 driver has the following basic command format:
xc8 [options] files [libraries]
Throughout this manual, it is assumed that the compiler applications are in the con-
soles search path or that the full path is specified when executing an application. The
compilers location can be added to the search path when installing the compiler by
selecting the Add to environment checkbox at the appropriate time during the
installation.
It is customary to declare options (identified by a leading dash - or double dash )
before the files names. However, this is not mandatory.
The formats of the options are supplied in Section 4.7 MPLAB XC8 Driver Options,
along with corresponding descriptions of the options.
The files can be an assortment of C and assembler source files, and precompiled
intermediate files, such as relocatable object (.obj) files or p-code (.p1) files. While
the order in which the files are listed is not important, it can affect the order in which
code or data appears in memory, and can affect the name of some of the output files.
Libraries is a list of user-defined object code or p-code library files that will be
searched by the code generator (in the case of p-code libraries) or the linker (for object
code libraries), in addition to the standard C libraries. The order of these files will deter-
mine the order in which they are searched. It is customary to insert the Libraries list
after the list of source file names. However, this is not mandatory.
If you are building code using a make system, familiarity with the unique intermediate
p-code file format, as described in Section 4.3.3 Multi-Step Compilation, is
recommended. Object files are seldom used with the MPLAB XC8 C Compiler, unless
assembly source modules are in the project.

[Link] LONG COMMAND LINES

The xc8 driver is capable of processing command lines exceeding any operating sys-
tem limitation if the driver is passed options via a command file. The command file is
specified by the @ symbol, which should be immediately followed (i.e., no intermediate
space character) by the name of the file containing the command-line arguments that
are intended for the driver.
Each command-line argument must be separated by one or more spaces and can
extended to several lines by using a space and backslash character to separate lines.
The file can contain blank lines, which are simply skipped by the driver.
The use of a command file means that compiler options and source code filenames can
be permanently stored for future reference without the complexity of creating a make
utility.
In the following example, a command file xyz.xc8 was constructed in a text editor to
contain both the options and the file names that are required to compile a project.
--chip=16F877A -m \
--opt=all -g \
main.c isr.c
After it is saved, the compiler can be invoked with the following command:
xc8 @xyz.xc8

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4.2.2 Environment Variables

When hosted on a Windows environment, the compiler uses the registry to store infor-
mation relating to the compiler installation directory and activation details, along with
other configuration settings. That information is required whether the compiler is run on
the command line or from within an IDE.
Under Linux and Mac OS X environments, the registry is replaced by an XML file that
stores the same information.
On non-Windows hosts, the compiler searches for the XML file in the following ways:
1. The compiler looks for the presence of an environment variable called XC_XML.
If present, this variable should contain the full path to the XML file (including the
files name).
2. If this variable is not defined, the compiler then searches for an environment vari-
able called HOME. This variable typically contains the path to the users home
directory. The compiler looks for the XML with a name .[Link] in the directory
indicated by the HOME variable.
3. If the HOME environment variable is not defined, the compiler tries to open the file
/etc/[Link].
4. If none of these methods finds the XML file, an error is generated.
When running the compiler on the command line, you can wish to set the PATH envi-
ronment variable. This allows you to run the compiler driver without specifying the full
compiler path with the driver name. Note that the directories specified by the PATH vari-
able are only used to locate the compiler driver. Once the driver is running, it uses the
registry or XML file, described above, to locate the internal compiler applications, such
as the parser, assembler and linker, etc. The directories specified in the PATH variable
do not override the information contained in the registry or XML file. The MPLAB IDE
allows the compiler to be selected via a dialog and execution of the compiler does not
depend on the PATH variable.

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4.2.3 Input File Types

xc8 distinguishes source files, intermediate files, and library files solely by the file type,
or extension. Recognized file types are listed in Table 4-1. Alphabetic case of the
extension is not important from the compilers point of view, but most operating system
shells are case sensitive.

TABLE 4-1: xc8 INPUT FILE TYPES

File Type Meaning
.c C source file
.p1 p-code file
.lpp p-code library file
.as or .asm Assembler source file
.obj Relocatable object code file
.lib Relocatable object library file
.hex Intel HEX file

This means, for example, that a C source file must have a .c extension. Assembler
files can use either .as or .asm extensions.
There are no compiler restrictions imposed on the names of source files, but be aware
of case, name-length, and other restrictions that are imposed by your operating sys-
tem. If you are using an IDE, avoid assembly source files whose base name is the
same as the base name of any project in which the file is used. This can result in the
source file being overwritten by a temporary file during the build process.
The terms source file and module are often used when talking about computer
programs. They are often used interchangeably, but they refer to the source code at
different points in the compilation sequence.
A source file is a file that contains all or part of a program. They can contain C code, as
well as preprocessor directives and commands. Source files are initially passed to the
preprocessor by the driver.
A module is the output of the preprocessor, for a given source file, after inclusion of any
header files (or other source files) which are specified by #include preprocessor
directives. All preprocessor directives and commands (with the exception of some com-
mands for debugging) have been removed from these files. These modules are then
passed to the remainder of the compiler applications. Thus, a module can be the amal-
gamation of several source and header files. A module is also often referred to as a
translation unit. These terms can also be applied to assembly files, as they can include
other header and source files.

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4.3 THE COMPILATION SEQUENCE

When you compile a project, many internal applications are called to do the work. This
section looks at when these internal applications are executed, and how this relates to
the build process of multiple source files. This section should be of particular interest if
you are using a make system to build projects.

4.3.1 The Compiler Applications

The main internal compiler applications and files are illustrated in Figure 4-1.
You can consider the large underlying box to represent the whole compiler, which is
controlled by the command line driver, xc8. You can be satisfied just knowing that C
source files (shown on the far left) are passed to the compiler and the resulting output
files (shown here as a HEX and COFF debug file on the far right) are produced; how-
ever, internally there are many applications and temporary files being produced. An
understanding of the internal operation of the compiler, while not necessary, does
assist with using the tool.
To simplify the compiler design, some of the internal applications come in a PIC18 and
PIC10/12/16 variant. The appropriate application is executed based on the target
device. In fact, the xc8 driver delegates the build commands to one of two com-
mand-line drivers: PICC or PICC18. This operation is transparent and xc8 can be
considered as the driver which does all the work.
The driver will call the required compiler applications. These applications are shown as
the smaller boxed inside the large driver box. The temporary file produced by each
application can also be seen in this diagram.

FIGURE 4-1: COMPILER APPLICATIONS AND FILES

assembly
p-code .lpp .p1 p-code .as source
libraries files files
Command-line driver
processed p-code relocatable
files (module) files assembly file object file

C source .pre .p1 .as .obj

files

.c code
preprocessor
p or parser assembler
generator

debug file

cromwell .cof
.c

linker objtohex

hexmate .hhex
.obj .hex
hex file
absolute hex file
object file

relocatable .obj .lib object hex .hex

object files libraries files

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MPLAB XC8 C Compiler Users Guide
Table 4-2 lists the compiler applications. The names shown are the names of the exe-
cutables, which can be found in the bin directory under the compilers installation
directory.

TABLE 4-2: COMPILER APPLICATION NAMES

Name Description
xc8 (calls PICC or PICC18) Command line driver; the interface to the compiler
CLIST Text file formatter
CPP The C preprocessor
P1 C code parser
CGPIC or CGPIC18 Code generator (based on the target device)
ASPIC or ASPIC18 Assembler (based on the target device)
HLINK Linker
OBJTOHEX Conversion utility to create HEX files
CROMWELL Debug file converter
HEXMATE HEX file utility
LIBR Librarian
DUMP Object file viewer

For example, C source files (.c files) are first passed to the C preprocessor, CPP. The
output of this application is .pre files. These files are then passed to the parser appli-
cation, P1, which produces a p-code file output with extension .p1. The applications
are executed in the order specified and temporary files are used to pass the output of
one application to the next.
The compiler can accept more than just C source files. Table 4-1 lists all the possible
input file types, and these files can be seen in this diagram, on the top and bottom,
being passed to different compilation applications. They are processed by these
applications and then the application output joins the normal flow indicated in the
diagram.
For example, assembly source files are passed straight to the assembler application1
and are not processed at all by the code generator. The output of the assembler (an
object file with .obj extension) is passed to the linker in the usual way. You can see
that any p-code files (.p1 extension) or p-code libraries (.lpp extension) that are
supplied on the command line are initially passed to the code generator.
Other examples of input files include object files (.obj extension) and object libraries
(.lib extension), both of which are passed initially to the linker, and even HEX files
(.hex extension), which are passed to one of the utility applications, called HEXMATE,
which is run right at the end of the compilation sequence.
Some of the temporary files shown in this diagram are actually preserved and can be
inspected after compilation has concluded. There are also driver options to request that
the compilation sequence stop after a particular application and the output of that
application becomes the final output.

1. Assembly file will be preprocessed before being passed to the assembler if the -P option is
selected.

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 XC8 Command-line Driver
FIGURE 4-2: MULTI-FILE COMPILATION
Intermediate files

preprocess
p-
C file & code
parse

preprocess
p- code
C file & code assemble link
generation
parse

library
files

First stage of compilation Second stage of compilation

4.3.2 Single-Step Compilation

Figure 4-1 showed us the files that are generated by each application and the order in
which these applications are executed. However this does not indicate how these
applications are executed when there is more than one source file being compiled.
Consider the case when there are two C source files that form a complete project and
that are to be compiled, as is the case shown in Figure 4-2. If these files are called
main.c and io.c, these could be compiled with a single command, such as:
xc8 --chip=16F877A main.c io.c
This command will compile the two source files all the way to the final output, but
internally we can consider this compilation as consisting of two stages.
The first stage involves processing of each source file separately, and generating some
sort of intermediate file for each source file. The second stage involves combining all
these intermediate files and further processing to form the final output. An intermediate
file is a particular temporary file that is produced and marks the midpoint between the
first and second stage of compilation.
The intermediate file used by xc8 is the p-code (.p1 extension) file output by the
parser, so there will be one p-code file produced for each C source file. As indicated in
the diagram, CPP and then P1 are executed to form this intermediate file. (For clarity,
the CPP and P1 applications have been represented by the same block in the diagram.)
In the second stage, the code generator reads in all the intermediate p-code files and
produces a single assembly file output, which is then passed to the subsequent
applications that produce the final output.
The desirable attribute of this method of compilation is that the code generator, which
is the main application that transforms from the C to the assembly domain, sees the
entire project source code via the intermediate files.
Traditional compilers have always used intermediate files that are object files output by
the assembler. These intermediate object files are then combined by the linker and fur-
ther processed to form the final output. This method of compilation is shown in
Figure 4-3. It shows that the code generator is executed once for each source file. So,
the code generator can only analyze that part of the project that is contained in the
source file that is currently being compiled. The MPLAB XC16 and XC32 compilers
work in this fashion.
Using object files as the intermediate file format with MPLAB XC8 C Compiler will
defeat many features the compiler uses to optimize code. Always use p-code files as
the intermediate file format if you are using a make system to build projects.

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FIGURE 4-3: THE TRADITIONAL COMPILATION SEQUENCE
Intermediate files

preprocess
code .obj
C file & assemble files
generation
parse

preprocess
code .obj
C file & assemble files link
generation
parse

library Second stage

First stage of compilation files
of compilation

When compiling files of mixed types, this can still be achieved with just one invocation
of the compiler driver. As discussed in Section 4.3 The Compilation Sequence, the
driver will pass each input file to the appropriate compiler application.
For example, the files, main.c, io.c, [Link] and c_sb.lpp are to be compiled.
To perform this in a single step, the following command line could be used.
xc8 --chip=16F877A main.c io.c [Link] c_sb.lpp
As shown in Figure 4-1 and Figure 4-2, the two C files (main.c and io.c) will be com-
piled to intermediate p-code files; these, along with the p-code library file (c_sb.lpp)
will be passed to the code generator. The output of the code generator, as well as the
assembly source file ([Link]), will be passed to the assembler.
The driver will recompile all source files, regardless of whether they have changed
since the last build. IDEs (such as MPLAB IDE) and make utilities must be employed
to achieve incremental builds. See also, Section 4.3.3 Multi-Step Compilation.
Unless otherwise specified, a HEX file and Microchip COFF file are produced as the
final output. All intermediate files remain after compilation has completed, but most
other temporary files are deleted, unless you use the --NODEL option (see
Section 4.8.42 --NODEL: Do Not Remove Temporary Files) which preserves all gen-
erated files except the run-time start-up file. Note that some generated files can be in
a different directory than your project source files. See Section 4.8.46 --OUTDIR:
Specify a Directory for Output Files, and Section 4.8.44 --OBJDIR: Specify a Direc-
tory for Intermediate Files, which can both control the destination for some output files.

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4.3.3 Multi-Step Compilation

Make utilities and IDEs, such as MPLAB IDE, allow for an incremental build of projects
that contain multiple source files. When building a project, they take note of which
source files have changed since the last build and use this information to speed up
compilation.
For example, if compiling two source files, but only one has changed since the last
build, the intermediate file corresponding to the unchanged source file need not be
regenerated.
MPLAB IDE is aware of the different compilation sequence employed by xc8 and takes
care of this for you. From MPLAB IDE you can select an incremental build (Build Project
icon), or fully rebuild a project (Clean and Build Project icon).
If the compiler is being invoked using a make utility, the make file will need to be con-
figured to recognized the different intermediate file format and the options used to gen-
erate the intermediate files. Make utilities typically call the compiler multiple times: once
for each source file to generate an intermediate file, and once to perform the second
stage compilation.
You might also wish to generate intermediate files to construct your own library files.
However, xc8 is capable of constructing libraries in a single step, so this is typically not
necessary. See Section 4.8.47 --OUTPUT= type: Specify Output File Type for more
information on library creation.
The option --PASS1 (see Section 4.8.48 --PARSER: Specify Parser Mode) is used
to tell the compiler that compilation should stop after the parser has executed. This will
leave the p-code intermediate file behind on successful completion.
For example, the files main.c and io.c are to be compiled using a make utility. The
command lines that the make utility should use to compile these files might be
something like:
xc8 --chip=16F877A --pass1 main.c
xc8 --chip=16F877A --pass1 io.c
xc8 --chip=16F877A main.p1 io.p1
If is important to note that the code generator needs to compile all p-code or p-code
library files associated with the project in the one step. When using the --PASS1
option, the code generator is not being invoked; so the above command lines do not
violate this requirement.
Using object files as the intermediate file format with MPLAB XC8 C Compiler will
defeat many features the compiler uses to optimize code. Always use p-code files as
the intermediate file format if you are using a make system to build projects.

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4.3.4 Compilation of Assembly Source

Since the code generator performs many tasks that were traditionally performed by the
linker, there could be complications when assembly source is present in a project.
Assembly files are traditionally processed after C code, but it is necessary to have this
performed first so that specific information contained in the assembly code can be
conveyed to the code generator.
The specific information passed to the code generator is discussed in more detail in
Section 5.12.3 Interaction between Assembly and C Code.
When assembly source is present, the order of compilation is as shown in Figure 4-4.

FIGURE 4-4: COMPILATION SEQUENCE WITH ASSEMBLY FILES

preprocess
p-
C file & code
parse
preprocess
p-
C file & code
parse
code
library assemble link
generation
files

ASM
assemble
file

driver

OBJ
file

First, any assembly source files are assembled to form object files. These files, along
with any other objects files that are part of the project, are scanned by the
command-line driver and the information is passed to the code generator; where it
subsequently builds the C files, as has been described earlier.

[Link] INTERMEDIATE FILES AND ASSEMBLY SOURCE

The intermediate file format associated with assembly source files is the same as that
used in traditional compilers; i.e., an object file (.obj extension). Assembly files are
never passed to the code generator and so the code generator technology does not
alter the way these files are compiled.
The -C option (see Section 4.8.1 -C: Compile to Object File) is used to generate
object files and to halt compilation after the assembly step.

4.3.5 Printf Check

An extra execution of the code generator is performed prior to the actual code genera-
tion phase. This pass is part of the process by which the printf library function is
customized, see Section 5.11.1 The printf Routine, for more details.
This pass is only associated with scanning the C source code for printf placeholder
usage and you will see the code generator being executed if you select the verbose
option when you build, see Section 4.8.14 -V: Verbose Compile.

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4.4 RUNTIME FILES

In addition to the C and assembly source files specified on the command line, there are
also compiler-generated source files and pre-compiled library files which might be
compiled into the project by the driver. These files contain:
C Standard library routines
Implicitly called arithmetic routines
User-defined library routines
The runtime startup code
The powerup routine
The printf routine.
Strictly speaking, the powerup routine is neither a compiler-generated source, nor a
library routine. It is fully defined by the user. Because it is very closely associated with
the runtime startup module, it is discussed with the other runtime files in the following
sections.

4.4.1 Library Files

The names of the C standard library files appropriate for the selected target device, and
other driver options, are determined by the driver and passed to the code generator and
linker. You do not need to include library files into your project manually. P-code librar-
ies (.lpp libraries) are used by the code generator, and object code libraries (.lib
files) are used by the linker. Most library routines are derived from p-code libraries.
By default, xc8 will search the lib directory under the compiler installation directory
for library files that are required during compilation.

[Link] STANDARD LIBRARIES

The C standard libraries contain a standardized collection of functions, such as string,
math and input/output routines. The range of these functions is described in
Appendix A. Library Functions. Although it is considered a library function, the printf
functions code is not found in these library files. C source code for this function is gen-
erated from a special C template file that is customized after analysis of the users C
code. See PRINTF, for more information on using the printf library function, and
Section 5.11.1 The printf Routine, for information on how the printf function is cus-
tomized when you build a project.
The libraries also contain C routines that are implicitly called by the output code of the
code generator. These are routines that perform tasks such as floating-point opera-
tions, integer division and type conversions, and that cannot directly correspond to a C
function call in the source code.
The library name format is [Link], where the following apply.
family can be pic18 for PIC18 devices, or pic for all other 8-bit PIC devices
type indicates the sort of library functionality provided and can be stdlib for the
standard library functions, or trace, etc.
options indicates hyphen-separated names to indicate variants of the library to
accommodate different compiler options or modes, e.g., htc for the default flavor
of C used by MPLAB XC8, d32 for 32-bit doubles, etc.
For example, the standard library for baseline and midrange devices using 24-bit
double types is [Link].
All the libraries are present in the lib directory of the compiler installation. Search this
directory for the full list of all libraries supplied.

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[Link] USER-DEFINED LIBRARIES
User-defined libraries can be created and linked in with programs as required. Library
files are easier to manage and can result in faster compilation times, but must be com-
patible with the target device and options for a particular project. Several versions of a
library might need to be created to allow it to be used for different projects.
Libraries can be created manually using the compiler and the librarian, LIBR. See
Section 8.2 Librarian for more information on the librarian and creating library files
using this application. Alternatively, library files can be created directly from the
compiler by specifying a library output using the --OUTPUT option, see
Section 4.8.47 --OUTPUT= type: Specify Output File Type.
User-created libraries that should be searched when building a project can be listed on
the command line along with the source files.
As with Standard C library functions, any functions contained in user-defined libraries
should have a declaration added to a header file. It is common practice to create one
or more header files that are packaged with the library file. These header files are then
included into source code when required.
Library files specified on the command line are initially scanned for unresolved sym-
bols; so, these files can redefine anything that is defined in the C standard libraries. See
also, Section 5.15.5 Replacing Library Modules.

4.4.2 Startup and Initialization

A C program requires certain objects to be initialized and the device to be in a particular
state before it can begin execution of its function main. It is the job of the runtime
startup code to perform these tasks. Section 5.10.1 Runtime Startup Code details the
specific actions taken by this code and how it interacts with programs you write.
Rather than the traditional method of linking in a generic, precompiled routine, the
MPLAB XC8 C Compiler determines what runtime startup code is required from the
users program and then generates this code each time you build.
Both the driver and code generator are involved in generating the runtime startup code.
The driver creates the code that handles device setup. This code is placed into a sep-
arate assembly startup module. The code generator produces code that initializes the
C environment, such as clearing uninitialized C variables and copying initialized C
variables. This code is output along with the rest of the C program.
The runtime startup code is regenerated every time you build a project. The file created
by the driver can be deleted after compilation, and this operation can be controlled with
the keep suboption to the --RUNTIME option. The default operation of the driver is to
keep the startup module; however, if using MPLAB IDE to build, the file will be deleted
unless you indicate otherwise in the Project Properties dialog.
If the startup module is kept, it will be called [Link] and will be located in the
current working directory. If you are using an IDE to perform the compilation, the
destination directory can be dictated by the IDE itself. MPLAB X IDE stores this file in
the dist/default/production directory in your project directory.
Generation of the runtime startup code is an automatic process that does not require
any user interaction; however, some aspects of the runtime code can be controlled, if
required, using the --RUNTIME option. Section 4.8.54 --RUNTIME: Specify Runtime
Environment describes the use of this option. See Section 5.10.1 Runtime Startup
Code, which describes the functional aspects of the code contained in this module and
its effect on program operation.
The runtime startup code is executed before main. However, if you require any special
initialization to be performed immediately after Reset, you should use the powerup
feature described later in Section 5.10.2 The Powerup Routine.

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4.5 COMPILER OUTPUT

There are many files created by the compiler during the compilation. A large number of
these are intermediate files. Some are deleted after compilation is complete, but many
remain and are used for programming the device, or for debugging purposes.

4.5.1 Output Files

The names of many output files use the same base name as the source file from which
they were derived. For example, the source file input.c will create a p-code file called
input.p1.
Some of the output files contain project-wide information and are not directly associ-
ated with any one particular input file, e.g., the map file. If the names of these output
files are not specified by a compiler option, their base name is derived from the first C
source file listed on the command line. If there are no files of this type specified, the
name is based on the first input file (regardless of type) on the command line.
If you are using an IDE, such as MPLAB X IDE, to specify options to the compiler, there
is typically a project file that is created for each application. The name of this project is
used as the base name for project-wide output files, unless otherwise specified by the
user. However, check the manual for the IDE you are using, for more details.

Note: Throughout this manual, the term project name will refer to either the name
of the project created in the IDE, or the base name (file name without
extension) of the first C source file specified on the command line.

The compiler is directly able to produce a number of the output file formats that are
used by the 8-bit PIC development tools.
The default behavior of xc8 is to produce a Microchip format COFF and Intel HEX out-
put. Unless changed by a driver option, the base names of these files will be the project
name. The default output file types can be controlled by compiler options, e.g., the
--OUTPUT option. The extensions used by these files are fixed and are listed together
with this options description in Section 4.8.47 --OUTPUT= type: Specify Output File
Type.
The COFF file is used by debuggers to obtain debugging information about the project.
The compiler can produce ELF/DWARF debugger files, although these are not com-
patible with MPLAB IDE v8 and early versions of MPLAB X IDE. You must specifically
select ELF output for these files to be produced. ELF/DWARF files allow for more accu-
rate debugging. Use of these files correct several COFF-related issues that prevent
you from correctly viewing objects, in particular pointer variables, in the IDE. Ensure the
IDE version you are using supports ELF before selecting this option.
Table 4-16 shows all output format options available with xc8 using the --OUTPUT
option. The File Type column lists the filename extension that is used for the output file.

[Link] SYMBOL FILES

By default, xc8 creates symbol files that are used to generate the debug output files,
such as COFF and ELF files. These files include a SYM file (.sym extension) and a
CMF file (.cmf extension), and both are produced by the linker. In addition, there is a
SDB file (.sdb extension) produced by the code generator.
The SDB file contains type information, and the SYM and CMF files contain address
information. The SDB and SYM/CMF files, in addition to the HEX file, are combined by
the CROMWELL application to produce the output debug files, such as the COFF file.
The CMF file largely replaces the older SYM file format. They contain similar informa-
tion, but CMF files are more detailed and enable more accurate debug files to be
generated.

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4.5.2 Diagnostic Files

Two valuable files produced by the compiler are the assembly list file, produced by the
assembler, and the map file, produced by the linker.
The compiler options --ASMLIST (see Section 4.8.15 --ADDRQUAL: Set Compiler
Response to Memory Qualifiers) generates a list file, and the -M option (see
Section 4.8.7 -M: Generate Map File) specifies generation of a map file.
The assembly list file contains the mapping between the original source code and the
generated assembly code. It is useful for information such as how C source was
encoded, or how assembly source can have been optimized. It is essential when con-
firming if compiler-produced code that accesses objects is atomic, and shows the
psects in which all objects and code are placed. For an introductory guide to psects,
see Section 5.15.1 Program Sections. Also, see Section 6.3 Assembly-Level Opti-
mizations, for more information on the contents of this file.
There is one list file produced for the entire C program, including C library files. It is
assigned the project name and the extension .lst. One additional list file is produced
for each assembly source file compiled in the project.
The map file shows information relating to where objects were positioned in memory. It
is useful for confirming if user-defined linker options were correctly processed, and for
determining the exact placement of objects and functions. It also shows all the unused
memory areas in a device and memory fragmentation. See Section 7.3.1 Map Files,
for complete information on the contents of this file.
There is one map file produced when you build a project, assuming the linker was
executed and ran to completion. The file is assigned the project name and a .map
extension.

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4.6 COMPILER MESSAGES

All compiler applications, including the command-line driver, xc8, use textual mes-
sages to report feedback during the compilation process. A centralized messaging sys-
tem is used to produce the messages, which allows consistency during all stages of the
compilation process. The messaging system is described in this section and a com-
plete list of all warning and error messages can be found in Appendix C. Error and
Warning Messages.

4.6.1 Messaging Overview

A message is referenced by a unique number that is passed to the messaging system
by the compiler application that needs to convey the information. The message string
corresponding to this number is obtained from Message Description Files (MDF), which
are stored in the dat directory in the compilers installation directory.
When a message is requested by a compiler application, its number is looked up in the
MDF that corresponds to the currently selected language. The language of messages
can be altered as discussed in Section 4.6.2 Message Language.
Once found, the alert system can read the message type and the string to be displayed
from the MDF. Several different message types are described in
Section 4.6.3 Message Type; and the type can be overridden by the user, as
described in that same section.
The user is also able to set a threshold for warning message importance, so that only
those that the user considers significant will be displayed. In addition, messages with
a particular number can be disabled. A pragma can also be used to disable a particular
message number within specific lines of code. These methods are explained in
Section [Link] Disabling Messages.
Provided the message is enabled and it is not a warning message whose level is below
the current warning threshold, the message string will be displayed.
In addition to the actual message string, there are several other pieces of information
that can be displayed, such as the message number, the name of the file for which the
message is applicable, the files line number and the application that issued the
message, etc.
If a message is an error, a counter is incremented. After a specific amount of errors has
been reached, compilation of the current module will cease. The default number of
errors that will cause this termination can be adjusted by using the --ERRORS option,
see Section 4.8.29 --ERRORS: Maximum Number of Errors. This counter is reset for
each internal compiler application, thus specifying a maximum of five errors will allow
up to five errors from the parser, five from the code generator, five from the linker, five
from the driver, etc.
Although the information in the MDF can be modified with any text editor, this is not rec-
ommended. Message behavior should only be altered using the options and pragmas
described in the following sections.

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4.6.2 Message Language

The xc8 driver supports more than one language for displayed messages. There is one
MDF for each language supported.
Under Windows operating system, the default language can be specified when
installing the compiler.
The default language can be changed on the command line using the --LANG option,
see Section 4.8.36 --LANG: Specify the Language for Messages. Alternatively, it can
be changed permanently by using the --LANG option together with the --SETUP
option which will store the default language in either the registry, under Windows, or in
the XML configuration file on other systems. On subsequent builds, the default
language used will be that specified.
Table 4-3 shows the MDF applicable for the currently supported languages.

TABLE 4-3: SUPPORTED LANGUAGES

Language MDF name
English en_msgs.txt
German de_msgs.txt
French fr_msgs.txt

If a language other than English is selected, and the message cannot be found in the
appropriate non-English MDF, the alert system tries to find the message in the English
MDF. If an English message string is not present, a message is displayed that is similar
to this one:
error/warning (*) generated, but no description available
where * indicates the message number that was generated that will be printed;
otherwise, the message in the requested language will be displayed.

4.6.3 Message Type

There are four types of messages. These are described below. The behavior of the
compiler when encountering a message of each type is also listed.

Advisory Messages convey information regarding a situation the compiler has

encountered or some action the compiler is about to take.
The information is being displayed for your interest, and
typically requires no action to be taken. Compilation will
continue as normal after such a message is issued.
Warning Messages indicate source code or some other situation that can be
compiled, but is unusual and can lead to a runtime failure of
the code. The code or situation that triggered the warning
should be investigated; however, compilation of the current
module will continue, as will compilation of any remaining
modules.
Error Messages indicate source code that is illegal or that compilation of this
code cannot take place. Compilation will be attempted for
the remaining source code in the current module, but no
additional modules will be compiled and the compilation
process will then conclude.
Fatal Error Messages indicate a situation in which the compilation cannot proceed
and requires that the compilation process to stop
immediately.

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4.6.4 Message Format

By default, messages are printed in a human-readable format. This format can vary
from one compiler application to another, since each application reports information
about different file formats.
Some applications (for example, the parser) are typically able to pinpoint the area of
interest down to a position on a particular line of C source code, whereas other appli-
cations, such as the linker, can at best only indicate a module name and record number,
which is less directly associated with any particular line of code. Some messages relate
to issues in driver options that are in no way associated with any source code.
There are several ways of changing the format in which message are displayed. They
are discussed below.
The driver option -E (with or without a filename) alters the format of all displayed mes-
sages. See Section 4.8.3 -E: Redirect Compiler Errors to a File, for details. Using this
option produces messages that are better suited to machine parsing, and are less
user-friendly. Typically, each message is displayed on a single line. The general form
of messages produced when using the -E option is:
filename line: (message number) message string (type)
The -E option also has another effect. When used, the driver first checks to see if spe-
cial environment variables have been set. If so, the format dictated by these variables
is used as a template for all messages that will be produced by all compiler
applications. The names of these environment variables are given in Table 4-4.

TABLE 4-4: MESSAGING ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES

Variable Effect
HTC_MSG_FORMAT All advisory messages
HTC_WARN_FORMAT All warning messages
HTC_ERR_FORMAT All error and fatal error messages

The value of these environment variables are strings that are used as templates for the
message format. Printf-like placeholders can be placed within the string to allow the
message format to be customized. The placeholders, and what they represent, are
presented in Table 4-5.

TABLE 4-5: MESSAGING PLACEHOLDERS

Placeholder Replacement
%a Application name
%c Column number
%f Filename
%l Line number
%n Message number
%s Message string (from MDF)

If these options are used in a DOS batch file, two percent characters will need to be
used to specify the placeholders, as DOS interprets a single percent character as an
argument and will not pass this on to the compiler. For example:
SET HTC_ERR_FORMAT="file %%f: line %%l"

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Environment variables, in turn, can be overridden by the driver options: --MSGFORMAT,
--WARNFORMAT and --ERRFORMAT, see Section 4.8.28 --ERRFORMAT: Define For-
mat for Compiler Messages. These options take a string as their argument. The option
strings are formatted, and can use the same placeholders as their variable
counterparts.
For example, a project is compiled, but, as shown, produces a warning from the parser
and an error from the linker (numbered 362 and 492, respectively).
main.c: main()
17: ip = &b;
^ (362) redundant "&" applied to array (warning)
(492) attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal
Notice that the parser message format identifies the particular line and position of the
offending source code.
If the -E option is now used and the compiler issues the same messages, the compiler
will output:
main.c: 12: (362) redundant "&" applied to array (warning)
(492) attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal (error)
The user now uses the --WARNFORMAT in the following fashion:
--WARNFORMAT="%a %n %l %f %s"
When recompiled, the following output will be displayed:
parser 362 12 main.c redundant "&" applied to array
(492) attempt to position absolute psect "text" is illegal (error)
Notice that the format of the warning was changed, but that of the error message was
not. The warning format now follows the specification of the environment variable. The
application name (parser) was substituted for the %a placeholder, the message
number (362) substituted the %n placeholder, etc.

4.6.5 Changing Message Behavior

Both the attributes of individual messages and general settings for the messaging sys-
tem can be modified during compilation. There are both driver options and C pragmas
that can be used to achieve this.

[Link] DISABLING MESSAGES

Each warning message has a default number indicating a level of importance. This
number is specified in the MDF and ranges from -9 to 9. The higher the number, the
more important the warning.
Warning messages can be disabled by adjusting the warning level threshold using the
--WARN driver option, see Section 4.8.64 --WARN: Set Warning Level. Any warnings
whose level is below that of the current threshold are not displayed.
The default threshold is 0 which implies that only warnings with a warning level of 0 or
higher will be displayed by default. The information in this option is propagated to all
compiler applications, so its effect will be observed during all stages of the compilation
process.
Warnings can also be disabled by using the --MSGDISABLE option, see
Section 4.8.40 --MSGDISABLE: Disable Warning Messages. This option takes a
comma-separated list of warning numbers. The warnings corresponding to the num-
bers listed are disabled and will never be issued, regardless of the current warning level
threshold. If the special message number 0 is specified, then all warning messages are
disabled.

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Some warning messages can also be disabled by using the warning pragma. This
pragma will only affect warnings that are produced by either the parser or the code gen-
erator; i.e., errors directly associated with C code. See Section [Link] The
#pragma warning Directive for more information on this pragma.
Error messages can also be disabled; however, a more verbose form of the above
command is required to confirm the action. To specify an error message number in the
--MSGDISABLE command, each error number must be followed by :off to ensure
that it is disabled. For example:
--MSGDISABLE=1257,195:off,194:off
will disable warning 1257, and errors 195 and 194.

Note: Disabling error or warning messages in no way fixes the condition that
triggered the message. Always use extreme caution when exercising these
options.

[Link] CHANGING MESSAGE TYPES

It is also possible to change the type of some messages. This can only be done for
messages generated by the parser or code generator. See Section [Link] The
#pragma warning Directive, for more information on this pragma.

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4.7 MPLAB XC8 DRIVER OPTIONS

This section looks at the general form of xc8 command-line options and what action
the compiler will perform if no option is specified for a certain feature.

4.7.1 General Option Formats

All single letter options are identified by a leading dash character, -, for example: -C.
Some single letter options specify an additional data field that follows the option name
immediately and without any whitespace, for example: -Ddebug. In this manual,
options are written in upper case and suboptions are written in lower case.
Multi-letter, or word, options have two leading dash characters, for example:
--ASMLIST. (Because of the double dash, the driver can determine that the option
--DOUBLE, for example, is not a -D option followed by the argument OUBLE.)
Some of these word options use suboptions which typically appear as a comma-sepa-
rated list following an equal character, =, for example: --OUTPUT=hex,cof. The exact
formats of the options vary. The options and formats are described in detail in the
following sections.
Some commonly used suboptions include default, which represent the default spec-
ification that would be used if this option was absent altogether; all, which indicates
that all the available suboptions should be enabled as if they had each been listed; and
none, which indicates that all suboptions should be disabled. For example:
--OPT=none
will turn off all optimizers.
Some suboptions can be prefixed with a plus character, +, to indicate that they are in
addition to the other suboptions present; or a minus character -, to indicate that they
should be excluded. For example:
--OPT=default,-asm
indicates that the default optimization be used, but that the assembler optimizer should
be disabled. If the first character after the equal sign is + or -, then the default keyword
is implied. For example:
--OPT=-asm
is the same as the previous example.
See the -HELP option, Section 4.8.34 --HELP: Display Help, for more information
about options and suboptions.

4.7.2 Default Options

If you run the compiler driver from the command line and do not specify the option for
a feature, it will default to a certain state. You can also specify the default suboption
(to double-dash options) that will also invoke the default behavior. You can check what
the default behavior is by using the --HELP=option on the command line, see
Section 4.8.34 --HELP: Display Help.
If you are compiling from within the MPLAB X IDE, it will, by default, issue explicit
options to the compiler (unless changed in the Project Properties dialog), and these
options can be different to those that are the default on the command line. For example,
unless you specify the --ASMLIST option on the command line, the default operation
of the compiler is not to produce an assembly list file. But, if you are compiling from
within the MPLAB X IDE, the default operation (this, in fact, cannot be disabled) is to
always produce an assembly list file.
If you are compiling the same project from the command line and from the MPLAB X
IDE, always check that all options are explicitly specified.

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4.8 OPTION DESCRIPTIONS

Most aspects of the compilation can be controlled using the command-line driver, xc8.
The driver will configure and execute all required applications, such as the code
generator, assembler and linker.
xc8 recognizes the compiler options which are tabled below and are explained in detail
in the sections following. The case of the options is not important; however, command
shells in most operating systems are case sensitive when it comes to the names of
files.

TABLE 4-6: DRIVER OPTIONS

Option Meaning
-C Compile to object file and stop
-Dmacro Define preprocessor macro symbol
-Efilename Redirect compile errors
-G[filename] Generate symbolic debug information
-Ipath Specify include path
-Largument Set linker option
-M[filename] Generate map file
-Nnumber Specify identifier length
-Ofile Specify output filename and type
-P Preprocess assembly source
-Q Quiet mode
-S Compile to assembly file and stop
-Umacro Undefine preprocessor macro symbol
-V Verbose mode
--ADDRQUAL=qualifier Specify address space qualifier handling
--ASMLIST Generate assembly list file
--CHAR=type Default character type (defunct)
--CHECKSUM=specification Calculate a checksum and store the result in program
memory
--CHIP=device Select target device
--CHIPINFO Print device information
--CODEOFFSET=value Specify ROM offset address
--CP=size Specify invariant-optimization mode pointer size
--DEBUGGER=type Set debugger environment
--DOUBLE=size Size of double type
--ECHO Echo command line
--EMI=mode Select external memory interface operating mode
--ERRATA=type Specify errata workarounds
--ERRFORMAT=format Set error format
--ERRORS=number Set maximum number of errors
--EXT=extensions Specify C language extensions
--FILL=specification Specify a ROM-fill value for unused memory
--FLOAT=size Size of float type
--GETOPTION=argument Get advanced options
--HELP=option Help
--HTML=file Generate HTML debug files
--LANG=language Specify language

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TABLE 4-6: DRIVER OPTIONS (CONTINUED)
Option Meaning
--MAXIPIC Maximize current devices memory resources
--MEMMAP=mapfile Display memory map
--MODE=mode Choose operating mode
--MSGDISABLE=list Disable warning messages
--MSGFORMAT=specification Set advisory message format
--NODEL Do not remove temporary files
--NOFALLBACK Error if the request operating mode cannot be used
--OBJDIR=path Set object files directory
--OPT=optimizations Control optimization
--OUTDIR=path Set output directory
--OUTPUT=path Set output formats
--PARSER=mode Specify parser mode
--PASS1 Produce intermediate p-code file and stop
--PRE Produce preprocessed source files and stop
--PROTO Generate function prototypes
--RAM=ranges Adjust RAM ranges
--ROM=ranges Adjust ROM ranges
--RUNTIME=options Specify runtime options
--SCANDEP Scan for dependencies
--SERIAL=specification Insert a hexadecimal code or serial number
--SETOPTION=argument Set advanced options
--SETUP=specification Setup the compiler
--SHROUD Shroud (obfuscate) generated p-code files
--STACK=type[:sizes] Specify data stack type and sizes
--STRICT Use strict ANSI keywords
--SUMMARY=type Summary options
--TIME Report compilation times
--VER Show version information
--WARN=number Set warning threshold level
--WARNFORMAT=specification Set warning format

4.8.1 -C: Compile to Object File

The -C option is used to halt compilation after executing the assembler, leaving a relo-
catable object file as the output. It is frequently used when compiling assembly source
files using a make utility. It cannot be used unless all C source files are present on the
command line. Use --PASS1 to generate intermediate files from C source, see
Section 4.8.49 --PASS1: Compile to P-code.
See Section 4.3.3 Multi-Step Compilation, for more information on generating and
using intermediate files.

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4.8.2 -D: Define Macro

The -D option is used to define a preprocessor macro on the command line, exactly as
if it had been defined using a #define directive in the source code. This option can
take one of two forms, -Dmacro which is equivalent to:
#define macro 1
placed at the top of each module compiled using this option, or -Dmacro= text which
is equivalent to:
#define macro text
where text is the textual substitution required. Thus, the command:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -Ddebug -Dbuffers=10 test.c
will compile test.c with macros defined exactly as if the C source code had included
the directives:
#define debug 1
#define buffers 10
Defining macros as C string literals requires bypassing any interpretation issues in the
operating system that is being used. To pass the C string, "hello world", (including
the quote characters) in the Windows environment, use: "-DMY_STRING=\\\"hello
world\\\"" (you must include the quote characters around the entire option, as there
is a space character in the macro definition). Under Linux or Mac OS X, use:
-DMY_STRING=\"hello\ world\".
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.3 -E: Redirect Compiler Errors to a File

This option has two purposes. The first is to change the format of displayed messages.
The second is to optionally allow messages to be directed to a file, as some editors do
not allow the standard command line redirection facilities to be used when invoking the
compiler.
The general form of messages produced with the -E option in force is:
filename line_number: (message number) message string (type)
If a filename is specified immediately after -E, it is treated as the name of a file to which
all messages (errors, warnings, etc.) will be printed. For example, to compile x.c and
redirect all errors to [Link], use the command:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -[Link] x.c
The -E option also allows errors to be appended to an existing file by specifying an
addition character, +, at the start of the error filename, for example:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -E+[Link] y.c
If you wish to compile several files and combine all of the errors generated into a single
text file, use the -E option to create the file then use -E+ when compiling all the other
source files. For example, to compile a number of files with all errors combined into a
file called [Link], you could use the - E option as follows:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -[Link] -O --PASS1 main.c
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -E+[Link] -O --PASS1 part1.c
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -E+[Link] -C [Link]
Section 4.6 Compiler Messages has more information regarding this option as well as
an overview of the messaging system and other related driver options.

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4.8.4 -I: Include Search Path

Use -I to specify an additional directory to search for header files which have been
included using the #include directive. The directory can either be an absolute or rel-
ative path. The -I option can be used more than once if multiple directories are to be
searched.
The compilers include directory containing all standard header files is always
searched, even if no -I option is present. If header filenames are specified using quote
characters rather than angle brackets, as in #include "lcd.h", then the current
working directory is searched in addition to the compilers include directory. Note that
if compiling within MPLAB IDE, the search path is relative to the output directory, not
the project directory.
These default search paths are searched after any user-specified directories have
been searched. For example, the following code:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA -C -Ic:\include -Id:\myapp\include test.c
will search the directories c:\include and d:\myapp\include for any header files
included into the source code, then search the default include directory.
Under Windows OS, be aware that use of the directory backslash character may unin-
tentionally form an escape sequence. For example, to specify an include file path that
ends with a directory separator character and which is quoted, use -I"E:\\" instead
of -I"E:\", to avoid the escape sequence \". Note that MPLAB X IDE will quote any
include file path you specify in the project properties.
This option has no effect for files that are included into assembly source using the
assembly INCLUDE directive. See Section [Link] INCLUDE, for details.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.5 -L: Scan Library

The -L option is used to specify additional libraries that are to be scanned by the linker.
Libraries specified using the -L option are scanned before the standard C library, allow-
ing additional versions of standard library functions to be accessed.
The argument to -L is a library keyword to which the prefix pic; numbers representing
the device range, number of ROM pages and the number of RAM banks; and the suffix
.lib are added.
In this way, the option -Ll, when compiling for a 16F877A, will, for example, scan the
library [Link] and the option -Lxx will scan a library called
[Link].
All libraries must be located in the lib directory of the compiler installation directory.
As indicated, the argument to the -L option is not a complete library filename. If you
wish the linker to scan libraries whose names do not follow the naming convention pre-
viously mentioned or whose locations are not in the lib subdirectory, simply include
the libraries names on the command line along with your source files, or add these to
your project.

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4.8.6 -L-: Adjust Linker Options Directly

The -L driver option can be used to specify an option that will be passed directly to the
linker. If -L is followed immediately by text starting with a dash character -, the text
will be passed directly to the linker without being interpreted by the xc8 command-line
driver. In the event that the -L option is not followed immediately by a dash character,
it is assumed the option is the library scan option; see Section 4.8.5 -L: Scan Library
for more information.
For example, if the option -L-N is specified, the -N option will be passed on to the linker
without any subsequent interpretation by the driver. The linker will then process this
option, when, and if, it is invoked, and perform the appropriate operation.
Take care with command-line options. The linker cannot interpret command-line driver
options; similarly, the driver cannot interpret linker options. In most situations, it is
always the command-line driver, xc8, that is being executed. If you need to add alter-
nate linker settings in the Linker category of the Project Properties dialog, you must add
driver options (not linker options). These driver options will be used by the driver to gen-
erate the appropriate linker options during the linking process. The -L option is a
means of allowing a linker option to be specified via a driver option.
The -L option is especially useful when linking code that contains non-standard pro-
gram sections (or psects), as can be the case if the program contains hand-written
assembly code that contains user-defined psects (see [Link] PSECT, and
Section 5.15.1 Program Sections), or C code which uses the __section() specifier
(see Section 5.15.4 Changing and Linking the Allocated Section). Without this -L
option, it would be necessary to invoke the linker manually to allow the linker options
to be adjusted.
This option can also be used to replace default linker options. If the string starting from
the first character after the -L option, up to the first equal character, =, matches a
psect or class name in the default options, then (the reference to the psect or class
name in the default option, and the remainder of that option, are deleted) that default
linker option is replaced by the option specified by the -L. For example, if a default
linker option was:
-preset_vec=00h,intentry,init,end_init
the driver option -L-pinit=100h would result in the following options being passed
to the linker: -pinit=100h -preset_vec=00h. Note that the end_init linker
option has been removed entirely. If there are no characters following the first equal
character in the -L option, then no replacement will be made for the default linker
options that will be deleted. For example, the driver option -L-pinit= will adjust the
default options passed to the linker, as above; but, the -pinit linker option would be
removed entirely.
No warning is generated if such a default linker option cannot be found. The default
option that you are deleting or replacing must contain an equal character.

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4.8.7 -M: Generate Map File

The -M option is used to request the generation of a map file. The map file is generated
by the linker and includes detailed information about where objects are located in
memory. See Section 7.3.1 Map Files for information regarding the content of these
files.
If no filename is specified with the option, then the name of the map file will have the
project name (see Section 4.3 The Compilation Sequence), with the extension .map.
This option is on by default when compiling from within MPLAB X IDE and using the
Universal Toolsuite.

4.8.8 -N: Identifier Length

This option allows the significant C identifier length (used by functions and variables)
to be decreased from the default value of 255. Valid sizes for this option are from 31 to
255. The option has no effect for all other values.
This option also controls the significant length of identifiers used by the preprocessor,
such as macro names. The default length is also 255, and can be adjusted to a
minimum of 31.
If the --STRICT option is used, the default significant identifier length is reduced to 31.
Code that uses a longer identifier length will be less portable.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.9 -O: Specify Output File

This option allows the base name of the output file(s) to be specified. If no -O option is
given, the base name of output file(s) will be the same as the project name, see
Section 4.3 The Compilation Sequence. The files whose names are affected by this
option are those files that are not directly associated with any particular source file,
such as the HEX file, MAP file and SYM file.
The -O option can also change the directory in which the output file is located by includ-
ing the required path before the filename. This will then also specify the output directory
for any files produced by the linker or subsequently run applications. Any relative paths
specified are with respect to the current working directory.
For example, if the option -Oc:\project\output\first is used, the MAP and
HEX file, etc., will use the base name first, and will be placed in the directory
c:\project\output.
Any extension supplied with the filename will be ignored.
If a path is specified with the option that enables MAP file creation, -M, (see
Section 4.8.7 -M: Generate Map File), this overrides any name or path information
provided by -O.
To change the directory in which all output and intermediate files are written, use the
--OUTDIR option; see Section Section 4.8.46 --OUTDIR: Specify a Directory for Out-
put Files. Note that if -O specifies a path that is inconsistent with the path specified in
the --OUTDIR option, it will result in an error.

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4.8.10 -P: Preprocess Assembly Files

The -P option causes assembler source files to be preprocessed before they are
assembled, thus allowing the use of preprocessor directives, such as #include, and
C-style comments with assembler code.
By default, assembler files are not preprocessed.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.11 -Q: Quiet Mode

This option places the compiler in a quiet mode that suppresses the Microchip
Technology Incorporated copyright notice from being displayed.

4.8.12 -S: Compile to Assembler Code

The -S option stops compilation after generating an assembly output file. One
assembly file will be generated for all the C source code, including p-code library code.
The command:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877A -S test.c
will produce an assembly file called [Link], which contains the assembly code gen-
erated from test.c. The generated file is valid assembly code that could be passed
to xc8 as a source file, however this should only be done for exploratory reasons. To
take advantage of the benefits of the compilation technology in the compiler, it must
compile and link all the C source code in a single step. See the --PASS1 option
(Section 4.8.49 --PASS1: Compile to P-code) to generate intermediate files if you
wish to compile code using a two-step process or use intermediate files.
This option is useful for checking assembly code output by the compiler. The file pro-
duced by this option differs to that produced by the --ASMLIST option (see
Section 4.8.15 --ADDRQUAL: Set Compiler Response to Memory Qualifiers) in that
it does not contain op-codes or addresses and it can be used as a source file in subse-
quent compilations. The assembly list file is more human readable, but is not a valid
assembly source file.

4.8.13 -U: Undefine a Macro

The -U option, the inverse of the -D option, is used to undefine predefined macros.
This option takes the form -Umacro, where macro is the name of the macro to be
undefined
The option, -Udraft, for example, is equivalent to:
#undef draft
placed at the top of each module compiled using this option.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.14 -V: Verbose Compile

The -V option specifies verbose compilation. When used, the compiler will display the
command lines used to invoke each of the compiler applications described in
Section 4.3 The Compilation Sequence.
The name of the compiler application being executed will be displayed, plus all the
command-line arguments to this application. This option is useful for confirming options
and files names passed to the compiler applications.
If this option is used twice (-V -V), it will display the full path to each compiler applica-
tion as well as the full command-line arguments. This would be useful to ensure that
the correct compiler installation is being executed, if there is more than one compiler
installed.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.15 --ADDRQUAL: Set Compiler Response to Memory Qualifiers

The --ADDRQUAL option indicates the compilers response to non-standard memory
qualifiers in C source code.
By default, these qualifiers are ignored; i.e., they are accepted without error, but have
no effect. Using this option allows these qualifiers to be interpreted differently by the
compiler.
The near qualifier is affected by this option. On PIC18 devices, this option also affects
the far qualifier; and for other 8-bit devices, the bankx qualifiers (bank0, bank1,
bank2, etc.) are affected.
The suboptions are detailed in Table 4-7.

TABLE 4-7: COMPILER RESPONSES TO MEMORY QUALIFIERS

Selection Response
require The qualifiers will be honored. If they cannot be met, an error will be
issued.
request The qualifiers will be honored, if possible. No error will be generated if they
cannot be followed.
ignore The qualifiers will be ignored and code compiled as if they were not used.
reject If the qualifiers are encountered, an error will be immediately generated.

For example, when using the option --ADDRQUAL=request the compiler will try to
honor any non-standard qualifiers, but silently ignore them if they cannot be met.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.16 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler List Files

The --ASMLIST option tells xc8 to generate assembler listing files for the C and
assembly source modules being compiled. One assembly list file is produced for the
entire C program, including code from the C library functions.
Additionally, one assembly list file is produced for each assembly source file in the
project, including the runtime startup code. For more information, see
Section 4.4.2 Startup and Initialization.
Assembly list files use a .lst extension and, due to the additional information placed
in these files, cannot be used as assembly source files.
In the case of listings for C source code, the list file shows both the original C code and
the corresponding assembly code generated by the compiler. See
Section 6.3 Assembly-Level Optimizations, for full information regarding the content
of these files.
The same information is shown in the list files for assembly source code.
This option is on by default when compiling under MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.17 --CHECKSUM: Calculate a Checksum

This option will perform a checksum over the address range specified and store the
result at the destination address specified. The general form of this option is as follows.
-CHECKSUM=start-end@destination[,offset=][,width=w][,code=c][,algorithm=a]
Additional specifications are appended as a comma-separated list to this option. Such
specifications are:
width=n selects the width of the checksum result in bytes for non-Fletcher
algorithms. A negative width will store the result in little-endian byte
order; positive widths in big-endian order. Result widths from one to
four bytes are permitted.
offset=nnnn specifies an initial value or offset to be added to this checksum.
algorithm=n selects one of the checksum algorithms implemented in HEXMATE.
The selectable algorithms are described in Table 8-4.
code=nn is a hexadecimal code that will trail each byte in the checksum result.
This can allow each byte of the checksum result to be embedded
within an instruction.
The start, end and destination attributes are, by default, hexadecimal constants.
If an accompanying --FILL option has not been specified, unused locations within the
specified address range will be filled with FFFh for baseline devices, 3FFFh for
mid-range devices, or FFFF for PIC18 devices. This is to remove any unknown values
from the equation and ensure the accuracy of the checksum result.
For example:
--checksum=800-fff@20,width=1,algorithm=2
will calculate a 1-byte checksum from address 0x800 to 0xfff and store this at address
0x20. A 16-bit addition algorithm will be used. See Table 4-8, for the available
algorithms.

TABLE 4-8: CHECKSUM ALGORITHM SELECTION

Selector Algorithm description
-4 Subtraction of 32 bit values from initial value
-3 Subtraction of 24 bit values from initial value
-2 Subtraction of 16 bit values from initial value
-1 Subtraction of 8 bit values from initial value
1 Addition of 8 bit values from initial value
2 Addition of 16 bit values from initial value
3 Addition of 24 bit values from initial value
4 Addition of 32 bit values from initial value
7 Fletchers checksum (8 bit calculation, 2-byte result width)
8 Fletchers checksum (16 bit calculation, 4-byte result width)

The checksum calculations are performed by the HEXMATE application. The informa-
tion in this driver option is passed to the HEXMATE application when it is executed.

4.8.18 --CHIP: Define Device

This option must be used to specify the target device, or device, for the compilation.
This is the only compiler option that is mandatory when compiling code.
To see a list of supported devices that can be used with this option, use the
--CHIPINFO option described in the next section in this guide.

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4.8.19 --CHIPINFO: Display List of Supported Devices

The --CHIPINFO option displays a list of devices the compiler supports. The names
listed are those chips that are defined in the chipinfo file and which can be used with
the --CHIP option.
Compiler execution will terminate after this list has been printed.

4.8.20 --CLIST: Generate C Listing File

Use of this option will generate a C listing file for each C source file specified on the
command line.
The listing files produced consist of the original C source code prepended with a line
number. Do not confuse these files with assembly list files, see
Section 4.8.16 --ASMLIST: Generate Assembler List Files.

4.8.21 --CODEOFFSET: Offset Program Code to Address

In some circumstances, such as bootloaders, it is necessary to shift the program image
to an alternative address. This option is used to specify a base address for the program
code image and to reserve memory from address 0 to that specified in the option.
When using this option, all code psects (including Reset and interrupt vectors and con-
stant data) will be adjusted to the address specified. The address is assumed to be a
hexadecimal constant. A leading 0x, or a trailing h hexadecimal specifier can be used,
but is not necessary.
This option differs from the --ROM option in that it will move the code associated with
the Reset and interrupt vectors. That cannot be done using the --ROM option, see
Section 4.8.53 --ROM: Adjust ROM Ranges.
For example, if the option --CODEOFFSET=600 is specified, the Reset vector will be
moved from address 0 to address 0x600; the interrupt vector will be moved from
address 4 to 0x604, in the case of mid-range PIC devices, or to the addresses 0x608
and 0x618 for PIC18 devices. No code will be placed between address 0 and 0x600.
As the Reset and interrupt vector locations are fixed by the PIC device, it is the pro-
grammers responsibility to ensure code that can redirect control to the offset Reset
and interrupt routines is written and located at the original locations.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.22 --CP: Specify invariant-optimization mode pointer size

This option can be used to change code and function pointer sizes from the default size
when instruction-invariant optimizations are enabled. The options argument can be
16, 24, or auto (default). If this option is not used or it is set to auto, the compiler will
try to use 16-bit wide code/function pointers, but it will swap to 24-bit pointers when
required; e.g., the device is a PIC18, and there is more than 0xFFFF words of program
memory. The --CP option has no effect when instruction-invariant optimizations are
disabled.

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4.8.23 --DEBUGGER: Select Debugger Type

This option is intended for use for compatibility with development tools that can act as
a debugger. xc8 supports several debuggers and using this option will configure the
compiler to conform to the requirements of that selected. The possible selections for
this option are defined in Table 4-9.

TABLE 4-9: SELECTABLE DEBUGGERS

Suboption Debugger selected
none No debugger (default)
icd2 MPLAB ICD 2
icd3 MPLAB ICD 3
pickit2 PICkit 2
pickit3 PICkit 3
realice MPLAB REAL ICE in-circuit emulator

For example:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA --DEBUGGER=icd2 main.c
Choosing the correct debugger is important as they can use memory resources that
could otherwise be used by the project if this option is omitted. Such a conflict would
lead to runtime failure.
If the debugging features of the development tool are not to be used (for example, if the
MPLAB ICD 3 is only being used as a programmer), then the debugger option can be
set to none, because memory resources are not being used by the tool.
MPLAB X IDE will automatically apply this option for debug builds once you have
indicated the hardware tool in the Project Preferences.

4.8.24 --DOUBLE: Select Kind of Double Types

This option allows the kind of double-precision floating-point types to be selected. By
default, the compiler will choose the truncated IEEE754 24-bit implementation for
double types. With this option, it can be changed to the full 32-bit IEEE754
implementation.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.25 --ECHO: Echo Command Line Before Processing

Use of this option will result in the driver command line being echoed to the stdout
stream before compilation commences. Each token of the command line will be printed
on a separate line and they will appear in the order in which they are placed on the
command line.

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4.8.26 --EMI: Select External Memory Interface Operating Mode

The external memory interface available on some PIC18 devices can be operated in
several modes. The interface can operate in 16-bit modes; Word-write and Byte-select
modes or in an 8-bit mode: Byte-write mode. These modes are represented by those
specified in Table 4-10.

TABLE 4-10: EXTERNAL MEMORY INTERFACE MODES

Mode Operation
wordwrite 16-bit Word-write mode (default)
byteselect 16-bit Byte-select mode
bytewrite 8-bit Byte-write mode

The selected mode will affect the code generated when writing to the external data
interface. In word write mode, dummy reads and writes can be added to ensure that an
even number of bytes are always written. In Byte-select or Byte-write modes, dummy
reads and writes are not generated and can result in more efficient code.
Note that this option does not pre-configure the device for operation in the selected
mode. See your device data sheet for the registers and settings that are used to
configure the devices external interface mode.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.27 --ERRATA: Specify Errata Workarounds

This option allows specification of software workarounds to documented silicon errata
issues. A default set of errata issues apply to each device, but this set can be adjusted
by using this option and the arguments presented in Table 4-11.

TABLE 4-11: ERRATA WORKAROUNDS

Bit
Symbol Workaround
pos.
4000 0 Program memory accesses/jumps across 4000h address boundary
fastints 1 Fast interrupt shadow registers corruption
lfsr 2 Broken LFSR instruction
minus40 3 Program memory reads at -40 degrees
reset 4 GOTO instruction cannot exist at Reset vector
bsr15 5 Flag problems when BSR holds value 15
daw 6 Broken DAW instruction
eedatard 7 Read EEDAT in immediate instruction after RD set
eeadr 8 Don't set RD bit immediately after loading EEADR
ee_lvd 9 LVD must stabilize before writing EEPROM
fl_lvd 10 LVD must stabilize before writing Flash
tblwtint 11 Clear interrupt registers before tblwt instruction
fw4000 12 Flash write exe must act on opposite side of 4000h boundary
resetram 13 RAM contents can corrupt if async. Reset occurs during write access
fetch 14 Corruptible instruction fetch. apply FFFFh (NOP) at required locations
clocksw 15 Code corruption if switching to external oscillator clock source apply
switch to HFINTOSC high-power mode first
branch 16 The PC might become invalid when restoring from an interrupt during a
BRA or BRW instruction avoid branch instructions

At present, workarounds are mainly employed for PIC18 devices, but the clocksw and
branch errata are only applicable for some enhanced mid-range devices.
To disable all software workarounds, use the following.
--ERRATA=none
For example, to apply the default set of workarounds, but also to specifically disable
the jump across 4000 errata, use the following:
--ERRATA=default,-4000
A preprocessor macro ERRATA_TYPES (see Section 5.14.3 Predefined Macros) is
set to a value to indicate the errata applied. Each errata listed in Table 4-11 represents
a bit position in the macros value, with the topmost errata in the table being the least
significant. The bit position is indicated in the table and is set if the corresponding errata
is applied. That is, if the 4000, reset and bsr15 errata were applied, the value
assigned to the ERRATA_TYPES macro would be 0x31.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.28 --ERRFORMAT: Define Format for Compiler Messages

If the --ERRFORMAT option is not used, the default behavior of the compiler is to dis-
play any errors in a human readable form. This standard format is perfectly accept-
able to a person reading the error output, but is not generally usable with environments
that support compiler error handling.
This option allows the exact format of printed error messages to be specified using spe-
cial placeholders embedded within a message template. See Section 4.6 Compiler
Messages for full details of the messaging system employed by xc8, and the
placeholders which can be used with this option.
This section is also applicable to the --WARNFORMAT and --MSGFORMAT options,
which adjust the format of warning and advisory messages, respectively.
If you are compiling using MPLAB IDE, the format of the compiler messages is auto-
matically configured to what the IDE expects. It recommended that you do not adjust
the message formats if compiling using this IDE.

4.8.29 --ERRORS: Maximum Number of Errors

This option sets the maximum number of errors each compiler application, as well as
the driver, will display before execution is terminated. By default, up to 20 error
messages will be displayed by each application.
See Section 4.6 Compiler Messages for full details of the messaging system
employed by xc8.

4.8.30 --EXT: Specify C Language Extensions

The compiler can accept several different sets of non-standard C language extensions.
The suboption to --EXT indicates the set and these are shown in Table 4-12.

TABLE 4-12: ACCEPTABLE C LANGUAGE EXTENSIONS

Suboption Meaning
xc8 The native XC8 extensions (default)
cci A common C interface acceptable by all MPLAB XC compilers
iar Extensions defined by the IAR C/C++ Compiler for ARM

Enabling the cci suboption requests the compiler to check all source code and com-
piler options for compliance with the Common C Interface (CCI). Code that complies
with this interface is portable across all MPLAB XC compilers. Code or options that do
not conform to the CCI will be flagged by compiler warnings. See Chapter 2. Common
C Interface, for information on the features that are covered by this interface.
The iar suboption enables conformance with the non-standard extensions supported
by the IAR C/C++ Compiler for ARM. This is discussed further in
Appendix B. Embedded Compiler Compatibility Mode.

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4.8.31 --FILL: Fill Unused Program Memory

This option allows specification of a hexadecimal opcode that can be used to fill all
unused program memory locations. This option utilizes the features of the HEXMATE
application, so it is only available when producing a HEX output file, which is the default
operation.
This driver feature allows you to compile and fill unused locations in one step. If you
prefer not to use the driver option and you prefer to fill unused locations after compila-
tion, then you need to use the HEXMATE application. Note that the corresponding option
in HEXMATE is -FILL (one leading dash) as opposed to the drivers --FILL option.
Note, also, that the unused tag that can be specified with the driver option does not
exist in the HEXMATE options.
The usage of the driver option is:
--FILL=[const_width:]fill_expr[@address[:end_address]]
where:
const_width has the form wn and signifies the width (n bytes) of each constant
in fill_expr. If const_width is not specified, the default value is the native
width of the architecture. That is, --FILL=w1:1 with fill every byte with the value
0x01.
fill_expr can use the syntax (where const and increment are n-byte
constants):
- const fill memory with a repeating constant; i.e., --FILL=0xBEEF becomes
0xBEEF, 0xBEEF, 0xBEEF, 0xBEEF
- const+=increment fill memory with an incrementing constant; i.e.,
--fill=0xBEEF+=1 becomes 0xBEEF, 0xBEF0, 0xBEF1, 0xBEF2
- const-=increment fill memory with a decrementing constant; i.e.,
--fill=0xBEEF-=0x10 becomes 0xBEEF, 0xBEDF, 0xBECF, 0xBEBF
- const,const,...,const fill memory with a list of repeating constants; i.e.,
--FILL=0xDEAD,0xBEEF becomes 0xDEAD,0xBEEF,0xDEAD,0xBEEF
The options following fill_expr result in the following behavior:
- @unused (or nothing) fill all unused memory with fill_expr; i.e.,
--FILL=0xBEEF@unused fills all unused memory with 0xBEEF. The driver
will expand this to the appropriate ranges and pass these to HEXMATE.
- @address fill a specific address with fill_expr; i.e.,
--FILL=0xBEEF@0x1000 puts 0xBEEF at address 1000h
- @address:end_address fill a range of memory with fill_expr; i.e.,
--FILL=0xBEEF@0:0xFF puts 0xBEEF in unused addresses between 0 and
255
All constants can be expressed in (unsigned) binary, octal, decimal or hexadecimal, as
per normal C syntax. For example, 1234 is a decimal value, 0xFF00 is hexadecimal,
and FF00 is illegal.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, or Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option
Equivalents, for information on using this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.32 --FLOAT: Select Kind of Float Types

This option allows the size of float types to be selected. The types available to be
selected are given in Table 4-13.
See also, the --DOUBLE option in Section 4.8.24 --DOUBLE: Select Kind of Double
Types.

TABLE 4-13: FLOATING-POINT SELECTIONS

Suboption Effect
double Size of float matches size of double type
24 24-bit float (default)
32 32-bit float (IEEE754 format)

See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.33 --GETOPTION: Get Command-line Options

This option is used to retrieve the command line options that are used for named com-
piler application. The options are then saved into the given file. This option is not
required for most projects, and is disabled when the compiler is operating in Free mode
(see Section 4.8.39 --MODE: Choose Compiler Operating Mode).
The options take an application name and a filename to store the options, for example:
--GETOPTION=hlink,[Link]

4.8.34 --HELP: Display Help

This option displays information on the xc8 compiler options. The option --HELP will
display all options available. To find out more about a particular option, use the options
name as a parameter. For example:
xc8 --help=warn
will display more detailed information about the --WARN option, the available
suboptions, and which suboptions are enabled by default.

4.8.35 --HTML: Generate HTML Diagnostic Files

This option will generate a series of HTML files that can be used to explore the compi-
lation results of the latest build. The files are stored in a directory called html, located
in the output directory. The top-level file (which can be opened with your favorite web
browser) is called [Link].
Use this option at all stages of compilation to ensure files associated with all
compilation stages are generated.
The index page is a graphical representation of the compilation process. Each file icon
is clickable and will open to show the contents of that file. This is available for all inter-
mediate files, and even binary files will open in a human-readable form. Each applica-
tion icon can also be clicked to show a page that contains information about the
applications options and build results.
The list of all preprocessor macros (preprocessor icon) and a graphical memory usage
map (Linker icon) provide information that is not otherwise readily accessible.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents, for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.36 --LANG: Specify the Language for Messages

This option allows the compiler to be configured to produce error, warning and some
advisory messages in languages other than English.

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English is the default language unless this has been changed at installation, or by the
use of the --SETUP option. Some messages are only ever printed in English regard-
less of the language specified with this option. For more information, see
Section 4.6.2 Message Language.
Table 4-14 shows those languages currently supported.

TABLE 4-14: SUPPORTED LANGUAGES

Suboption Language
en, english English (default)
fr, french, francais French
de, german, deutsch German

4.8.37 --MAXIPIC: Maximize current devices memory resources

The compiler will terminate compilation if the selected device runs out of program mem-
ory, data memory, or EEPROM. This option tells the compiler to generate code for a
hypothetical device with the same physical core and peripherals as the selected
device, but with the maximum allowable memory resources permitted by the device
family.
The program memory of PIC18 and mid-range devices will be maximized to either the
bottom of external memory or the maximum address permitted by the PC register,
whichever is lower. The program memory of baseline parts is maximized to the lower
address of the Configuration Words.
The number of data memory banks is expanded to the maximum number of selectable
banks as defined by the BSR register (for PIC18 devices), RP bits in the STATUS reg-
ister (for mid-range devices), or the bank select bits in the FSR register (for baseline
devices). The amount of RAM in each additional bank is equal to the size of the largest
contiguous memory area within the physically implemented banks.
EEPROM is only maximized if the device implements this memory. If present,
EEPROM is maximized to a size dictated by the number of bits in the EEADR register.
If required, check the map file (see Section 7.3.1 Map Files) to see the size and
arrangement of the memory available when using this option with your device.

Note: With the --MAXIPIC option enabled, you are not compiling for a real
device. The generated code may not load or execute in simulators or on
real silicon devices. This option cannot be used to fit additional code into a
device.

You might choose to use this option if your code does not fit in your intended target
device. This option will allow you to see the total memory requirements of your program
and give an indication of the code or data size reductions that need to be made to fit
the program to the device.

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4.8.38 --MEMMAP: Display Memory Map

This option will display a memory map for the map file specified with this option. The
information printed is controlled by the --SUMMARY option, see
Section 4.8.61 --SUMMARY: Select Memory Summary Output Type, for example:
xc8 --memmap=[Link] --summary=psect,class,file
This option is seldom required, but would be useful if the linker is being driven explicitly;
i.e., instead of in the normal way through the command-line driver. This command
would display the memory summary that is normally produced at the end of compilation
by the driver.

4.8.39 --MODE: Choose Compiler Operating Mode

This option selects the basic operating mode of the compiler. The available types are
pro, std, and free. (For legacy projects, the mode lite is accepted to mean the Free
operating mode.)
PRO mode uses full optimization and produces the smallest code size.
Standard mode uses limited optimizations.
Free mode uses a minimum optimization level and produces relatively large code.
See Section 5.13 Optimizations and Section 6.3 Assembly-Level Optimizations, for
more about which optimizations are available in each mode.
Only those modes permitted by the compiler license status are accepted. For example,
if you purchased a Standard compiler license, the compiler can be run in Standard or
Free mode, but not in PRO mode. If you attempt to run the compiler in a mode for which
it is not licensed, it will fall back to the highest-allowed mode.
However, the --NOFALLBACK option can be used to detect situations in which a com-
piler may have been activated incorrectly or not activated at all by preventing compila-
tion in a lower operating mode than the one requested (see
Section 4.8.43 --NOFALLBACK: Error if the Requested Operating Mode Cannot Be
Used).
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

4.8.40 --MSGDISABLE: Disable Warning Messages

This option allows error, warning or advisory messages to be disabled during the
compilation of a project.
The option is passed a comma-separated list of message numbers that are to be dis-
abled. If the number of an error message is specified in this list, it must be followed by
:off; otherwise, it will be ignored. If the message list is specified as 0, then all warn-
ings are disabled.
For full information on the compilers messaging system and use of this option, see
Section 4.6 Compiler Messages. Also, see Section 4.6.5 Changing Message
Behavior for other ways to disable messages.

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4.8.41 --MSGFORMAT: Set Advisory Message Format

This option sets the format of advisory messages produced by the compiler. Warning
and error messages are controlled separately by other options. See
Section 4.8.28 --ERRFORMAT: Define Format for Compiler Messages and
Section 4.8.65 --WARNFORMAT: Set Warning Message Format for information on
changing the format of these sorts of messages.
See Section 4.6 Compiler Messages for full information on the compilers messaging
system.
If you are compiling using MPLAB IDE, the format of the compiler messages is auto-
matically configured to what the IDE expects. It recommended that you do not adjust
the message formats if compiling using this IDE.

4.8.42 --NODEL: Do Not Remove Temporary Files

Specifying --NODEL when building will instruct xc8 not to remove the intermediate and
temporary files that were created during the build process.

4.8.43 --NOFALLBACK: Error if the Requested Operating Mode Cannot

Be Used
This option can be used to ensure that the compiler is not executed with an operating
mode below that specified by the --MODE option (see Section 4.8.39 --MODE:
Choose Compiler Operating Mode). If the compiler has not been activated to run in the
requested mode, an error will be produced and compilation will terminate when this
option is used. Without this option, the compiler will fall back to either the Standard or
Free operating mode if it is not activated to run in the requested mode.

4.8.44 --OBJDIR: Specify a Directory for Intermediate Files

This option allows a directory to be nominated in xc8 to locate its intermediate files. If
this option is omitted, intermediate files will be created in the current working directory.
This option will not set the location of output files, instead use --OUTDIR. See
Section 4.8.46 --OUTDIR: Specify a Directory for Output Files and Section 4.8.9 -O:
Specify Output File for more information.

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4.8.45 --OPT: Invoke Compiler Optimizations

The --OPT option allows control of all the compiler optimizers. If this option is not spec-
ified, or it is specified as --OPT=all, the space and asm optimizations are enabled
(see below). Optimizations can be disabled by using --OPT=none, or individual opti-
mizers can be controlled, for example: --OPT=asm will only enable some assembler
optimizations.
Table 4-15 lists the available optimization types.

TABLE 4-15: OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS

Option name Function
asm Select optimizations of assembly code derived from C source (default)
asmfile Select optimizations of assembly source files
debug Favor accurate debugging over optimization
invariant Generate instruction-invariant code
speed Favor optimizations that result in faster code
space Favor optimizations that result in smaller code (default)
all Enable all compiler optimizations
none Do not use any compiler optimizations

Note that different suboptions control assembler optimizations of assembly source files
and intermediate assembly files produced from C source code.
The speed and space suboptions are contradictory. Space optimizations are the
default. If speed and space suboptions are both specified, then speed optimizations
takes precedence. If all optimizations are requested, the space optimization is
enabled. These optimizations affect procedural abstraction, which is performed by the
assembler, and other optimizations at the code generation stage.
The asmfile selection optimizes assembly source files, which are otherwise not opti-
mized by the compiler. By contrast, the asm control allows for optimization of assembly
code that was derived from C code, an optimization that is enabled by default.
The invariant optimization setting ensures that the sequence of instructions generated
by the compiler for the same C code will not change from build to build. This optimiza-
tion does not have any control over instruction operands, so the binary image can still
vary as the program source is modified and objects and code are linked at different
addresses.
Typically, this optimization might be used when building libraries. These libraries can
be included into projects and will produce the same instruction sequence, regardless
of the other source code in the project. This setting is available only for PIC18 and
enhanced mid-range devices.
When the invariant optimization is employed, functions are forced to be reentrant and
all pointer sizes are made a fixed width. The default width can be changed using the
--CP option (see Section 4.8.22 --CP: Specify invariant-optimization mode pointer
size). Many code-reduction features of the asm, space and speed modes are dis-
abled when the invariant optimization is enabled, with the result that the generated
code is typically larger.
Some compiler optimizations discussed above can affect the ability to debug code.
Enabling the debug suboption can restrict some optimizations that would otherwise
take place, and which would affect debugging.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.46 --OUTDIR: Specify a Directory for Output Files

This option allows a directory to be nominated for xc8 to locate its output files. If this
option is omitted, output files will be created in the current working directory. See also
Section 4.8.44 --OBJDIR: Specify a Directory for Intermediate Files and
Section 4.8.9 -O: Specify Output File for more information.

4.8.47 --OUTPUT= type: Specify Output File Type

This option allows the type of the output file(s) to be specified. If no --OUTPUT option
is specified, the output files name will be the same as the project name (see
Section 4.3 The Compilation Sequence).
The available output file formats are shown in Table 4-16. More than one output format
can be specified by supplying a comma-separated list of tags. Not all formats are
supported by Microchip development tools.
For debugging, the ELF/DWARF format is preferred, but this format is not supported by
MPLAB IDE v8 or early versions of MPLAB X IDE. Before selecting the ELF file output,
ensure your IDE version has support for this format. Microchip COFF is the default
debugging file output.
Output file types that specify library formats stop the compilation process before the
final stages of compilation are executed. So, specifying an output file format list that
contains, for example: lib or all, will prevent the other formats from being created.

TABLE 4-16: OUTPUT FILE FORMATS

Type tag File format
lib Object library file (for assembly source)
lpp P-code library file (for C source)
intel, inhx32 Intel HEX (default)
inhx032 Intel HEX with initialization of upper extended linear address to
zero
tek Tektronix Hex
aahex American Automation symbolic HEX file
mot, motorola, s19 Motorola S19 HEX file
bin, binary Binary file
mcof, mcoff, mpcoff Microchip COFF (default)
elf ELF/DWARF file

So, for example:

xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA --OUTPUT=lpp lcd_init.c lcd_data.c lcd_msgs.c
will compile the three names files into an LPP (p-code) library.

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4.8.48 --PARSER: Specify Parser Mode

This option controls which symbols are stripped from intermediate (p-code) files pro-
duced by the parser. The default is to remove unused symbols, which can also be
specified using the --PARSER=lean mode. The rich mode will not remove any
symbols.
Note that the rich mode will generate larger intermediate files and will considerably
slow down the compilation, particularly if there are many SFRs defined for a device.
PIC18 devices typically have a large number of SFRs. Use the rich setting if you have
in-line assembly code that accesses symbols that are not referenced by C code other-
wise undefined symbol errors can be produced by the assembler application.

4.8.49 --PASS1: Compile to P-code

The --PASS1 option is used to generate p-code intermediate files (.p1 files) from the
parser, and then stop compilation. Such files need to be generated if creating p-code
library files, however the compiler is able to generate library files in one step, if required.
See Section 4.8.47 --OUTPUT= type: Specify Output File Type for specifying a library
output file type.)

4.8.50 --PRE: Produce Preprocessed Source Code

The --PRE option is used to generate preprocessed C source files (also called mod-
ules or translation units) with an extension .pre. This can be useful to ensure that pre-
processor macros have expanded to what you think they should. Use of this option can
also create C source files that do not require any separate header files. If the .pre files
are renamed to .c files, they can be passed to the compiler for subsequent processing.
This is useful when sending files to a colleague or to obtain technical support without
sending all the header files, which can reside in many directories.
If you wish to see the preprocessed source for the printf() family of functions, do
not use this option. The source for this function is customized by the compiler, but only
after the code generator has scanned the project for printf() usage. Thus, as the
-PRE option stops compilation after the preprocessor stage, the code generator will
not execute and no printf() code will be processed. If this option is omitted, the
preprocessed source for printf() will be automatically retained in the file
[Link].

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4.8.51 --PROTO: Generate Prototypes

The --PROTO option is used to generate .pro files containing both ANSI C and K&R
style function declarations for all functions within the specified source files. Each .pro
file produced will have the same base name as the corresponding source file. Proto-
type files contain both ANSI C-style prototypes and old-style C function declarations
within conditional compilation blocks.
The extern declarations from each .pro file should be edited into a global header file,
which can then be included into all the C source files in the project. The .pro files can
also contain static declarations for functions that are local to a source file. These
static declarations should be edited into the start of the source file.
To demonstrate the operation of the --PROTO option, enter the following source code
as file test.c:
#include <stdio.h>
add(arg1, arg2)
int * arg1;
int * arg2;
{
return *arg1 + *arg2;
}

void printlist(int * list, int count)

{
while (count--)
printf("d " *list++);
putchar(\n);
}
If compiled with the command:
xc8 --CHIP=16F877AA --PROTO test.c
xc8 will produce [Link] containing the following declarations, which can then be
edited as necessary:
/* Prototypes from test.c */
/* extern functions - include these in a header file */
#if PROTOTYPES
extern int add(int *, int *);
extern void printlist(int *, int);
#else /* PROTOTYPES */
extern int add();
extern void printlist();
#endif /* PROTOTYPES */

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4.8.52 --RAM: Adjust RAM Ranges

This option is used to adjust the default RAM, which is specified for the target device.
The default memory will include all the on-chip RAM specified for the target
PIC10/12/16 device, thus this option only needs be used if there are special memory
requirements. Typically this option is used to reserve memory (reduce the amount of
memory available). Specifying additional memory that is not in the target device will
typically result in a successful compilation, but can lead to code failures at runtime.
The default RAM memory for each target device is specified in the chipinfo file,
[Link].
Strictly speaking, this option specifies the areas of memory that can be used by writable
(RAM-based) objects; but, not necessarily those areas of memory that contain physical
RAM. The output that will be placed in the ranges specified by this option are typically
variables that a program defines.
For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that already present on-chip,
use:
--RAM=default,+100-1ff
This will add the range from 100h to 1ffh to the on-chip memory. To only use an external
range and ignore any on-chip memory, use:
--RAM=0-ff
This option can also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip
memory in the chipinfo file. To do this, supply a range prefixed with a minus character,
-, for example:
--RAM=default,-100-103
will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from
100h to 103h for allocation of RAM objects.
This option is also used to specify RAM for far objects on PIC18 devices. These
objects are stored in the PIC18 extended memory. Any additional memory specified
with this option whose address is above the on-chip program memory is assumed to
be extended memory implemented as RAM.
For example, to indicate that RAM has been implemented in the extended memory
space at addresses 0x20000 to 0x20fff, use the following option.
--RAM=default,+20000-20fff
This option will adjust the memory ranges used by linker classes (see
Section 7.2.1 -Aclass =low-high,...) so any object that is in a psect is placed in this
class. Any objects contained in a psect that are explicitly placed at a memory address
by the linker (see Section 7.2.19 -Pspec), i.e., are not placed into a memory class, are
not affected by the option. For an introductory guide to psects, see
Section 5.15.1 Program Sections.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.53 --ROM: Adjust ROM Ranges

This option is used to change the default ROM that is specified for the target device.
The default memory will include all the on-chip ROM specified for the target
PIC10/12/16 device, thus this option only needs to be used if there are special memory
requirements. Typically this option is used to reserve memory (reduce the amount of
memory available). Specifying additional memory that is not in the target device will
typically result in a successful compilation, but can lead to code failures at runtime.
The default ROM memory for each target device is specified in the chipinfo file,
[Link].
Strictly speaking, this option specifies the areas of memory that can be used by
read-only (ROM-based) objects; but, not necessarily those areas of memory that con-
tain physical ROM. When producing code that can be downloaded into a system via a
bootloader, the destination memory can be some sort of (volatile) RAM. The output that
will be placed in the ranges specified by this option are typically executable code and
any data variables that are qualified as const.
For example, to specify an additional range of memory to that on-chip, use:
--ROM=default,+100-2ff
This will add the range from 100h to 2ffh to the on-chip memory. To only use an external
range and ignore any on-chip memory, use:
--ROM=100-2ff
This option can also be used to reserve memory ranges already defined as on-chip
memory in the chip configuration file. To do this supply a range prefixed with a minus
character, -, for example:
--ROM=default,-100-1ff
will use all the defined on-chip memory, but not use the addresses in the range from
100h to 1ffh for allocation of ROM objects.
This option will adjust the memory ranges used by linker classes (see
Section 7.2.1 -Aclass =low-high,...) so any object that is in a psect is placed in this
class. Any objects which are contained in a psect that are explicitly placed at a memory
address by the linker (see Section 7.2.19 -Pspec), i.e., are not placed into a memory
class, are not affected by the option. For an introductory guide to psects, see
Section 5.15.1 Program Sections.
Note that some psects must be linked above a threshold address, most notably some
psects that hold const data. Using this option to remove the upper memory ranges can
make it impossible to place these psects.
See Section 4.9 MPLAB X Option Equivalents for use of this option in MPLAB IDE.

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4.8.54 --RUNTIME: Specify Runtime Environment

The --RUNTIME option is used to control what is included as part of the runtime envi-
ronment. In this context, the runtime environment encapsulates any code that is pres-
ent when the program is executing and that has not been defined by the user. Such
code is supplied by the compiler, typically in library files or compiler-generated source
files built alongside the user's code.
All required runtime features are enabled by default and this option is not required for
normal compilation.
Note that the code that clears or initializes variables, which is included by default, will
clobber the contents of the STATUS register. For mid-range and baseline devices, if
you need to check the cause of Reset using the TO or PD bits in this register, then you
can enable the resetbits suboption as well. See Section [Link] STATUS Register
Preservation for how this feature is used.
The usable suboptions include those shown in Table 4-17.

TABLE 4-17: RUNTIME ENVIRONMENT SUBOPTIONS

Default
Suboption Controls On (+) Implies
State

init the code present in the main program The ROM image is copied into RAM and
module that copies the ROM-image of initial initialized variables will contain their initial On
values to RAM variables value at main().
clib the inclusion of library files into the output Library files are linked into the output.
On
code by the linker.
clear the code present in the main program Uninitialized variables are cleared and will
On
module that clears uninitialized variables contain 0 at main().
config programming the device with default config Configuration bits not specified will be
Off
bytes assigned a default value. (PIC18 only)
download conditioning of the Intel HEX file for use Data records in the Intel HEX file are padded
with bootloaders out to 16-byte lengths and will align on 16-byte
Off
boundaries. Startup code will not assume
Reset values in certain registers.
flp additional code to provide function pro filing Diagnostic code will be embedded into the
Off
output to allow function profiling.
no_startup whether the startup module is linked in with Startup module will not be linked in.
Off
user-defined code
osccal initialize the oscillator with the oscillator Oscillator will be calibrated (PIC10/12/16
On
constant only).
oscval: set the internal clock oscillator calibration Oscillator will be calibrated with value
n/a
value value supplied (PIC10/12/16 only).
keep whether the startup module source file The startup module is not deleted.
On
([Link]) is deleted after compilation
plib whether the peripheral library is linked in