Natural Resources Canada

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION AND HEAT LOSSES

COMBUSTION PROCESSES have been, are and will be for the near future, the
prime generator of energy in our civilization, which is burning fossil fuels at an
ever-increasing rate. The processes must be managed well for the sake of the
environment and the sustainability of civilization.

The principles of combustion are common to heaters, boilers and other forms of
industrial combustion, e.g. in furnaces and kilns. In this sense, the term "boiler"
is interchangeable with "heater" throughout this text (unless stated otherwise).

Conventional fuels consist mainly of two elements carbon and hydrogen. During
combustion, they combine with oxygen to produce heat. The fuel value lies in the
carbon and hydrogen content. Non-fossil fuels, such as biomass and alcohol, also
contain oxygen in their molecular structures.

Ideally, combustion breaks down the molecular structure of the fuel; the carbon
oxidizes to carbondioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen to water vapour(H2O). But an
incomplete process creates undesirable and dangerous products. To ensure
complete combustion, even modern equipment with many features must operate
with excess air. That is, more air (carrying about 21 percent oxygen by volume) is
passed through the burner than is chemically required for complete combustion.
This excess air speeds up the mixing of fuel and air.

On one hand, this process ensures that nearly all the fuel receives the oxygen it
needs for combustion before it is chilled below combustion temperatures by
contact with heat exchange surfaces. It also prevents fuel that is not burned
completely from exploding within the boiler.

On the other hand, excess air wastes energy by carrying heat up the stack. A fine
line exists between combustion efficiency and safety in ensuring that as little
excess air as possible is supplied to the burner.

Boiler owners and operators will want to know if their operations are efficient.
As the objective is to increase the energy efficiency of boilers, reviewing the
causes of heat loss in boiler operations maybe useful.

HEAT LOSSES in a boiler are well described by the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in its rigorous PTC4.1 power test code (1973).
The test code applies to any type of fuel used. However, natural gas or fuel oil fire
most boilers and heaters in Canada. In such systems, many of the losses listed in
the code do not apply. And other systems are small enough for their losses to be
rolled into an "unaccounted for" category, for which a value can be assumed. A
simplified method for quantifying boiler efficiency uses this equation:
Efficiency (E) % = (Output Input) X 100,where: Output = Input Losses

Alternatively,

Efficiency (E) % = 100 losses, where losses can be calculated according to the
ASME power test code.

Since this code uses Imperial units, it is necessary to convert temperatures to

degrees Fahrenheit (F) and heating units to British thermal units per pound
(Btu/lb.), which can be done with the following conversion formulas:

F = (1.8 X C) + 32
Btu/lb. = 0.4299 X kJ/kg

The following four significant types of energy losses apply to natural gas and
heating oil systems.

Dry flue gas loss (LDG)

Heat is lost in the "dry" products of combustion, which carry only sensible heat
since no change of state was involved. These products are carbondioxide (CO 2),
carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen(O2), nitrogen (N2) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2).Concentrations of SO2 and CO are normally in the parts-per-million (ppm)
range so, from the viewpoint of heat loss, they can be ignored. Calculate the dry
flue gas loss (LDG) using the following formula:

LDG = [24 x DG x (FGT CAT)] HHV, where

DG (lb./lb. fuel) = (11CO2 + 8O2 + 7N2) x (C + 0.375S) 3CO2

FGT = flue gas temperature, F
CAT = combustion air temperature, F
HHV = higher heating value of fuel, Btu/lb.
CO2 and O2 = percent by volume in the flue gas
N2 = 100 CO2 O2
C and S = weight fraction in fuel analysis

Minimizing excess air reduces dry flue gas losses.

Loss due to moisture from the combustion of

hydrogen (LH)
The hydrogen component of fuel leaves the boiler as water vapour, taking with it
the enthalpy or heat content corresponding to its conditions of temperature
and pressure. The vapour is a steam at very low pressure, but with a high stack
temperature . Most of its enthalpy is in the heat of vaporization. The significant
loss is about 11 percent for natural gas and 7 percent for fuel oil. This loss (LH)
can be calculated as follows:
LH (%) = [900 x H2 x (hg hf)] HHV, where

H2 = hydrogen weight fraction in fuel analysis

hg = 1055 + (0.467 x FGT), Btu/lb.
hf = CAT 32, Btu/lb.

Where hg is the enthalpy of water vapour at 1 psig (pounds per square inch
gauge) and the flue gas temperature (FGT), and hf is the enthalpy of water at the
combustion air temperature (CAT).

Only a condensing heat exchanger will reduce this loss appreciably.

Table 1. Direct Method for Calculating Boiler Efficiency

1. Measure steam flow via kg (or lb.) over a set period, e.g. one hour. Use
steam integrator readings, if available, and correct for orifice calibration
pressure. Alternatively, use the feedwater integrator, if available, which
will in most cases not require a correction for pressure.

2. Measure the flow of fuel over the same period. Use the gas or oil
integrator, or determine the mass of solid fuel used.

3. Convert steam flow, feedwater flow and fuel flow to identical energy
units, e.g. Btu/lb. or kJ/kg.

4. Calculate the efficiency using the following equation: Efficiency = 100 x

(steam energy feedwater energy) fuel energy

Loss due to radiation and convection (LR)

This loss occurs from the external surfaces of an operating boiler. For any boiler
at operating temperature, the loss is constant. Expressed as a percentage of the
boiler's heat output, the loss increases as boiler output is reduced. Hence,
operating the boiler at full load lowers the percentage of loss. Since the boiler's
surface area relates to its bulk, the relative loss is lower for a larger boiler and
higher for a smaller boiler. Instead of making complex calculations, determine
the radiation and convection loss using a standard chart available from the
American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA).

Losses that are unaccounted for (LUA)

For reasons mentioned earlier, use an assumed loss value of 0.1 percent for
natural-gas-fired boiler systems and 0.2 percent for oil-fired systems.

Then, calculate efficiency as follows:

Efficiency (E) % = 100LDGLHLRLUA, where

LDG = Dry flue gas loss

LH = Moisture from hydrogen loss
LR = Radiation and convection loss
LUA = Unaccounted for losses

Begin a boiler plant program of energy management by assessing current boiler

efficiencies. Then monitor boiler performance regularly to gauge the effect of
established energy-saving measures and to set improvement targets.

The simplest way to calculate fuel-to-steam efficiency is the direct method of

calculation (see Table 1), using steam generation and fuel consumption data from
operating logs. However, this method may not be as accurate as the indirect
method due to errors in metering fuel flow and steam flow.

BOILER AND HEATER OPERATIONAL CONTROL

Previously, this guidebook explained why it is necessary to operate a boiler with
more air than is theoretically needed to burn all the fuel. Burner controls are
therefore always set to provide some amount of excess air in all operating
scenarios, typically from two to five percent O2 in the flue gas. This guidebook
has also pointed out that excess air incurs a heat loss; it enters the combustion
system at ambient temperature and leaves at stack temperature. Therefore,
reducing the oxygen level in the flue gas will reduce the heat loss.

A general rule is that a 1 percent reduction in excess oxygen will reduce fuel
usage by 1 percent.

Controlling excess air is the most important tool for managing the energy
efficiency and atmospheric emissions of a boiler system.

It is important to keep in mind that the air-to-fuel ratio is based on mass, not
volume. The mass of air supplied to the mass of fuel being used (e.g. on a
kilogram-to-kilogram basis) must be controlled. The density of air and gaseous
fuels changes with temperature and pressure, a fact that must be taken into
account in controlling the air-to-fuel ratio. For example, if pressure is fixed, the
mass of air flowing in a duct will decrease when the temperature increases. The
controls should therefore compensate for seasonal temperature variations and,
optimally, for day and night variations too (especially during the spring and fall,
when daily temperature variations are substantial). As Figure 1 shows, the effect
of air temperature on excess air in the flue gas can be dramatic.

Similarly, the mass of natural gas flowing through a pipe will fall if the pressure
in the supply pipe drops. (This may happen when the fuel flow to a second boiler
increases.) Constant flow of liquid fuels, although less influenced by temperature,
still depends on steady supply pressure to a valve maintaining a constant
position. If pressure increases (e.g. when a second pump is started), the oil flow
for a given valve position will also increase.
Variations in pressure and temperature can be corrected by sophisticated air and
fuel control systems. Such systems can be expensive, so simpler systems are often
used to avoid the expense. They are less precise and are set up with larger
margins of excess air to avoid insufficient air conditions. They cannot ensure
optimum continuous operation. Due to the higher heat losses (i.e. lower energy
efficiencies) associated with the cruder control systems, it pays to evaluate the
economics of investing in a high-quality control system.

Figure 1. Effects of Air Temperature on Excess Air Level

For existing combustion equipment, measuring and minimizing excess air is the
primary way to optimize boiler and heater efficiency. Optimizing excess air (also
referred to as O2 control) means adjusting burner airflow to match fuel flow.
Burner settings, initially calibrated during burner commissioning, should be
reviewed regularly. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a sensitive indicator of incomplete
combustion; its levels should range from zero to, perhaps, 50 parts per million
(ppm) by volume, rather than the usual environmental limit of 400 ppm. Each
boiler house should have accurately calibrated analysers for measuring O2, CO
and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

For ideas about upgrades, a brief description of the types of air and fuel controls
follows, in order of sophistication and costs.

On-off and high-low controls

The use of on-off and high-low controls is limited to processes that can tolerate
cycles of temperature and pressure, such as heating applications.

Mechanical jackshaft controls

The simplest type of modulating burner control is used in small burners, where
the cost of more complex systems cannot be justified. These controls cannot
measure airflow or fuel flow; the play in the jackshaft and linkages needs settings
with higherthan- necessary excess air to ensure safe operation under all
conditions. The range of oxygen control (oxygen trim) is limited. The control
response must be very slow to ensure that the burner reaches a steady state
before the oxygen trim acts.
Parallel controls

Separate drives in parallel controls adjust fuel flow and airflow, taking their
signal from a master controller. The operator can adjust the flows individually
and override the automatic control settings. These controls are usually applied to
older, medium-sized boilers equipped with pneumatic controls. Their
performance and operational safety can be improved by adding alarms that
indicate if an actuator has slipped or calibration has been lost. Also, an
additional controller can be added to provide oxygen trim. Parallel controls have
similar disadvantages to mechanical jackshaft controls.

Cross-limiting control

Usually applied to larger boilers, cross-limiting control can sense and

compensate for some of the factors that affect optimum air-to-fuel ratio. This
control measures the flow of air and fuel and adjusts airflow to maintain the
optimum value determined during calibration tests. Flue gas composition can be
monitored and used in air control. Operations are safer when airflow cannot
drop below the minimum needed for the existing fuel. They are also safer when
fuel flow cannot be increased more than the existing airflow can burn. Oxygen
trim is possible but, again, it has a limited range of adjustment. It must also
respond slowly enough to allow the primary controls to reach equilibrium.

Automatic control of excess air (oxygen trim)

The high cost of purchasing and installing an oxygen analyser limits the use of
oxygen trim controls to large boilers that use between $100,000 and $1 million
worth of fuel annually. It increases energy efficiency by one to two percent. For
very large boilers, where efficiency gains of 0.1 percent mean significant annual
savings, these controls usually measure CO as well.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF COMBUSTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The negative effects of combustion on the environment particularly greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions released to the atmosphere that contribute to global
warming have received much attention in recent years. This issue is addressed
in the Kyoto Protocol (1997). Canada, which signed the Protocol, aims to reduce
emissions between 2008 and 2012 by six percent of 1990 levels. Climate change
resulting from global warming is one of the greatest challenges facing not only
Canada but also the world. Managing combustion processes better and
improving the efficiency of energy generation and use are two of the key
strategies for reducing atmospheric emissions.

Therefore, this guidebook is being published in concert with Canadas policy on

climate change as one of the tools for implementing it. Canadas goal of reducing
GHG and acid-rain emissions can be met only with the co-operation of the
owners and operators of combustion equipment. It is beyond the scope of this
guidebook to describe the emissions in detail. Instead, a brief ove rv i ew is
presented (see Table 2 for a list of some emissions from combustion systems and
their effects). More complete information can be obtained from An Energy
Efficiency and Environment Primer for Boilers and Heaters.

Table 2. Emissions from Combustion Systems and Their Effects

GHG
POTENTIAL
EMISSION SOURCE EFFECT
RELATIVE TO
CO2
CO2 (carbon Complete combustion of Global
1
dioxide) carbon in fuel warming
CO (carbon Incomplete combustion of
Smog
monoxide) carbon in fuel
SO2 (sulphur Combustion of sulphur in
Smog, acid rain
dioxide) fuel
NOx (nitrogen By-product of most
Acid rain
oxides) combustion processes
N2O (nitrous By-product of some Global
310
oxide) combustion processes warming
Leakage and evaporation of
VOCs (volatile liquid fuels (from, e.g.,
organic vehicles, fuel tanks, fuel Smog
compounds) pumps, refineries, solvents
from paints)
Principal component of
natural gas; leakage from Global
CH4 (methane) 21
gas wells, pipelines and warming
distribution systems
H2O (water Combustion of hydrogen in
Localized fog
vapour) fuel
Unburned or partially
Particulates
burned carbon and
(dust, soot, Smog
hydrocarbons; also ash and
fumes)
dirt in fuel
Potential
Trace elements Impurities in fuel
carcinogens
Compounds in fuel or
Potential
Halogenated combustion air containing
carcinogens, Up to 24 000
compounds halogens (chlorine, fluorine,
global warming
bromine and iodine)
 Table 3. CCME* NOx Emission Guidelines for New Boilers and Heaters
NOX EMISSION LIMIT, g/GJ** AND PPM (AT 3%
O2)***
INPUT CAPACITY
10.5 TO 105 GJ/h (10 TO GREATER THAN 105 GJ/h
100 MILLION Btu/h) (>100 MILLION Btu/h)
Natural gas 26 (49.6) 40 (76.3)
Distillate oil 40 (72.3) 50 (90.4)
Residual oil with less
90 (162.7) 90 (162.7)
than 0.35% nitrogen
Residual oil with 0.35%
110 (198.9) 125 (226.0)
or more nitrogen

* Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

** g/GJ = grams of NOx emitted per gigajoule of fuel input
*** ppm = parts per million by volume, corrected to 3% O2 in the flue gas
(10 000 ppm = 1%)

To correct ppm NOx to 3% O2: NOx at 3% O2 = [NOx measured x 17.9] / [20.9 -

O2], where O2 is oxygen measured in flue gas, dry basis

To convert ppm NOx at 3% O2 to g/GJ: for natural gas, g/GJ = ppm / 1.907 for
fuel oil, g/GJ = ppm / 1.808

Table 4. Typical NOx Emissions Without NOxControl Equipment in Place

TYPICAL NOX EMISSIONS (PPM AT 3%
FUEL AND BOILER TYPE
O2)
Firetube 75-115
Package watertube 40-90
Natural gas
Field-erected
45-105
watertube
Firetube 70-140
Package watertube 90-150
No. 2 oil
Field-erected
40-115
watertube
Package watertube 160-310
No. 4 oil Field-erected
140-190
watertube
Package watertube 200-360
No. 6 oil Field-erected
190-330
watertube

Although the other GHGs, unit for unit, are much more potent than CO2 in their
effects, the latter is the most important GHG because of its volume. In 1997 it
represented three-quarters of Canada's total emissions. Most of the CO2 is
generated by the combustion of fuels, whether for residential, industrial,
transportation or electric power generation purposes. So, applying energy
efficiency measures that reduce fuel consumption is crucial to reducing CO2
emissions.

Fuel consumers face a double challenge. One is economic to get the best value
for their fuel budget. The other is environmental to keep emissions low, at least
within legislated limits. Fortunately, what benefits the first objective also benefits
the second.

Higher limits are allowed for equipment with a proven higher efficiency than
normal and which, therefore, burns less fuel. Provinces and territories are
responsible for enforcement and may enact stricter limits. They also have
responsibility for determining to what extent the guideline applies to boilers and
heaters that are being modified or overhauled.

Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) contribute to acid
rain and, therefore, are also of concern. SO2 emissions are controlled by limiting
the allowable sulphur content of the fuel, but NOx emissions can be reduced by
manipulating the combustion process. Guidelines for new boilers and heaters are
presented in Table 3, and An Energy Efficiency and Environmental Primer for
Boilers and Heaters describes the strategies for complying with NOx regulations.

ABOUT COMBUSTION REGULATIONS

The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) issued the
National Emission Guideline for Commercial/Industrial Boilers and Heaters in
March 1998. It applies to new boilers and heaters that use natural gas, distillate
oil or residual oil as their primary fuel. However, it does not apply to standby
boilers (those fired less than 500 hours per year). Existing boilers and heaters
also are not required to meet the Guideline. If a boiler or a heater is overhauled,
the CCME suggests that the Guideline applies if

1. the cost of the heater or boiler reconstruction exceeds 50 percent of the

current total erected costs; or

2. the reconstruction work involves a burner change and the costs exceed
12.5 percent of the current total erected costs.

One of the many exclusions in the Guideline applies to boilers and heaters having
an input capacity less than 10.5 GJ/h (10 million Btu/h). An important point to
remember is that emissions credits are allowed when energy efficiency (e.g. of
fuel combustion and heat recovery) is improved.

Provinces and territories may adopt the Guideline as a part of their

environmental legislation. The applicable provincial and territorial regulations
can be obtained from environment ministries. For the full text of the CCME
Guideline, contact the CCME at

CCME Documents
c/o Manitoba Statutory Publications
200 Vaughan Street
Winnipeg MB R3C 1T5

INCREASING THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF

BOILER AND HEATER INSTALLATIONS
A systematic approach to improving the energy efficiency of boilers C rather
than unsystematic improvements C involves a few simplified steps, as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2. Boiler Efficiency Improvement Program

Text-version - Figure 2

Figure 2. Boiler Efficiency Improvement Program

The following steps are part of a cycle:

Start - Define the present state: carry out the boiler system audit.

Define the present and near-future heating needs and associated boiler
plant requirements.
 Define the gap: research and categorize improvement options.

Set improvement objectives and targets (e.g. plant and equipment

upgrade, efficiency controls, performance measures, emissions, etc.).

Define the implementation plan and start implementing.

Review results and continually improve.

A boiler system audit (see the simplified audit checklist in the Appendix) will
likely reveal energy losses and inefficiencies. The objective of good energy
management is to minimize them. The payoff can be significant in terms of both
savings and emissions.

Figure 3 gives a practical hint as to where to direct energy-conservation efforts.

However important the economic, efficient operation of the boiler system, it
should not be examined in isolation. The following should be checked for further
energy-saving and energy-reclaim opportunities:

the heating needs and energy efficiency aspects of heat-consuming

processes, products and equipment; and

the heat distribution systems (such as steam and condensate).

Heat and energy losses in a boiler system can be reduced in several ways. Some,
such as combined heat and power generation (cogeneration), are sophisticated
and complex; others can be easily implemented and offer good payback.

Figure 3. Typical Energy Balance of a Boiler/Heater (before improvements)

Text-version - Figure 3
Recent examples: A chemical plant is saving $500,000 per year by checking for, and
replacing, all leaking steam traps. A plywood plant reduced its steam load by 2700
kg/h (6000 lb./h) by upgrading its piping insulation.

Lowering the systems steam pressure or water temperature to what the involved
processes actually need can also reduce energy consumption.

The main categories in the energy efficiency improvement drive are the
following.

PROPER BOILER OPERATION

Keep the boiler clean

Except for natural gas, practically every fuel leaves a certain amount of deposit
on the fireside of the tubes. This is called fouling, and it reduces heat transfer
dramatically. Tests show that a soot layer just 0.8 mm (0.03 in.) thick reduces
heat transfer by 9.5 percent and a 4.5 mm (0.18 in.) layer by 69 percent! As a
result, the flue gas temperature rises as does the energy cost.

Boilers that burn solid fuels (such as coal and biomass) have a high fouling
tendency, whereas those that burn liquid fuels (particularly refined oils) have a
low fouling tendency. Maintaining the boiler at peak efficiency requires keeping
the boiler surfaces as clean as possible. Large boilers and those burning fuels
with a high fouling tendency have soot blower systems that clean the fireside
surfaces while the boiler is operating. Brushes and manual lances may also be
used. Small boilers, including natural gas-fired boilers and those without soot
blower systems, should be opened regularly for checking and cleaning.

Deposits (called scale) on the waterside of the boiler tubes can impair heat
transfer. They can also reduce boiler efficiency, restrict water circulation and
lead to serious mechanical and operating problems. Scale causes the tubes metal
temperature to rise, which increases the flue gas temperature. In extreme cases,
the tubes fail from overheating.

Remember, one millimetre of scale build-up can increase fule

consumption by two percent.

Rather than shutting down and draining the boilers to visually inspect the
cleanliness of boiler waterside surfaces, waterside conditions can be estimated by
testing the boiler water while the boiler is running. Certain water treatment
chemicals can then be injected depending on the results. Boiler water is tested
daily in small, low-pressure boiler plants and every hour in large, high-pressure
plants. The water treatment and testing program is critical to ensuring the
maximum efficiency and reliable operation of any boiler plant.
An upward trend in flue gas temperatures over weeks or months usually
indicates that a deposit has built up on either the fireside or waterside of boiler
heat-exchange surfaces. The boiler should be inspected promptly.

Keep unwanted air out

Effective control of excess combustion air (discussed earlier) also involves

guarding against infiltration (ingress) of unwanted air into the boiler combustion
cavity or the flue system. The air enters through cover leaks, observation ports,
faulty gaskets and other openings.

Blowdown water dollars down the drain

Even treated ("demineralized") boiler feedwater contains small amounts of
dissolved mineral salts. Ongoing water evaporation in steam boilers and fresh
boiler makeup water increases the concentration of these minerals and leads to
scale formation. To prevent this, boiler water must be blown down periodically.
Usually, the blowdown is excessive, "just to be sure." The blowdown water is
heated, thus wasting heat, water and water treatment chemicals. As minimum
preventive measures, test the boiler water periodically for the level of dissolved
solids and adjust the blowdown rate.

When the blowdown is done once a day or once a shift, the content of dissolved
solids immediately after blowdown is far below the acceptable maximum. If the
blowdown can be done more often and with less water or continuously the
total dissolved solids (TDS) content can be maintained closer to the desired
maximum level of safety. The key is good control of TDS. Automatic blowdown
control systems with continuous blowdown TDS measurements are available on
the market.

Example: Consider a 23 t/h boiler operating at 860 kPa (about 50 000 lb./h at 125
psig). The blowdown water contains 770 kJ/kg (330 Btu/lb.). If the continuous
blowdown system is set at the usual five percent of the maximum boiler rating, then
the blowdown flow would be 1150 kg/h containing 885 500 kJ (about 2500 lb./h
containing 825 000 Btu). At 80 percent boiler efficiency, this heat requires about
29.7 m3/h (1050 cu. ft./h) of natural gas, worth about $32,100 per year (based on
300 days per year at $0.15/m3).

Water-heating boiler systems, obviously, do not incur the blowdown costs.

Maximize hot condensate return

A steam and condensate system must be properly designed to eliminate water
hammer and reduce losses and maintenance.

Losing hot condensate from a steam boiler system increases water consumption,
water treatment chemicals and the thermal energy needed to heat the makeup
water. Additional energy is lost in the form of flash steam. This develops when
the process pressure, under which the condensate is returned, is released in the
condensate return tank. Such losses can be minimized, for example, by
submerging the condensate return inlet in the tank or installing a spray
condenser fitted on top of the tank.

A closed-loop system that delivers steam condensate under pressure to be

reboiled practically eliminates losses and needs less steam process equipment.

Example: A mining company in Quebec recently installed a closed-loop condensate

system. It soon saved 18 percent energy consumption in the boilerhouse compared
with a conventional steam condensate open system.

RECLAIMING BOILER SYSTEM HEAT LOSSES

Flue gas

Herein lies the best opportunity for heat recovery in the boilerhouse.

A 20C (36F) reduction in flue gas temperature will improve boiler

efficiency by about one percent.

Even with well-adjusted burners providing the minimum flue gas temperatures
while achieving complete fuel combustion, the exit temperatures of the flue gas
may normally range from 175C (350F) to 260C (500F). Still, there is ample
room to recover some of this heat that would otherwise "go up the stack." Heat
exchangers can be used for preheating boiler feedwater (called economizers) or
combustion air (air heaters). Economizers typically increase the overall boiler
efficiency by three to four percent.

Designers and operators of economizers must consider potential corrosion

problems, particularly in fuels containing sulphur. Moisture containing corrosive
sulphuric acid is likely to condense on any heat exchanger surfaces that fall
below the acid dewpoint. This usually occurs near the inlet of the combustion air
or feedwater to be heated.

Each boiler has its specific limit of low flue gas temperature, which should be
determined individually if supplementary heat exchange is being considered.
Since the flue gas temperatures are lower at lower loads, economizers often have
some form of by-pass control that maintains the flue gas temperature above a
preset minimum.

Condensing economizers improve the effectiveness of reclaiming flue gas heat.

They cool the flue gas below the dew point. Thus they recover both sensible heat
from the flue gas and latent heat from the moisture which condenses. Some
moisture may be present in the fuel, but most of it is formed by combustion of
the hydrogen component of the fuel. (See "Loss due to moisture from the
combustion of hydrogen," page 2). Since condensation (and the resulting danger
of corrosion) is inevitable, the heat exchanger system must be made of materials
that will not corrode. In direct-contact economizers, water is sprayed directly
into the flue gas. The resulting hot water is collected and used after treatment to
neutralize its corrosion potential. (This is an incidental advantage of direct-
contact flue gas condensing: it removes particles and acid gases, such as SO2,
from exhaust.) With condensing economizers, the overall boiler efficiencies can
exceed 90 percent. (Heat pumps can complement a system for recovering flue gas
heat, further increasing the reclaim efficiency.)

Example: Hpital du Sacr-Coeur de Montral installed direct-contact condensing

economizers. The reclaimed heat was used for hot water space heating, fresh air
conditioning, laundry, sanitary hot water supply and cooking. It saved 11 percent in
natural gas and reduced annual CO2 emissions by 12 000 t.

Blowdown heat recovery

Some ways to limit blowdown volume and heat loss were covered earlier. Heat
exchangers can reclaim the sensible heat from the blowdown that goes into
sewerage for heating boiler makeup water and the like.

BOILER USE AND SIZING

The use and sizing of a boiler system comes up for review when it needs to be
replaced or extensively upgraded. Many boiler plants, particularly those used for
space heating, face large seasonal or other variations in demand. The efficiency
with which boilers convert fuel energy into steam or hot water drops off sharply
at low load when output falls below 40 percent of the maximum capacity
rating. It therefore makes sense to select boiler sizes to match varying demand. A
small boiler could be installed to operate at close-to-full load for periods of low
demand; one or two larger boilers could handle peak loads.

In evaluating a boiler systems use and sizing, consider current and future heating
and process steam requirements. More opportunities for improving energy
efficiency may be revealed while the process and process equipment are being
reviewed.

Example: Saskatchewan Penitentiary installed two new, smaller boilers, sized for
summer load (operating singly) and for joint operation during the winter. They
replaced old, oversized boilers, which operated at low fire for most of the year. This
solution led to higher efficiency at higher firing rates. Gas savings relative to
heated space were 17 percent or 500 000 m3, amounting to $75,000 per year.
Emissions of CO2 fell accordingly; new low-NOx burners reduced nitrogen oxide
emissions by 70 percent.

COMBINED HEAT AND POWER GENERATION COGENERATION

Old, inefficient boiler systems often need major, expensive upgrades. In such
instances, where there are both electrical and heating demands or where
electricity can be profitably sold, a case can be made for cogeneration
combined heat and power generation (CHP). Here lies the greatest potential of
CHP systems in Canada to replace the thousands of small, ageing boilers across
the country with units producing both power and heat with greater efficiency
than if they were generated separately.

CHP may need more fuel and considerably more capital above that needed to
simply meet the heat requirement. But the bonus is the electric energy that CHP
provides at high thermal efficiency. This means that the total energy, electrical
and thermal, is supplied at lower cost. The high overall energy efficiency of CHP
(up to 85 percent), CHPs environmental benefits in reducing CO2 and NOx
emissions and the ongoing deregulation of the Canadian energy market are
stimulating the mounting interest in this rapidly developing technology.

A CHP unit typically consists of a prime mover, such as a gas turbine or piston
engine, and a heat recovery steam generator, which is a type of boiler. The prime
mover drives an electric generator and sometimes other equipment, such as air
compressors. Its exhaust, via the steam generator, provides steam for heating or
process use. CHP units are now available in sizes ranging from a few kilowatts to
tens of megawatts of output.

Informed, professional advice is required in assessing a potential CHP product.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
To optimize the performance and improve the energy efficiency of a boiler
system, consider other factors. Some are a matter of regular maintenance and
small-scale improvements; others are considered when a major upgrade is
required.

Insulation

An audit of a boiler system may reveal that the insulation of the boiler and its
piping system is inadequate, in need of repair or missing altogether.

Example: If only 10 flanges are not insulated on a 10-cm (4-in. diameter) pipe
carrying steam at 860 kPa (125 psig), the annual heat loss is equivalent to 2450 m3
of natural gas (worth $370).

Example: A 3-m (10-ft.) length of uninsulated 10-cm (4-in.) steam pipe wastes more
than twice as much money in steam costs per year than the cost of insulating it with
mineral fibre and aluminum jacket.

Heating needs

Reducing the boilers steam operating pressure to the minimum needed by the
end user, or reducing the temperature of the fluid in the pipes in fluid heating
systems, can dramatically affect the energy savings and the quantity of GHGs
generated. These savings come from burning less fuel in the boiler or heater and
lowering the amount of heat lost in the piping system.
To change the systems operating pressure or fluid temperature, verify that the
boiler and end devices can run at the lower pressure (temperature). The potential
environmental and dollar savings are worth investigating.

Distribution system losses

In steam systems, steam traps can fail (on average) up to 25 percent of the time.
Steam leaking from pipe fittings, valves and traps can cause large energy losses.
As well, water leaked from the system must be replaced, chemically treated and
heated. This is a less apparent, but still expensive, consequence. Heating fluid
systems also face this problem.

Example: Failure of a single 3.2-mm (nominal 1/8-in.) trap in a 690-kPa (100-psig)

steam system can lose the equivalent of 11 600 m3/y of natural gas, worth $1,700.

Ensure that the distributing pipework is the proper dimension. Oversized pipes
increase capital, maintenance and insulation costs, and generate higher surface
heat losses. Undersized pipes require higher pressure and extra pumping energy
and have higher rates of leakage.

Redundant, obsolete pipework wastes energy: because it is kept at the same

temperature as the rest of the system, the heat loss per length of pipe remains the
same. The heat losses from extra piping add to the space heat load of the facility
and thus to the ventilation and air-conditioning needs. Moreover, redundant
pipework receives scant maintenance and attention, incurring further losses.

Improper de-aeration of boiler feedwater

Steam with as little as one percent by volume of air in it can reduce the efficiency
of heat transfer by up to 50 percent. Pay attention to the de-aeration process as
well as to the proper functioning of air vents.

Heat cascading

Plants with several heating needs may have an excellent opportunity to improve
their overall energy efficiency with heat cascading. The heat exhausted from one
part of the process can be used to heat another. While the high-grade heat
supplied from fuel should be directed to the process needing the highest
temperature, its exhaust heat should be used in lower temperature applications.
The heat finally exhausted should be at the lowest temperature that can be
economically achieved.

Examples: Air or gas exhausted from a hightemperature process is passed through

a waste heat boiler to generate low-pressure steam or hot water for space heating
and service water. Waste heat is also used for cooling purposes, via an absorption
cooler, for example. Heat can be recovered, stored and reused many ways.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNITIES - TIPS

Approach energy management with an open mind to critically evaluate accepted
practices. Some practices may prove to be inefficient. A fresh look or an added
awareness, which this chapter aims to supply - combined with imagination and
expert assistance - can pay large dividends in reducing energy and costs.

"Energy management opportunities" (EMOs) represents how energy can be

used wisely to save money and to limit environmental impacts. This section
presents proven ideas that may improve the operation of boiler and heater
systems. Choose EMOs from the lists that suit the particular situation and
combine them with other energy efficiency measures.

Notes

The tips for EMOs are presented in three categories. The difference in
price between low-cost and retrofit EMOs depends on the size, type and
financial policy of the organization. (Housekeeping is the third category.)

Due to the variety of possible circumstances, it is impossible to indicate

when an EMO will pay for itself. In general, however, retrofit EMOs can
be expected to have the longest payback.

HOUSEKEEPING EMOS are energy management actions that are

repeated regularly and at least once a year.

Run the process equipment using downstream steam (or heating fluid)
efficiently by proper production scheduling and maintenance.

Try to operate the process equipment using downstream steam (or heating
fluid) at capacity.

Shut down the equipment in the process using downstream steam (or
heating fluid) when it is not needed.

Try to stabilize heating demand. To do this, review the schedule for

process demand. This will minimize boiler load swings and maximize
boiler efficiencies. Try to operate boilers at full load.

Maintain good steam quality with a program of regular water chemical

treatment and the blowdown regime. Ensure that the feedwater de-
aerating equipment and the air vents on the steam piping work properly.
 Monitor the flue gas combustibles and the combustion excess air
regularly. Adjust as conditions change.

Check for and eliminate the entrance of unwanted air into the boiler and
flue gas exhaust system.

Keep burners properly adjusted.

Maintain the best operating condition of air and fuel controls.

Calibrate measuring equipment and instruments and tune up the

combustion control system regularly.

Check all the control settings regularly.

Check and verify the boiler efficiency regularly.

Monitor and compare the boiler performancerelated data to standard and

targets regularly.

Apply routine and preventive maintenance programs to the boiler and

heat distribution and condensate collection systems.

Inspect the fireside and waterside heat transfer surfaces when the boiler
plant is shut down; keep the surfaces clean.

Ensure that the fireside anti-fouling equipment works properly.

Check the integrity of the steam and condensate network (heating fluid
supply and return network) and related equipment routinely. Walk
through the facility with appropriate detection equipment (e.g. ultrasonic
detector, listening rods, pyrometer and stethoscope), looking and listening
for steam leaks. Repair the leaks.

Set up a steam trap inspection and maintenance program and procedures.

 Inspect the insulation for waterlogging; locate the source of the moisture
(e.g. a leaking pipe) and correct the problem.

Replace or repair any missing and damaged insulation and insulation

covering.

LOW-COST EMOS are energy management actions that are done once
at a reasonable cost.

Develop and implement operating procedures and work instructions.

Train boilerhouse operators and other employees when necessary. Create
an awareness of energy efficiency among all employees.

Operate the boiler (heater) at the lowest steam pressure (or heating fluid
temperature) that meets the needs of the production process. To do this,
the process, plant and equipment may need to be modified.

Review whether the type of facility or industry has combustible by-

products (e.g. waste hyd rogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide, biogas or
hydrocarbon streams, or biomass) that could be used as no- or low-cost
boiler fuel supplements. Consider using these by-products.

Add measuring, metering and monitoring equipment to the boiler and

heat distribution systems for fuel, steam, heating fluid, condensate and
blowdown flows.

Optimize the location of sensors. Make sure that the sensor and control
devices can be easily accessed for control and maintenance.

Fit controls with locks to prevent tampering and unauthorized

adjustment.

Consider starting a metering and targeting program to better manage the

use of thermal energy (and other utilities) throughout the facility.

Repair, replace or add air vents (e.g. thermostatic air vents).

 Consider recovering heat from blowdown water. To do this, use flash
tanks to generate low-pressure steam from the blowdown (and use it in
other heating applications, such as the de-aerator). Use the remaining
water in the heat exchanger to preheat makeup water.

Overhaul steam pressure-reducing stations.

Consider the economics and means of capturing radiation and convection

heat from the boiler shell for pre-heating combustion air.

Relocate the combustion air intake to a spot where the incoming air has
the highest possible temperature year-round.

Upgrade the fuel and air controls.

Insulate pipes, flanges, fittings and other equipment with efficient

insulation at an economic thickness. Add insulation where it is
inadequate.

Review whether the steam and steam condensate recove ry network (and
heating coils and other steam-using equipment) has proper drainage. This
will eliminate water hammer, losses and damage.

Shut down the steam and condensate branch system when it is not
needed.

Look for opportunities to rationalize and streamline the steam and

condensate network. Examine current plant-piping drawings, if available,
or walk through the facility. First, ensure that the obsolete, unused or
redundant piping can be isolated from the rest of the system. Then
remove the unnecessary parts.

Set up a program for steam trap replacement.

RETROFIT EMOS are energy management actions that are done once
at significant cost.

Review whether possibilities exist in the facility and industry to eliminate

or scale down the use of steam and heating fluid. If so, modify or adopt a
 new technology or production equipment (e.g. replace pasteurization with
sterile filtration and filling). Or supplement heat usage with other sources,
such as a ground-source heat pump, solar walls or thermal storage.

Replace obsolete boilers with high-efficiency, low-emissions units fitted

with new burner technology and heat recovery options suited to the
required demand.

Upgrade the fuel burner. Consider using fuel direct injection (FDI)
technology, for example. A full-time FDI regenerative burner (FFR)
reduces NOx emissions by about 90 percent compared with ordinary
regenerative burners. The compact FFR burner allows simplification and
downsizing, plus a significant reduction in energy consumption and a
short payback.

Install a turbulator in the firetube boiler.

Convert the burner from oil to natural gas. (Although this may save more
money than energy, it has some operational and environmental
advantages.)

Convert from indirect to direct steam heating, where appropriate.

Convert from steam to heating fluid heating, where appropriate.

Install an integrated computerized management system for generating

and distributing thermal energy.

Determine whether a waste product is flared off in the operations (e.g.

petrochemical, steel and lime industries). If so, consider using it to
preheat boiler combustion air or even to operate a micro-turbine
generator.

Install equipment to recuperate heat on the flue gas system. This includes
economizers, combustion air preheaters and flue gas condensers (indirect
or direct contact). If already in place, review its efficiency and consider
replacing or upgrading it.
 Consider alternate uses for the remaining heat in the flue gas. Use it for
space heating, process or drying the product or biomass fuel.

Consider deploying absorption heat converters (AHC) on the flue gas

system.

Recover heat from waste streams, such as flash steam. Choose from the
many options available. Consider incorporating a heat pump into the
system to further boost the energy recovery or integrating the new
technology of highly efficient compact heat exchangers (CHE) with other
processes.

Consider installing a system for closed-loop pressurized condensate

return.

Hire a qualified contractor to redesign the steam and condensate network

to maximize its use. Repipe systems or relocate equipment to shorten pipe
lengths.

If required, consider moving steam generation units (possibly smaller or

new) and delivery closer to the steam-using equipment.

Use the correct pipe size. In heating fluid systems, consider the economics
of going to increased pipe diameter versus pumping cost and pressure
losses.

Evaluate the economics of upgrading or adding more insulation. Consider

energy cost trends, and consult an unbiased professional. Upgrade
insulation cladding.

Sample Checklist for Auditing a Boiler and Heater System

The following questions will help uncover inefficiencies. Formulate additional
questions by the layering technique to get more details.

Management
 Is the use of steam and heating fluid throughout the facility budgeted? Is
it monitored? Are there consumption targets?

If so, are the users of thermal energy accountable for its use? How?

Are there approved procedures and work instructions governing thermal

energy generation, distribution, monitoring and other processes?

Have employees learned about the significance of energy and utility

conservation, and do they use correct practices?

Are boiler and heater operators involved with the efforts to conserve
energy and utilities?

Are employees aware of how much energy and utilities cost, and how
much is being spent for these in the facility? Are they significantly
interested in improving the results?

Is there a system for communicating to employees the results of efforts to

conserve energy and utilities?

Heat consumption
Are there procedures for shutting off thermal energy-using production
equipment and auxiliary production equipment when not in use?

Are the above procedures implemented?

Is steam or heating fluid produced at temperatures or pressures greater

than those required by end-user processes, product, plant or equipment?

In multiple boiler installations, how is steam demand matched to boiler

deployment? How is it done on weekends, during non-production periods
 and in various seasons?

Fuels

Can a cheaper alternative source for thermal energy be used?

Can process by-products be used as an auxiliary fuel or fuel supplement?

If natural gas is used, have the costs of uninterruptible versus

interruptible supply been evaluated?

Is the boiler fitted with dual capability to use natural gas or fuel oil to
take advantage of interruptible gas supply contracts?

Fuel storage

Are heated oil tanks and associated piping adequately insulated?

Is the external insulation for the above items watertight?

Is oil heated at the correct temperature?

Is solid fuel (e.g. biomass) protected against rain? Is it dried?

Boilers and steam distribution

Is the flue gas free of combustibles?

Is the boiler efficiency checked on a regular basis?

Is a proper method for determining boiler efficiency being used?

Is the efficiency acceptable for the type of boiler and fuel?

 Is the burner operating in the "zone of maximum combustion efficiency"?

Are the heat losses of the boiler and system known and quantified?

Is the flue gas checked for combustibles, carbon monoxide and oxygen
content on a regular basis? Is the content within an acceptable range?

How is the excess combustion air managed? How frequently?

Can unwanted air get into the boiler and the flue stack?

What type of air or fuel control is used? How is it maintained?

What type of equipment is used for controlling and monitoring the

system? What instruments are used?

Where is the combustion air intake located?

Is the combustion air preheated? If so, how?

Are the NOx levels in the flue gas known and monitored? Are they within
an acceptable range?

What are the flue gas temperatures at various boiler loads? Are they
monitored?

Is heat being recovered from flue gas? What type? How efficiently?

Is there any evidence of soot buildup on the fireside surface of the boiler?

Is there a program for inspecting and removing soot and scale from heat
transfer surfaces of the heater and boiler? From process equipment?
 Is the flame in the combustion chamber bright and clear? Does it fill the
combustion chamber without encroaching?

What is the blowdown rate, and is it at the level recommended by water

treatment specialists? Is it based on the content of dissolved solids (DS) in
the boiler water? Have the levels of DS content been calibrated to
conductivity?

How is the blowdown rate controlled?

Is there a system for recovering heat from the blowdown?

Is there redundant, oversized or undersized steam piping that causes heat

losses? Is there an inspection program for it?

Are steam lines, flanges, valves and condensate lines adequately

insulated? Is the insulation dry and protected against water ingress?

Is steam or condensate leaking?

Is the makeup water preheated? If so, how?

Is the condensate return rate adequate? Has it been verified?

Is the correct type of steam traps for the application being used?

Is there an adequate maintenance program for inspecting, repairing and

replacing steam traps? How many of the traps are faulty?