Ambardar frontmatter 12/5/98 10:21 AM Page 2

Analog and Digital

Signal Processing
Second Edition

Ashok Ambardar
Michigan Technological University

Brooks/Cole Publishing Company

An International Thomson Publishing Company

Pacific Grove Albany Belmont Bonn Boston Cincinnati Detroit Johannesburg London
Madrid Melbourne Mexico City New York Paris Singapore Tokyo Toronto Wahington
 CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES xi
PREFACE xiii
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xv

1 OVERVIEW 1
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 The Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 From Concept to Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 ANALOG SIGNALS 8
2.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Operations on Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Signal Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Harmonic Signals and Sinusoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Commonly Encountered Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 The Impulse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.7 The Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3 DISCRETE SIGNALS 39
3.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 Discrete Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Operations on Discrete Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Decimation and Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 Common Discrete Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5 Discrete-Time Harmonics and Sinusoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6 Aliasing and the Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7 Random Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

v
vi Contents

4 ANALOG SYSTEMS 68
4.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 System Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3 Analysis of LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 LTI Systems Described by Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.5 The Impulse Response of LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.6 System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.7 Application-Oriented Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5 DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS 96
5.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.1 Discrete-Time Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2 System Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3 Digital Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.4 Digital Filters Described by Dierence Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.5 Impulse Response of Digital Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.6 Stability of Discrete-Time LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.7 Connections: System Representation in Various Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.8 Application-Oriented Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6 CONTINUOUS CONVOLUTION 130

6.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2 Convolution of Some Common Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.3 Some Properties of Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4 Convolution by Ranges (Graphical Convolution) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.5 Stability and Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.6 The Response to Periodic Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.7 Periodic Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.8 Connections: Convolution and Transform Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.9 Convolution Properties Based on Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.10 Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

7 DISCRETE CONVOLUTION 169

7.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.1 Discrete Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2 Convolution Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.3 Convolution of Finite Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4 Stability and Causality of LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.5 System Response to Periodic Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Contents vii

7.6 Periodic Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

7.7 Connections: Discrete Convolution and Transform Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.8 Deconvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.9 Discrete Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

8 FOURIER SERIES 197

8.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.1 Fourier Series: A First Look . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.2 Simplifications Through Signal Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.3 Parsevals Relation and the Power in Periodic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.4 The Spectrum of Periodic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.5 Properties of Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.6 Signal Reconstruction and the Gibbs Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.7 System Response to Periodic Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.8 Application-Oriented Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8.9 The Dirichlet Kernel and the Gibbs Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.10 The Fourier Series, Orthogonality, and Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.11 Existence, Convergence, and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.12 A Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

9 THE FOURIER TRANSFORM 248

9.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.2 Fourier Transform Pairs and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.3 System Analysis Using the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.4 Frequency Response of Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.5 Energy and Power Spectral Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.6 Time-Bandwidth Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

10 MODULATION 300
10.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.1 Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
10.2 Single-Sideband AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
10.3 Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.4 Wideband Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
10.5 Demodulation of FM Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.6 The Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

11 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 330

11.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
11.1 The Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
viii Contents

11.2 Properties of the Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

11.3 Poles and Zeros of the Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.4 The Inverse Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
11.5 The s-Plane and BIBO Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11.6 The Laplace Transform and System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
11.7 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

12 APPLICATIONS OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 367

12.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
12.1 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
12.2 Minimum-Phase Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
12.3 Bode Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
12.4 Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
12.5 Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
12.6 Application of Feedback: The Phase-Locked Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

13 ANALOG FILTERS 398

13.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
13.2 The Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
13.3 The Butterworth Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
13.4 The Chebyshev Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
13.5 The Inverse Chebyshev Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
13.6 The Elliptic Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
13.7 The Bessel Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

14 SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION 446

14.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
14.1 Ideal Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
14.2 Sampling, Interpolation, and Signal Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
14.3 Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
14.4 Digital Processing of Analog Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
14.5 Compact Disc Digital Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
14.6 Dynamic Range Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

15 THE DISCRETE-TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM 482

15.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
15.1 The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
15.2 Connections: The DTFT and the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
15.3 Properties of the DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Contents ix

15.4 The Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

15.5 System Analysis Using the DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
15.6 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
15.7 Ideal Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
15.8 Some Traditional and Non-traditional Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
15.9 Frequency Response of Discrete Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
15.10 Oversampling and Sampling Rate Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

16 THE DFT AND FFT 535

16.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
16.2 Properties of the DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
16.3 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
16.4 Approximating the DTFT by the DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
16.5 The DFT of Periodic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
16.6 The DFT of Nonperiodic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
16.7 Spectral Smoothing by Time Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
16.8 Applications in Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
16.9 Spectrum Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
16.10 Matrix Formulation of the DFT and IDFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
16.11 The FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
16.12 Why Equal Lengths for the DFT and IDFT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

17 THE z-TRANSFORM 592

17.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
17.1 The Two-Sided z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
17.2 Properties of the z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
17.3 Poles, Zeros, and the z-Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
17.4 The Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
17.5 The Inverse z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
17.6 The One-Sided z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
17.7 The z-Transform and System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
17.8 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
17.9 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

18 APPLICATIONS OF THE z-TRANSFORM 637

18.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
18.1 Transfer Function Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
18.2 Interconnected Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
18.3 Minimum-Phase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
18.4 The Frequency Response: A Graphical Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
x Contents

18.5 Application-Oriented Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

18.6 Allpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
18.7 Application-Oriented Examples: Digital Audio Eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664

19 IIR DIGITAL FILTERS 673

19.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
19.2 IIR Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
19.3 Response Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
19.4 The Matched z-Transform for Factored Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
19.5 Mappings from Discrete Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
19.6 The Bilinear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
19.7 Spectral Transformations for IIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
19.8 Design Recipe for IIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707

20 FIR DIGITAL FILTERS 715

20.0 Scope and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
20.1 Symmetric Sequences and Linear Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
20.2 Window-Based Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
20.3 Half-Band FIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
20.4 FIR Filter Design by Frequency Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
20.5 Design of Optimal Linear-Phase FIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
20.6 Application: Multistage Interpolation and Decimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
20.7 Maximally Flat FIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
20.8 FIR Dierentiators and Hilbert Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
20.9 Least Squares and Adaptive Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754

21 MATLAB EXAMPLES 762

21.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
21.1 The ADSP Toolbox and Its Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
21.2 Matlab Tips and Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
21.3 Graphical User Interface Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
21.4 The ADSP Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
21.5 Examples of Matlab Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769

REFERENCES 798
INDEX 801
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Response of an RC Lowpass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Table 4.1 Form of the Natural Response for Analog LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 4.2 Form of the Forced Response for Analog LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 5.1 Form of the Natural Response for Discrete LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table 5.2 Form of the Forced Response for Discrete LTI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table 8.1 Some Common Spectral Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Table 8.2 Smoothing by Operations on the Partial Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table 9.1 Some Useful Fourier Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Table 9.2 Operational Properties of the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Table 10.1 Some Useful Hilbert Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Table 11.1 A Short Table of Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Table 11.2 Operational Properties of the Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Table 11.3 Inverse Laplace Transform of Partial Fraction Expansion Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Table 12.1 Time Domain Performance Measures for Real Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Table 13.1 3-dB Butterworth Lowpass Prototype Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Table 13.2 Bessel Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Table 14.1 Various Number Representations for B = 3 Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Table 15.1 Some Useful DTFT Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Table 15.2 Properties of the DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Table 15.3 Relating the DTFT and Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Table 15.4 Connections Between Various Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Table 15.5 Discrete Algorithms and their Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Table 16.1 Properties of the N -Sample DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Table 16.2 Relating Frequency Domain Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Table 16.3 Some Commonly Used N -Point DFT Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Table 16.4 Symmetry and Periodicity of WN = exp(j2/N ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Table 16.5 FFT Algorithms for Computing the DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Table 16.6 Computational Cost of the DFT and FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

xi
xii List of Tables

Table 17.1 A Short Table of z-Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

Table 17.2 Properties of the Two-Sided z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Table 17.3 Inverse z-Transform of Partial Fraction Expansion (PFE) Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Table 17.4 Properties Unique to the One-Sided z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Table 19.1 Impulse-Invariant Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Table 19.2 Numerical Dierence Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Table 19.3 Numerical Integration Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Table 19.4 Digital-to-Digital (D2D) Frequency Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Table 19.5 Direct Analog-to-Digital (A2D) Transformations for Bilinear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Table 20.1 Applications of Symmetric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Table 20.2 Some Windows for FIR Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
Table 20.3 Characteristics of Harris Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Table 20.4 Characteristics of the Windowed Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
 PREFACE

In keeping with the goals of the first edition, this second edition of Analog and Digital Signal Processing
is geared to junior and senior electrical engineering students and stresses the fundamental principles and
applications of signals, systems, transforms, and filters. The premise is to help the student think clearly in
both the time domain and the frequency domain and switch from one to the other with relative ease. The
text assumes familiarity with elementary calculus, complex numbers, and basic circuit analysis.
This edition has undergone extensive revision and refinement, in response to reviewer comments and to
suggestions from users of the first edition (including students). Major changes include the following:

1. At the suggestion of some reviewers, the chapters have been reorganized. Specifically, continuous and
discrete aspects (that were previously covered together in the first few chapters) now appear in separate
chapters. This should allow instructors easier access to either sequential or parallel coverage of analog
and discrete signals and systems.
2. The material in each chapter has been pruned and streamlined to make the book more suited as a
textbook. We highlight the most important concepts and problem-solving methods in each chapter by
including boxed review panels. The review panels are reinforced by discussions and worked examples.
Many new figures have been added to help the student grasp and visualize critical concepts.
3. New application-oriented material has been added to many chapters. The material focuses on how the
theory developed in the text finds applications in diverse fields such as audio signal processing, digital
audio special eects, echo cancellation, spectrum estimation, and the like.
4. Many worked examples in each chapter have been revised and new ones added to reinforce and extend
key concepts. Problems at the end of each chapter are now organized into Drill and Reinforcement,
Review and Exploration, and Computation and Design and include a substantial number of new
problems. The computation and design problems, in particular, should help students appreciate the
application of theoretical principles and guide instructors in developing projects suited to their own
needs.
5. The Matlab-based software supplied with the book has been revised and expanded. All the routines
have been upgraded to run on the latest version (currently, v5) of both the professional edition and
student edition of Matlab, while maintaining downward compatibility with earlier versions.
6. The Matlab appendices (previously at the end of each chapter) have been consolidated into a separate
chapter and substantially revamped. This has allowed us to present integrated application-oriented
examples spanning across chapters in order to help the student grasp important signal-processing
concepts quickly and eectively. Clear examples of Matlab code based on native Matlab routines,
as well as the supplied routines, are included to help accelerate the learning of Matlab syntax.

xiii
xiv Preface

7. A set of new self-contained, menu-driven, graphical user interface (GUI) programs with point-and-click
features is now supplied for ease of use in visualizing basic signal processing principles and concepts.
These GUIs require no experience in Matlab programming, and little experience with its syntax,
and thus allow students to concentrate their eorts on understanding concepts and results. The
programs cover signal generation and properties, time-domain system response, convolution, Fourier
series, frequency response and Bode plots, analog filter design, and digital filter design. The GUIs are
introduced at the end of each chapter, in the Computation and Design section of the problems. I
am particularly grateful to Craig Borghesani, Terasoft, Inc. (http://world.std.com/!borg/) for his
help and Matlab expertise in bringing many of these GUIs to fruition.

This book has profited from the constructive comments and suggestions of the following reviewers:
Professor Khaled Abdel-Ghaar, University of California at Davis
Professor Tangul Basar, University of Illinois
Professor Martin E. Kaliski, California Polytechnic State University
Professor Roger Goulet, Universite de Sherbrooke
Professor Ravi Kothari, University of Cincinnati
Professor Nicholas Kyriakopoulos, George Washington University
Professor Julio C. Mandojana, Mankato State University
Professor Hadi Saadat, Milwaukee School of Engineering
Professor Jitendra K. Tugnait, Auburn University
Professor Peter Willett, University of Connecticut
Here, at Michigan Technological University, it is also our pleasure to acknowledge the following:
Professor Clark R. Givens for lending mathematical credibility to portions of the manuscript
Professor Warren F. Perger for his unfailing help in all kinds of TEX-related matters
Professor Tim Schulz for suggesting some novel DSP projects, and for supplying several data files
Finally, at PWS Publishing, Ms Suzanne Jeans, Editorial Project Manager, and the editorial and production
sta (Kirk Bomont, Liz Clayton, Betty Duncan, Susan Pendleton, Bill Stenquist, Jean Thompson, and
Nathan Wilbur), were instrumental in helping meet (or beat) all the production deadlines.
We would appreciate hearing from you if you find any errors in the text or discover any bugs in the
software. Any errata for the text and upgrades to the software will be posted on our Internet site.

Ashok Ambardar Michigan Technological University

Internet: http://www.ee.mtu.edu/faculty/akambard.html
e-mail: [email protected]
 FROM THE PREFACE TO
THE FIRST EDITION

This book on analog and digital signal processing is intended to serve both as a text for students and as a
source of basic reference for professionals across various disciplines. As a text, it is geared to junior/senior
electrical engineering students and details the material covered in a typical undergraduate curriculum. As
a reference, it attempts to provide a broader perspective by introducing additional special topics towards
the later stages of each chapter. Complementing this text, but deliberately not integrated into it, is a set of
powerful software routines (running under Matlab) that can be used not only for reinforcing and visualizing
concepts but also for problem solving and advanced design.
The text stresses the fundamental principles and applications of signals, systems, transforms and filters.
It deals with concepts that are crucial to a full understanding of time-domain and frequency-domain rela-
tionships. Our ultimate objective is that the student be able to think clearly in both domains and switch
from one to the other with relative ease. It is based on the premise that what might often appear obvious
to the expert may not seem so obvious to the budding expert. Basic concepts are, therefore, explained and
illustrated by worked examples to bring out their importance and relevance.

Scope
The text assumes familiarity with elementary calculus, complex numbers, basic circuit analysis and (in a few
odd places) the elements of matrix algebra. It covers the core topics in analog and digital signal processing
taught at the undergraduate level. The links between analog and digital aspects are explored and emphasized
throughout. The topics covered in this text may be grouped into the following broad areas:
1. An introduction to signals and systems, their representation and their classification.
2. Convolution, a method of time-domain analysis, which also serves to link the time domain and the
frequency domain.
3. Fourier series and Fourier transforms, which provide a spectral description of analog signals, and
their applications.
4. The Laplace transform, which forms a useful tool for system analysis and its applications.
5. Applications of Fourier and Laplace techniques to analog filter design.
6. Sampling and the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) of sampled signals, and the DFT and
the FFT, all of which reinforce the central concept that sampling in one domain leads to a periodic
extension in the other.
7. The z-transform, which extends the DTFT to the analysis of discrete-time systems.
8. Applications of digital signal processing to the design of digital filters.

xv
xvi From the Preface to the First Edition

We have tried to preserve a rational approach and include all the necessary mathematical details, but we
have also emphasized heuristic explanations whenever possible. Each chapter is more or less structured as
follows:

1. A short opening section outlines the objectives and topical coverage and points to the required back-
ground.
2. Central concepts are introduced in early sections and illustrated by worked examples. Special topics
are developed only in later sections.
3. Within each section, the material is broken up into bite-sized pieces. Results are tabulated and sum-
marized for easy reference and access.
4. Whenever appropriate, concepts are followed by remarks, which highlight essential features or limita-
tions.
5. The relevant software routines and their use are outlined in Matlab appendices to each chapter.
Sections that can be related to the software are specially marked in the table of contents.
6. End-of-chapter problems include a variety of drills and exercises. Matlab code to generate answers
to many of these appears on the supplied disk.
A solutions manual for instructors is available from the publisher.

Software
A unique feature of this text is the analog and digital signal processing (ADSP) software toolbox for signal
processing and analytical and numerical computation designed to run under all versions of Matlab. The
routines are self-demonstrating and can be used to reinforce essential concepts, validate the results of ana-
lytical paper and pencil solutions, and solve complex problems that might, otherwise, be beyond the skills
of analytical computation demanded of the student.
The toolbox includes programs for generating and plotting signals, regular and periodic convolution,
symbolic and numerical solution of dierential and dierence equations, Fourier analysis, frequency response,
asymptotic Bode plots, symbolic results for system response, inverse Laplace and inverse z-transforms, design
of analog, IIR and FIR filters by various methods, and more.
Since our primary intent is to present the principles of signal processing, not software, we have made no
attempt to integrate Matlab into the text. Software related aspects appear only in the appendices to each
chapter. This approach also maintains the continuity and logical flow of the textual material, especially for
users with no inclination (or means) to use the software. In any case, the self-demonstrating nature of the
routines should help you to get started even if you are new to Matlab. As an aside, all the graphs for this
text were generated using the supplied ADSP toolbox.
We hasten to provide two disclaimers. First, our use of Matlab is not to be construed as an endorsement
of this product. We just happen to like it. Second, our routines are supplied in good faith; we fully expect
them to work on your machine, but provide no guarantees!

Acknowledgements
This book has gained immensely from the incisive, sometimes provoking, but always constructive, criticism
of Dr. J.C.Mandojana. Many other individuals have also contributed in various ways to this eort. Special
thanks are due, in particular, to

Drs. R.W. Bickmore and R.T. Sokolov, who critiqued early drafts of several chapters and provided
valuable suggestions for improvement.
Dr. A.R. Hambley, who willingly taught from portions of the final draft in his classes.
From the Preface to the First Edition xvii

Drs. D.B. Brumm, P.H. Lewis and J.C. Rogers, for helping set the tone and direction in which the
book finally evolved.
Mr. Scott Ackerman, for his invaluable computer expertise in (the many) times of need.
At PWS Publishing, the editor Mr. Tom Robbins, for his constant encouragement, and Ms. Pam
Rockwell for her meticulous attention to detail during all phases of editing and production, and Ken
Morton, Lai Wong, and Lisa Flanagan for their behind-the-scenes help.
The students, who tracked down inconsistencies and errors in the various drafts, and provided extremely
useful feedback.
The Mathworks, for permission to include modified versions of a few of their m-files with our software.
We would also like to thank Dr. Mark Thompson, Dr. Hadi Saadat and the following reviewers for their
useful comments and suggestions:

Professor Doran Baker, Utah State University

Professor Ken Sauer, University of Notre Dame
Professor George Sockman, SUNYBinghamton
Professor James Svoboda, Clarkson University
Professor Kunio Takaya, University of Saskatchewan

And now for something completely dierent!

We have adopted the monarchic practice of using words like we, us, and our when addressing you, the reader.
This seems to have become quite fashionable, since it is often said that no book can be the work of a single
author. In the present instance, the reason is even more compelling because my family, which has played
an important part in this venture, would never forgive me otherwise! In the interests of fairness, however,
when the time comes to accept the blame for any errors, I have been graciously awarded sole responsibility!
We close with a limerick that, we believe, actually bemoans the fate of all textbook writers. If memory
serves, it goes something like this

A limerick packs laughs anatomical,

In space thats quite economical,
But the good ones Ive seen,
So seldom are clean,
And the clean ones so seldom are comical.

Campus lore has it that students complain about texts prescribed by their instructors as being too
highbrow or tough and not adequately reflecting student concerns, while instructors complain about texts
as being low-level and, somehow, less demanding. We have consciously tried to write a book that both the
student and the instructor can tolerate. Whether we have succeeded remains to be seen and can best be
measured by your response. And, if you have read this far, and are still reading, we would certainly like to
hear from you.
Chapter 1

OVERVIEW

1.0 Introduction
I listen and I forget,
I see and I remember, I do and I learn.
A Chinese Proverb

This book is about signals and their processing by systems. This chapter provides an overview of the
terminology of analog and digital processing and of the connections between the various topics and concepts
covered in subsequent chapters. We hope you return to it periodically to fill in the missing details and get
a feel for how all the pieces fit together.

1.1 Signals
Our world is full of signals, both natural and man-made. Examples are the variation in air pressure when we
speak, the daily highs and lows in temperature, and the periodic electrical signals generated by the heart.
Signals represent information. Often, signals may not convey the required information directly and may
not be free from disturbances. It is in this context that signal processing forms the basis for enhancing,
extracting, storing, or transmitting useful information. Electrical signals perhaps oer the widest scope for
such manipulations. In fact, it is commonplace to convert signals to electrical form for processing.
The value of a signal, at any instant, corresponds to its (instantaneous) amplitude. Time may assume
a continuum of values, t, or discrete values, nts , where ts is a sampling interval and n is an integer.
The amplitude may also assume a continuum of values or be quantized to a finite number of discrete levels
between its extremes. This results in four possible kinds of signals, as shown in Figure 1.1.

Analog signal Sampled signal Quantized signal Digital signal

x(t) x [n] x Q (t) x Q[n]

t n t n

Figure 1.1 Analog, sampled, quantized, and digital signals

The music you hear from your compact disc (CD) player due to changes in the air pressure caused by
the vibration of the speaker diaphragm is an analog signal because the pressure variation is a continuous
function of time. However, the information stored on the compact disc is in digital form. It must be processed

1
2 Chapter 1 Overview

and converted to analog form before you can hear the music. A record of the yearly increase in the world
population describes time measured in increments of one (year), and the population increase is measured in
increments of one (person). It is a digital signal with discrete values for both time and population.

1.1.1 Signal Processing

Analog signals have been the subject of much study in the past. In recent decades, digital signals have
received increasingly widespread attention. Being numbers, they can be processed by the same logic circuits
used in digital computers.
Two conceptual schemes for the processing of signals are illustrated in Figure 1.2. The digital processing
of analog signals requires that we use an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) for sampling the analog signal
prior to processing and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to convert the processed digital signal back to
analog form.

Analog signal processing Digital signal processing of analog signals

Analog Analog Analog Analog Digital Digital Digital Analog

signal ADC signal DAC
signal processor signal signal signal processor signal signal

Figure 1.2 Analog and digital signal processing

Few other technologies have revolutionized the world as profoundly as those based on digital signal
processing. For example, the technology of recorded music was, until recently, completely analog from end
to end, and the most important commercial source of recorded music used to be the LP (long-playing) record.
The advent of the digital compact disc has changed all that in the span of just a few short years and made
the long-playing record practically obsolete. Signal processing, both analog and digital, forms the core of
this application and many others.

1.1.2 Sampling and Quantization

The sampling of analog signals is often a matter of practical necessity. It is also the first step in digital
signal processing (DSP). To process an analog signal by digital means, we must convert it to a digital
signal in two steps. First, we must sample it, typically at uniform intervals ts . The discrete quantity nts is
related to the integer index n. Next, we must quantize the sample values (amplitudes). Both sampling and
quantization lead to a potential loss of information. The good news is that a signal can be sampled without
loss of information if it is band-limited to a highest-frequency fB and sampled at intervals less than 2f1B .
This is the celebrated sampling theorem. The bad news is that most signals are not band-limited and even
a small sampling interval may not be small enough. If the sampling interval exceeds the critical value 2f1B , a
phenomenon known as aliasing manifests itself. Components of the analog signal at high frequencies appear
at (alias to) lower frequencies in the sampled signal. This results in a sampled signal with a smaller highest
frequency. Aliasing eects are impossible to undo once the samples are acquired. It is thus commonplace to
band-limit the signal before sampling (using lowpass filters).
Numerical processing using digital computers requires finite data with finite precision. We must limit
signal amplitudes to a finite number of levels. This process, called quantization, produces nonlinear eects
that can be described only in statistical terms. Quantization also leads to an irreversible loss of information
and is typically considered only in the final stage in any design. The terms discrete time (DT), sampled,
and digital are therefore often used synonymously.
1.2 Systems 3

1.2 Systems
Systems may process analog or digital signals. All systems obey energy conservation. Loosely speaking, the
state of a system refers to variables, such as capacitor voltages and inductor currents, which yield a measure
of the system energy. The initial state is described by the initial value of these variables or initial conditions.
A system is relaxed if initial conditions are zero. In this book, we study only linear systems (whose
input-output relation is a straight line passing through the origin). If a complicated input can be split into
simpler forms, linearity allows us to find the response as the sum of the response to each of the simpler
forms. This is superposition. Many systems are actually nonlinear. The study of nonlinear systems often
involves making simplifying assumptions, such as linearity.

1.2.1 System Analysis in the Time Domain

Consider the so-called RC circuit of Figure 1.3. The capacitor voltage is governed by the dierential equation
dv0 (t) 1 1
+ v0 (t) = vi (t)
dt
Assuming an uncharged capacitor (zero initial conditions), the response of this circuit to various inputs is
summarized in Table 1.1 and sketched in Figure 1.3.

Table 1.1 Response of an RC Lowpass Filter

Input vi (t) Response v0 (t)

A, t 0 A(1 et/ ), t 0

A cos(0 t )
A cos(0 t) , = tan1(0 )
(1 + 02 2 )1/2
A cos(0 t ) A0 t/
A cos(0 t), t 0 + e , t0
(1 + 0 )
2 2 1/2 1 + 02 2

vi(t) v0 (t)
1 + R + 1
Input Output
C
1 e- t /
t t
- -

(a) Input cos(0t) and response (dark) (b) Input cos(0t), t > 0 and response (dark)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Amplitude

Amplitude

0 0

0.5 0.5

1 1
t=0 t=0
Time t Time t

Figure 1.3 An RC circuit and its response to various inputs

4 Chapter 1 Overview

It is not our intent here to see how the solutions arise but how to interpret the results in terms of system
performance. The cosine input yields only a sinusoidal component as the steady-state response. The
response to the suddenly applied step and the switched cosine also includes a decaying exponential term
representing the transient component.

1.2.2 Measures in the Time Domain

The time constant = RC is an important measure of system characteristics. Figure 1.4 reveals that
for small , the output resembles the input and follows the rapid variations in the input more closely. For
large , the system smooths the sharp details in the input. This smoothing eect is typical of a lowpass
filter. The time constant thus provides one index of performance in the time domain. Another commonly
used index is the rise time, which indicates the rapidity with which the response reaches its final value. A
practical measure of rise time is the time for the step response to rise from 10% to 90% of the final value. As
evident from Figure 1.4, a smaller time constant also implies a smaller rise time, even though it is usually
dicult to quantify this relationship.

Step response Step response

A
Small 0.9A
Delay
0.5A
Large
t 0.1A t
Rise time

Figure 1.4 Step response of an RC circuit for various and the concept of rise time

1.3 The Frequency Domain

The concept of frequency is intimately tied to sinusoids. The familiar form of a sinusoid is the oscillating,
periodic time waveform. An alternative is to visualize the same sinusoid in the frequency domain in terms
of its magnitude and phase at the given frequency. The two forms are shown in Figure 1.5. Each sinusoid
has a unique representation in the frequency domain.

Magnitude
ck cos (2 kf0 t + k ) ck
ck
f
kf0
t
Phase
k
f
kf0

Figure 1.5 A sinusoid and its frequency-domain representation

1.3 The Frequency Domain 5

1.3.1 The Fourier Series and Fourier Transform

A periodic signal with period T may be described by a weighted combination of sinusoids at its fundamental
frequency f0 = 1/T and integer multiples kf0 . This combination is called a Fourier series. The weights
are the magnitude and phase of each sinusoid and describe a discrete spectrum in the frequency domain.
For large T , the frequencies kf0 in the discrete spectrum of a periodic signal become more closely spaced.
A nonperiodic signal may be conceived, in the limit, as a single period of a periodic signal as T .
Its spectrum then becomes continuous and leads to a frequency-domain representation of arbitrary signals
(periodic or otherwise) in terms of the Fourier transform.

1.3.2 Measures in the Frequency Domain

The response of the RC circuit to a cosine at the frequency 0 depends on 0 , as shown in Figure 1.6.
For 0 1, both the magnitude and phase of the output approach the applied input. For a given , the
output magnitude decreases for higher frequencies. Such a system describes a lowpass filter. Rapid time
variations or sharp features in a signal thus correspond to higher frequencies.

Response of an RC circuit to cos(0t) (dashed) for 0 = 0. 1, 1, 10

1
0.5 Cosine input (dashed)
Amplitude

0
10
0.5 1
1 0.1
Time t

Figure 1.6 Response of an RC circuit to a cosine input for various values of 0

If the input consists of unit cosines at dierent frequencies, the magnitude and phase (versus frequency)
of the ratio of the output describes the frequency response, as shown in Figure 1.7. The magnitude
spectrum clearly shows the eects of attenuation at high frequencies.

(a) Magnitude spectrum (b) Phase spectrum

0
1
Phase (degrees)

20
Magnitude

40
0.5
60

80
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Frequency f Frequency f

Figure 1.7 Frequency response of an RC circuit to unit cosines at various frequencies

At the frequency 0 = B = 1/ , the magnitude of the frequency response is 1/ 2. This frequency serves
as one definition of the bandwidth. More generally, the bandwidth is a measure of the frequency range
that contains a significant fraction of the total signal energy.
6 Chapter 1 Overview

There are measures analogous to bandwidth that describe the time duration of a signal over which much
of the signal is concentrated. The time constant provides one such measure.
The relation B = 1 clearly brings out the reciprocity in time and frequency. The smaller the duration
or the more localized the time signal, the larger is its bandwidth or frequency spread. The quantity B is
a measure of the time-bandwidth product, a relation analogous to the uncertainty principle of quantum
physics. We cannot simultaneously make both duration and bandwidth arbitrarily small.

1.3.3 The Transfer Function and Impulse Response

To find the frequency response of a continuous-time system such as the RC circuit, we must apply cosines
with unit magnitude at all possible frequencies. Conceptually, we could apply all of them together and
use superposition to find the response in one shot. What does such a combination represent? Since all
cosines equal unity at t = 0, the combination approaches infinity at the origin. As Figure 1.8 suggests, the
combination also approaches zero elsewhere due to the cancellation of the infinitely many equal positive and
negative values at all other instants. We give this signal (subject to unit area) the name unit impulse. We
can find the response of a relaxed system over the entire frequency range by applying a single impulse as the
input. In practice, of course, we approximate an impulse by a tall narrow spike.

(a) Cosines at different frequencies (b) Sum of 100 cosines (c) Limiting form is impulse
100 2
1
1.5
0.5
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
50 1
0
0.5
0.5
0 0
1
0.5
t=0 t=0 t=0
Time t Time t Time t

Figure 1.8 Genesis of the impulse function as a sum of sinusoids

The time-domain response to an impulse is called the impulse response. A system is completely char-
acterized in the frequency domain by its frequency response or transfer function. A system is completely
characterized in the time domain by its impulse response. Naturally, the transfer function and impulse
response are two equivalent ways of looking at the same system.

1.3.4 Convolution
The idea of decomposing a complicated signal into simpler forms is very attractive for both signal and system
analysis. One approach to the analysis of continuous-time systems describes the input as a sum of weighted
impulses and finds the response as a sum of weighted impulse responses. This describes the process of
convolution. Since the response is, in theory, a cumulative sum of infinitely many impulse responses, the
convolution operation is actually an integral.

1.3.5 System Analysis in the Frequency Domain

A useful approach to system analysis relies on transformations, which map signals and systems into a
transformed domain such as the frequency domain. This results in simpler mathematical operations to
evaluate system behavior. One of the most useful results is that convolution is replaced by the much simpler
1.4 From Concept to Application 7

operation of multiplication when we move to a transformed domain, but there is a price to pay. Since the
response is evaluated in the transformed domain, we must have the means to remap this response to the
time domain through an inverse transformation. Examples of this method include phasor analysis (for
sinusoids and periodic signals), Fourier transforms, and Laplace transforms. Phasor analysis only allows
us to find the steady-state response of relaxed systems to periodic signals. The Fourier transform, on the
other hand, allows us to analyze relaxed systems with arbitrary inputs. The Laplace transform uses
a complex frequency to extend the analysis both to a larger class of inputs and to systems with nonzero
initial conditions. Dierent methods of system analysis allow dierent perspectives on both the system and
the analysis results. Some are more suited to the time domain, others oer a perspective in the frequency
domain, and yet others are more amenable to numerical computation.

1.3.6 Frequency-Domain Description of Discrete-Time Signals

It turns out that discrete-time sinusoids dier from their analog cousins in some fundamental ways. A
discrete-time sinusoid is not periodic for any choice of frequency, but it has a periodic spectrum whose
period equals the sampling frequency S. An important consequence of this result is that if the spectrum
is periodic for a sampled sinusoid, it should also be periodic for a sampled combination of sinusoids. And
since analog signals can be described as a combination of sinusoids (periodic ones by their Fourier series and
others by their Fourier transform), their sampled combinations (and consequently any sampled signal) have
a periodic spectrum in the frequency domain. The central period, from 0.5S to 0.5S, corresponds to the
true spectrum of the analog signal if the sampling rate S exceeds the Nyquist rate, and to the aliased signal
otherwise. The frequency-domain description of discrete-time signals is called the discrete-time Fourier
transform (DTFT). Its periodicity is a consequence of the fundamental result that sampling a signal in
one domain leads to periodicity in the other. Just as a periodic signal has a discrete spectrum, a discrete-
time signal has a periodic spectrum. This duality also characterizes several other transforms. If the time
signal is both discrete and periodic, its spectrum is also discrete and periodic and describes the discrete
Fourier transform (DFT), whose computation is speeded up by the so-called fast Fourier transform
(FFT) algorithms. The DFT is essentially the DTFT evaluated at a finite number of frequencies and is also
periodic. The DFT can be used to approximate the spectrum of analog signals from their samples, provided
the relations are understood in their proper context using the notion of implied periodicity. The DFT and
FFT find extensive applications in fast convolution, signal interpolation, spectrum estimation, and transfer
function estimation. Yet another transform for discrete signals is the z-transform, which may be regarded
as a discrete version of the Laplace transform.

1.4 From Concept to Application

The term filter is often used to denote systems that process the input in a specified way, suppressing certain
frequencies, for example. In practice, no measurement process is perfect or free from disturbances or noise.
In a very broad sense, a signal may be viewed as something that is desirable, and noise may be regarded
as an undesired characteristic that tends to degrade the signal. In this context, filtering describes a signal-
processing operation that allows signal enhancement, noise reduction, or increased signal-to-noise ratio.
Systems for the processing of discrete-time signals are also called digital filters. Analog filters are used both
in analog signal processing and to band-limit the input to digital signal processors. Digital filters are used for
tasks such as interpolation, extrapolation, smoothing, and prediction. Digital signal processing continues to
play an increasingly important role in fields that range literally from A (astronomy) to Z (zeugmatography, or
magnetic resonance imaging) and encompass applications such as compact disc players, speech recognition,
echo cancellation in communication systems, image enhancement, geophysical exploration, and noninvasive
medical imaging.
Chapter 2

ANALOG SIGNALS

2.0 Scope and Objectives

Signals convey information and include physical quantities such as voltage, current, and intensity. This
chapter deals with one-dimensional analog signals that are continuous functions, usually of time or frequency.
It begins with signal classification in various forms, describes how signals can be manipulated by various
operations, and quantifies the measures used to characterize signals. It is largely a compendium of facts,
definitions, and concepts that are central to an understanding of the techniques of signal processing and
system analysis described in subsequent chapters.

2.1 Signals
The study of signals allows us to assess how they might be processed to extract useful information. This is
indeed what signal processing is all about. An analog signal may be described by a mathematical expression
or graphically by a curve or even by a set of tabulated values. Real signals, alas, are not easy to describe
quantitatively. They must often be approximated by idealized forms or models amenable to mathematical
manipulation. It is these models that we concentrate on in this chapter.

2.1.1 Signal Classification by Duration and Area

Signals can be of finite or infinite duration. Finite duration signals are called time-limited. Signals of
semi-infinite extent may be right-sided if they are zero for t < (where is finite) or left-sided if they
are zero for t > . Signals that are zero for t < 0 are often called causal. The term causal is used in analogy
with causal systems (discussed in Chapter 4).

REVIEW PANEL 2.1

Signals Can Be Left-Sided, Right-Sided, Causal, or Time-Limited
Left-sided Right-sided Causal Time-limited
(zero for t > ) (zero for t < ) (zero for t < 0)

t t t t

Piecewise continuous signals possess dierent expressions over dierent intervals. Continuous sig-
nals, such as x(t) = sin(t), are defined by a single expression for all time.

8
2.1 Signals 9

Periodic signals are infinite-duration signals that repeat the same pattern endlessly. The smallest
repetition interval is called the period T and leads to the formal definition

xp (t) = xp (t nT ) (for integer n) (2.1)

One-sided or time-limited signals can never be periodic.

2.1.2 Absolute Area, Energy, and Power

The absolute area of a signal provides useful measures of its size. A signal x(t) is called absolutely
integrable if it possesses finite absolute area:
!
|x(t)| dt < (for an absolutely integrable signal) (2.2)

All time-limited functions of finite amplitude have finite absolute area. The criterion of absolute integrability
is often used to check for system stability or justify the existence of certain transforms.
The area of x2 (t) is tied to the power or energy delivered to a 1- resistor. The instantaneous power
pi (t) (in watts) delivered to a 1- resistor may be expressed as pi (t) = x2 (t) where the signal x(t) represents
either the voltage across it or the current through it. The total energy E delivered to the 1- resistor is
called the signal energy (in joules) and is found by integrating the instantaneous power pi (t) for all time:
! !
E= pi (t) dt = |x2 (t)| dt (2.3)

The absolute value |x(t)| allows this relation to be used for complex-valued signals. The energy of some
common signals is summarized in the following review panel.

REVIEW PANEL 2.2

Signal Energy for Three Useful Pulse Shapes (Height = A, Width = b)
Rectangular Half-cycle Triangular
A pulse A sinusoid A pulse
E = A2 b E = A 2b / 2 E = A2 b / 3
b b b

The signal power P equals the time average of the signal energy over all time. If x(t) is periodic with
period T , the signal power is simply the average energy per period, and we have
!
1
P = |x(t)|2 dt (for periodic signals) (2.4)
T T
"
Notation: We use T to mean integration over any convenient one-period duration.

Measures for Periodic Signals

Periodic signals are characterized by several measures. The duty ratio of a periodic signal xp (t) equals the
ratio of its pulse width and period. Its average value xav equals the average
area per period. Its signal
power P equals the average energy per period. Its rms value xrms equals P and corresponds to a dc signal
with the same power as xp (t).
! !
1 1
xav = x(t) dt P = |x(t)|2 dt xrms = P (2.5)
T T T T
10 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

The average value can never exceed the rms value and thus xav xrms . Two useful results pertaining to the
power in sinusoids and complex exponentials are listed in the following review panel.

REVIEW PANEL 2.3

Signal Power in Analog Harmonics (Sinusoids and Complex Exponentials)
If x(t) = A cos(2f0 t + ), then P = 0.5A2 . If x(t) = Aej(2f0 t+) , then P = A2 .

If x(t) is a nonperiodic power signal, we can compute the signal power (or average value) by averaging its
energy (or area) over a finite stretch T0 , and letting T0 to obtain the limiting form
! !
1 1
P = lim |x(t)|2 dt xav = lim x(t) dt (for nonperiodic signals) (2.6)
T0 T0 T T0 T0 T
0 0

We emphasize that these limiting forms are useful only for nonperiodic signals.

Energy Signals and Power Signals

The definitions for power and energy serve to classify signals as either energy signals or power signals. A
signal with finite energy is called an energy signal or square integrable. Energy signals have zero signal
power since we are averaging finite energy over all (infinite) time. All time-limited signals of finite amplitude
are energy signals. Other examples of energy signals include one-sided or two-sided decaying and damped
exponentials and damped sinusoids. If you must insist on a formal test, it turns out that x(t) is an energy
signal if it is finite valued (with no singularities) and x2 (t) decays to zero faster than 1/|t| as |t| .
Signals with finite power are called power signals. Power signals possess finite (nonzero) average power
and infinite energy. The commonest examples of power signals are periodic signals and their combinations.
Remark: Power signals and energy signals are mutually exclusive because energy signals have zero power
and power signals have infinite energy. A signal may of course be neither an energy signal nor a power signal
if it has infinite energy and infinite power (examples
are signals of polynomial or exponential growth, such
as tn ) or infinite energy and zero power (such as 1/ t, t 1).

REVIEW PANEL 2.4

Signal Energy E, Signal Power P (if Periodic), and rms Value (if Periodic)
! !
1 energy in one period
E= 2
|x(t)| dt If periodic: P = |x(t)|2 dt = and xrms = P
T T T
Energy signals: Finite energy, zero power Power signals: Nonzero power, infinite energy

EXAMPLE 2.1 (Energy and Power)

(a) Find the signal energy for the signals shown in Figure E2.1A.
x(t) y(t) x(t)y(t) x(t)+y(t)

4 4

2 2 2
t t t t
6 1 4 1 4 1 4 6
Figure E2.1A The signals for Example 2.1(a)
2.1 Signals 11

Using the results of Review Panel 2.2, we find that

The energy in x(t) is Ex = (2)2 (6) = 24 J.
The energy in y(t) is Ey = 13 (2)2 (3) = 4 J.
The energy in f (t) = x(t)y(t) is Ef = 13 (4)2 (3) = 16 J.
The energy in g(t) = x(t) + y(t) may be calculated by writing it as
! # $ !
Eg = x2 (t) + y 2 (t) + 2x(t)y(t) dt = Ex + Ey + 2 x(t)y(t) dt = 24 + 4 + 12 = 40 J

Comment: The third term describes twice the area of x(t)y(t) (and equals 12).

(b) The signal x(t) = 2et 6e2t , t > 0 is an energy signal. Its energy is
! ! % & ' ! (
1
Ex = x (t) dt =
2
4e2t 24e3t + 36e4t dt = 2 8 + 9 = 3 J Note: t
e dt =
0 0 0
Comment: As a consistency check, ensure that the energy is always positive!

(c) Find the signal power for the periodic signals shown in Figure E2.1C.
x(t) f(t)
A y(t) A
A
T/2 t t
T t T
T
-A -A
Figure E2.1C The signals for Example 2.1(c)

We use the results of Review Panel 2.2 to find the energy in one period.
For x(t): The energy Ex in one period is the sum of the energy in each half-cycle. We compute
Ex = 12 A2 (0.5T ) + 12 (A)2 (0.5T ) = 0.5A2 T .
Ex
The power in x(t) is thus Px = = 0.5A2 .
T
For y(t): The energy Ey in one period of y(t) is Ey = 0.5A2 .
Ey
Thus Py = = 0.5A2 = 0.5A2 D where D = is the duty ratio.
T T T
For a half-wave rectified sine, D = 0.5 and the signal power equals 0.25A2 .
For a full-wave rectified sine, D = 1 and the signal power is 0.5A2 .
A2 T
For f (t): The energy Ef in one period is Ef = 13 A2 (0.5T ) + 13 (A)2 (0.5T ) = .
3
2
Ef A
The signal power is thus Pf = = .
T 3

(d) Let x(t) = Aejt . Since x(t) is complex valued, we work with |x(t)| (which equals A) to obtain
! !
1 T 1 T 2
Px = |x(t)|2 dt = A dt = A2
T 0 T 0
12 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

2.2 Operations on Signals

In addition to pointwise sums, dierences, and products, the commonly used operations on signals include
transformations of amplitude or time.
Amplitude scaling of x(t) by C multiplies all signal values by C to generate Cx(t).
An amplitude shift adds a constant K to x(t) everywhere (even where it is zero) to form K + x(t).
A time shift displaces a signal x(t) in time without changing its shape. Consider the signal y(t) = x(t ).
The value of y(t) at t = corresponds to the value of x(t) at t = 0. In other words, the signal y(t) is a
delayed (shifted right by ) replica of x(t). Similarly, the signal f (t) = x(t + ) is an advanced (shifted left
by ) replica of x(t). To sketch y(t) = x(t ), we simply shift the signal x(t) to the right by . This is
equivalent to plotting the signal x(t) on a new time axis tn at the locations given by t = tn or tn = t + .
Time scaling speeds up or slows down time and results in signal compression or stretching. The signal
g(t) = x(t/2) describes a twofold expansion of x(t) since t is slowed down to t/2. Similarly, the signal
g(t) = x(3t) describes a threefold compression of x(t) since t is speeded up to 3t. To sketch y(t) = x(t),
we compress the signal x(t) by . This is equivalent to plotting the signal x(t) on a new time axis tn at the
locations given by t = tn or tn = t/.
Reflection or folding is just a scaling operation with = 1. It creates the folded signal x(t) as a mirror
image of x(t) about the vertical axis passing through the origin t = 0.
Remark: Note that shifting or folding a signal x(t) will not change its area or energy, but time scaling x(t)
to x(t) will reduce both its area and energy by ||.

REVIEW PANEL 2.5

Time Delay x(t) x(t ), > 0 and Signal Compression x(t) x(t), || > 1
Delay: x(t) x(t ), shift x(t) right by ; t tn . New axis: tn = t + .
Scale: x(t) x(t), compress x(t) by || (and fold if < 0); t tn . New axis: tn = t/.

2.2.1 Operations in Combination

The signal y(t) = x(t ) may be generated from x(t) by plotting x(t) against a new time axis tn where
t = tn . We may also use the shifting and scaling operations in succession. For example, we can generate
the signal x(2t 6) from x(t) in one of two ways:
1. x(t) delay (shift right) by 6 x(t 6) compress by 2 x(2t 6)

2. x(t) compress by 2 x(2t) delay (shift right) by 3 x(2t 6)

In the second form, note that after compression the transformation x(2t) x(2t 6) = x[2(t 3)] implies
a delay of only 3 (and not 6) units (because the signal x(2t) is already compressed). In either case, as a
consistency check for the sketch, the new time axis locations tn are obtained from t = 2tn 6.

REVIEW PANEL 2.6

Operations in Combination: How to Sketch x(t ) (Assuming > 1, > 0)
Method 1: Shift right by : [x(t) x(t )]. Then compress by : [x(t ) x(t )].

Method 2: Compress by : [x(t) x(t)]. Then shift right by : [x(t) x{(t )} = x(t )].
Check: Use t tn to confirm new locations tn for the origin t = 0 and the end points of x(t).
2.2 Operations on Signals 13

EXAMPLE 2.2 (Operations on Signals)

(a) Let x(t) = 1.5t, 0 t 2, and zero elsewhere. Sketch the following:

x(t), f (t) = 1 + x(t 1), g(t) = x(1 t), h(t) = x(0.5t + 0.5), w(t) = x(2t + 2)

Refer to Figure E2.2A for the sketches.

x(t) 1+ x(t 1) x(1 t) x( 0.5 t+0.5) x(2t+2)
4
3 3 3 3 3
1
t t t t t
2 1 3
-1 1 -1 3 1
Figure E2.2A The signals for Example 2.2(a)

To generate f (t) = 1 + x(t 1), we delay x(t) by 1 and add a dc oset of 1 unit.
To generate g(t) = x(1 t), we fold x(t) and then shift right by 1.
Consistency check: With t = 1 tn , the edge of x(t) at t = 2 translates to tn = 1 t = 1.
To generate h(t) = x(0.5t + 0.5), first advance x(t) by 0.5 and then stretch by 2 (or first stretch by 2
and then advance by 1).
Consistency check: With t = 0.5tn + 0.5, the edge of x(t) at t = 2 translates to tn = 2(t 0.5) = 3.
To generate w(t) = x(2t + 2), advance x(t) by 2 units, then shrink by 2 and fold.
Consistency check: With t = 2tn + 2, the edge of x(t) at t = 2 translates to tn = 0.5(t 2) = 0.

(b) Express the signal y(t) of Figure E2.2B in terms of the signal x(t).
x(t) y(t)
4

2
t t
1 1 1 5
Figure E2.2B The signals x(t) and y(t) for Example 2.2(b)

We note that y(t) is amplitude scaled by 2. It is also a folded, stretched, and shifted version of x(t).
If we fold 2x(t) and stretch by 3, the pulse edges are at (3, 3). We need a delay of 2 to get y(t), and
thus y(t) = 2x[(t 2)/3] = 2x( 3t + 23 ).
Alternatively, with y(t) = 2x(t + ), we use t = tn + to solve for and by noting that t = 1
corresponds to tn = 5 and t = 1 corresponds to tn = 1. Then
)
1 = 5 + 1 2
= =
1 = + 3 3
14 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

2.3 Signal Symmetry

If a signal is identical to its folded version, with x(t) = x(t), it is called even symmetric. We see mirror
symmetry about the vertical axis passing through the origin t = 0. If a signal and its folded version dier
only in sign, with x(t) = x(t), it is called odd symmetric. In either case, the signal extends over
symmetric limits about the origin.

REVIEW PANEL 2.7

Symmetric Signals Cover a Symmetric Duration (, ) About the Origin
x e (t) x o(t)
t t

Even symmetry: x e (t) = x e (t) Odd symmetry: x o(t) = x o(t)

For an even symmetric signal, the signal values at t = and t = are equal. The area of an even
symmetric signal is twice the area on either side of the origin. For an odd symmetric signal, the signal values
at t = and t = are equal but opposite in sign and the signal value at the origin equals zero. The area
of an odd symmetric signal over symmetric limits (, ) is always zero.

REVIEW PANEL 2.8

The Area of Symmetric Signals Over Symmetric Limits (, )
! ! !
Odd symmetry: xo (t) dt = 0 Even symmetry: xe (t) dt = 2 xe (t) dt
0

Combinations (sums and products) of symmetric signals are also symmetric under certain conditions as
summarized in the following review panel. These results are useful for problem solving.

REVIEW PANEL 2.9

Does the Sum or Product of Two Symmetric Signals Have Any Symmetry?
xe (t) + ye (t): Even symmetry xo (t) + yo (t): Odd symmetry xe (t) + yo (t): No symmetry
xe (t)ye (t): Even symmetry xo (t)yo (t): Even symmetry xe (t)yo (t): Odd symmetry

2.3.1 Even and Odd Parts of Signals

Even symmetry and odd symmetry are mutually exclusive. Consequently, if a signal x(t) is formed by
summing an even symmetric signal xe (t) and an odd symmetric signal xo (t), it will be devoid of either
symmetry. Turning things around, any signal x(t) may be expressed as the sum of an even symmetric part
xe (t) and an odd symmetric part xo (t):

x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t) (2.7)

To find xe (t) and xo (t) from x(t), we fold x(t) and invoke symmetry to get

x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t) = xe (t) xo (t) (2.8)

2.3 Signal Symmetry 15

Adding and subtracting the two preceding equations, we obtain

xe (t) = 0.5x(t) + 0.5x(t) xo (t) = 0.5x(t) 0.5x(t) (2.9)
Naturally, if x(t) has even symmetry, xo (t) will equal zero, and if x(t) has odd symmetry, xe (t) will equal
zero.

REVIEW PANEL 2.10

Any Signal Is the Sum of an Even Symmetric Part and an Odd Symmetric Part
x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t) where xe (t) = 0.5x(t) + 0.5x(t) and xo (t) = 0.5x(t) 0.5x(t)
How to implement: Graphically, if possible. How to check: Does xe (t) + xo (t) give x(t)?

2.3.2 Half-Wave Symmetry

Half-wave symmetry is defined only for periodic signals. If the value of a periodic signal xp (t) (with
period T ) at t = and at t = 0.5T , half a period away, diers only in sign, xp (t) is called half-wave
symmetric. Thus
xp (t) = xp (t 12 T ) = xp (t nT 12 T ) (for integer n) (2.10)
Half-wave symmetric signals always show two half-cycles over one period with each half-cycle an inverted
replica of the other and the area of one period equals zero.

REVIEW PANEL 2.11

Half-Wave Symmetry Is Defined Only for Periodic Signals
x hw (t)
There are two half-cycles per period.
Each is an inverted replica of the other. t
xhw (t) = xhw (t T2 )
T

EXAMPLE 2.3 (Even and Odd Parts of Signals)

(a) Find the even and odd parts of the signals x(t) and y(t) shown in Figure E2.3A(1).
x(t) y(t)
4 4

t t
1 2 1 2
Figure E2.3A(1) The signals for Example 2.3(a)

For x(t), we create 0.5x(t) and 0.5x(t), then add the two to give xe (t) and subtract to give xo (t) as
shown in Figure E2.3A(2). Note how the components get added (or subtracted) when there is overlap.
0.5x(t) 0.5x(t) xe (t) xo(t)
4
2
2 2
2 1
2 1 t
t t 1 2
t 1
1 2 2 1
2 1 1 2 2
Figure E2.3A(2) The process for finding the even and odd parts of x(t)
16 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

The process for finding the even and odd parts of y(t) is identical and shown in Figure E2.3A(3).
0.5y(t) 0.5y(t) ye (t) yo(t)

2
2 2 2 1
2 1 t
t t t 1 2
-1
1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
2
Figure E2.3A(3) The process for finding the even and odd parts of y(t)

In either case, as a consistency check, make sure that the even and odd parts display the appropriate
symmetry and add up to the original signal.

(b) Let x(t) = (sin t + 1)2 . To find its even and odd parts, we expand x(t) to get

x(t) = (sin t + 1)2 = sin2 t + 2 sin t + 1

It is now easy to recognize the even part and odd part as

xe (t) = sin2 (t) + 1 xo (t) = 2 sin(t)

2.4 Harmonic Signals and Sinusoids

Sinusoids and harmonic signals and are among the most useful periodic signals. They are described by
the general forms
xp (t) = A cos(2f0 t + ) x(t) = Aej(2f0 t+) (2.11)
The two forms are related by Eulers identity as follows

xp (t) = Re{Aej(2f0 t+) } = 0.5Aej(2f0 t+) + 0.5Aej(2f0 t+) (2.12)

The complex exponential form requires two separate plots (its real part and imaginary part, for example)
for a graphical description.

REVIEW PANEL 2.12

Eulers Relation in Three Forms
ej = 1 = cos j sin cos = 0.5(ej + ej ) sin = j0.5(ej ej )

If we write xp (t) = A cos(0 t + ) = A cos[0 (t tp )], the quantity tp = /0 is called the phase delay
and describes the time delay in the signal caused by a phase shift of .
The various time and frequency measures are related by
1 2 tp
f0 = 0 = = 2f0 = 0 tp = 2f0 tp = 2 (2.13)
T T T
We emphasize that an analog sinusoid or harmonic signal is always periodic and unique for any choice of
period or frequency (quite in contrast to digital sinusoids, which we study later).
2.4 Harmonic Signals and Sinusoids 17

REVIEW PANEL 2.13

An Analog Harmonic Signal Is Periodic for Any Choice of Frequency
x(t) = A cos(2f0 t + ) = A cos(0 t + ) = A cos(2 Tt + ) = A cos[2f0 (t tp )]
Frequency: 0 = 2f0 Period: T = 1/f0 = 2/0 Phase delay: tp = /0

2.4.1 Combinations of Sinusoids

The common period or time period T of a combination of sinusoids is the smallest duration over which
each sinusoid completes an integer number of cycles. It is given by the LCM (least common multiple) of the
individual periods. The fundamental frequency f0 is the reciprocal of T and equals the GCD (greatest
common divisor) of the individual frequencies. We can find a common period or fundamental frequency
only for a commensurate combination in which the ratio of any two periods (or frequencies) is a rational
fraction (ratio of integers with common factors canceled out).

REVIEW PANEL 2.14

When Is a Sum of Harmonic Signals y(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) + Periodic?
When the ratio of each pair of individual frequencies (or periods) is a rational fraction. If periodic:
The fundamental frequency f0 is the GCD of the individual frequencies f0 = GCD(f1 , f2 , . . .).
The common period is T = 1/f0 or the LCM of the individual periods T = LCM(T1 , T2 , . . .).

For a combination of sinusoids at dierent frequencies, say y(t) =x1 (t) + x2 (t) + , the signal power
Py equals the sum of the individual powers and the rms value equals P y . The reason is that squaring y(t)
produces cross-terms such as 2x1 (t)x2 (t), all of which integrate to zero.

Almost Periodic Signals

For non-commensurate combinations such as x(t) = 2 cos(t) + 4 sin(3t), where the ratios of the periods
(or frequencies) are not rational, we simply cannot find a common period (or frequency), and there is no
repetition! Such combinations are called almost periodic or quasiperiodic.

REVIEW PANEL 2.15

The Signal Power Adds for a Sum of Sinusoids at Dierent Frequencies
*
If y(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) + then Py = Px1 + Px2 + and yrms = Py .

EXAMPLE 2.4 (Periodic Combinations)

(a) Consider the signal x(t) = 2 sin( 32 t) + 4 cos( 12 t) + 4 cos( 13 t 15 ).
The periods (in seconds) of the individual components in x(t) are 3, 4, and 6, respectively.
The common period of x(t) is T = LCM(3, 4, 6) = 12 seconds. Thus, 0 = 2 T = 6 rad/s.
1

The frequencies (in rad/s) of the individual components are 23 , 12 , and 13 , respectively.
The fundamental frequency is 0 = GCD( 23 , 12 , 13 ) = 16 rad/s. Thus, T = 2 0 = 12 seconds.
+ 2 ,
The signal power is Px = 0.5 2 + 42 + 42 = 36 W.

The rms value is xrms = Px = 36 = 6.
18 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

(b) The signal x(t) = sin(t) + sin(t) is almost periodic because the frequencies 1 = 1 rad/s and 2 =
rad/s of the two components
+ are non-commensurate.
,
The signal power is Px = 0.5 12 + 12 = 1 W.

(c) Consider the signal x(t) = sin(t) sin(t).

We rewrite it as x(t) = sin(t) sin(t) = 0.5 cos[(1 )t] 0.5 cos[(1 + )t].
Since 1 = 1 rad/s and 2 = 1 + rad/s are non-commensurate, x(t) is almost periodic.
# $
The signal power is Px = 0.5 (0.5)2 + (0.5)2 = 0.25 W.

Importance of Harmonic Signals

The importance of harmonic signals and sinusoids stems from the following aspects, which are discussed in
detail in later chapters.
1. Any signal can be represented by a combination of harmonicsperiodic ones by harmonics at discrete
frequencies (Fourier series), and aperiodic ones by harmonics at all frequencies (Fourier transform).
2. The response of a linear system (defined in Chapter 4) to a harmonic input is also a harmonic signal
at the input frequency. This forms the basis for system analysis in the frequency domain.

2.5 Commonly Encountered Signals

Besides sinusoids, several other signal models are of importance in signal processing. The unit step u(t),
unit ramp r(t), and signum function sgn(t) are piecewise linear signals and defined as
- - -
0, t < 0 0, t < 0 1, t < 0
u(t) = r(t) = tu(t) = sgn(t) = (2.14)
1, t > 0 t, t > 0 1, t > 0
The unit step is discontinuous at t = 0, where its value is undefined. With u(0) = 0.5, u(t) is called the
Heaviside unit step. In its general form, u[f (t)] equals 1 if f (t) > 0 and 0 if f (t) < 0. The signal u( t)
describes a folded (left-sided) step that is zero past t = . The unit step u(t) may also be regarded as the
derivative of the unit ramp r(t) = tu(t), and the unit ramp may be regarded as the running integral of the
unit step. ! ! t t
u(t) = r (t) tu(t) = r(t) = u( ) d = u( ) d (2.15)
0
The signum function is characterized by a sign change at t = 0. Its value at t = 0 is also undefined and
chosen as zero. The step function (or its folded version) can be used to turn a signal x(t) on (or o) while
the signum function can be used to switch the polarity of a signal.

REVIEW PANEL 2.16

The Step, Ramp, and Signum Functions Are Piecewise Linear
u(t) sgn (t) r(t)
1 1
t 1
t 1 t
1
2.5 Commonly Encountered Signals 19

2.5.1 Pulse Signals

The rectangular pulse rect(t) and triangular pulse tri(t) are defined as

- -
1, |t| < 0.5 1 |t|, |t| 1
rect(t) = (width = 1) tri(t) = (width = 2) (2.16)
0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere

Both are even symmetric and possess unit area and unit height. The signal f (t) = rect( t ) describes a
t
rectangular pulse of width , centered at t = . The signal g(t) = tri( ) describes a triangular pulse of
width 2 centered at t = . These pulse signals serve as windows to limit and shape arbitrary signals.
Thus, h(t) = x(t)rect(t) equals x(t) abruptly truncated past |t| = 0.5, whereas x(t)tri(t) equals x(t) linearly
tapered about t = 0 and zero past |t| = 1.

REVIEW PANEL 2.17

The Signals rect(t) and tri(t) Have Even Symmetry, Unit Area, and Unit Height
rect(t) tri(t)
Height = 1 1 Height = 1 1
Area = 1 Area = 1
Width = 1 Width = 2
t t
0.5 0.5 1 1

An arbitrary signal may be represented in dierent forms each of which has its advantages, depending on
the context. For example, we will find signal description by intervals quite useful in convolution, a description
by a linear combination of shifted steps and ramps very useful in Laplace transforms and a description by
linear combinations of shifted rect and tri functions extremely useful in Fourier transforms.

EXAMPLE 2.5 (Signal Representation)

(a) Sketch the following signals:
f (t) = u(1 t), g() = u(t ) (vs. ), x(t) = rect[0.5(t 1)], y(t) = tri[ 13 (t 1)]
These signals are sketched in Figure E2.5A.
u( 1 t) u(t ) x(t) y(t)
1 1
1 1
t t t
1 t 2 2 1 4
Figure E2.5A The signals for Example 2.5(a)

The signal f (t) = u(1 t) is a folded step, delayed by 1 unit.

The signal g() = u(t) versus is a folded step, shifted t units to the right. Pay particular attention
to this form, which will rear its head again when we study convolution.
The signal x(t) = rect[0.5(t 1)] is a stretched rectangular pulse (of width 2 units) delayed by (or
centered at) 1 unit.
The signal x(t) = tri[ 13 (t 1)] is a stretched triangular pulse (of width 6 units) delayed by (or centered
at) 1 unit.
20 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

(b) Refer to Figure E2.5B. Describe x(t) by a linear combination of rect and /or tri functions, y(t) by a
linear combination of steps and/or ramps, and both x(t) and y(t) by intervals.
x(t) y(t)
3
3

t t
3 6 3
Figure E2.5B The signals x(t) and y(t) for Example 2.5(b)

The signal x(t) may be described by a linear combination of shifted rect and tri functions as

x(t) = 3 rect[ 16 (t 3)] 3 tri[ 13 (t 3)]

The signal y(t) may be described by a linear combination of shifted steps and ramps as

y(t) = r(t) r(t 3) 3u(t)

Caution: We could also write y(t) = t rect[ 13 (t 1.5)], but this is a product (not a linear
combination) and not the preferred form.
The signals x(t) and y(t) may be described by intervals as

3 t, 0<t3 -
t, 0t<3
x(t) = 3 + t, 3t<6 y(t) =
0, elsewhere
0, elsewhere

2.5.2 The Sinc Function

The sinc function will be encountered in many contexts and is defined as

sin(t)
sinc(t) = (2.17)
t
Since the sine term oscillates while the factor 1/t decreases with time, sinc(t) shows decaying oscillations.
At t = 0, the sinc function produces the indeterminate form 0/0. Using the approximation sin() (or
lH
opitals rule), we establish that sinc(t) = 1 in the limit as t 0:

sin(t) t sin(t) cos(t)

lim =1 or lim = lim =1
t0 t t t0 t t0
A sketch of sinc(t) is shown in Figure 2.1. We see an even symmetric function with unit height at the
origin, a central mainlobe between the first zero on either side of the origin and progressively decaying
negative and positive sidelobes. The minimum peak equals 0.2178, and the next positive peak equals
0.1284. The factor in the definition ensures both unit area and unit distance between zero crossings, which
occur at t = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The signal sinc2 (t) also has unit area with zeros at unit intervals but is entirely
positive. The area of any sinc or sinc-squared function equals the area of the triangle inscribed within its
central lobe as shown in Figure 2.1. Even though the sinc function is square integrable (an energy signal),
it is not absolutely integrable (because it does not decay to zero faster than 1/|t|).
2.6 The Impulse Function 21

sinc(t) (light) and sinc2(t) (dark)

1 A
sinc
sinc squared
Amplitude

Area of any sinc or sinc2 equals

area of triangle ABC inscribed
within the main lobe.
0.13
0
B C
0.22
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Time t [seconds]

Figure 2.1 The sinc function and the sinc-squared function

REVIEW PANEL 2.18

The Signal sinc(t) Has Even Symmetry, Unit Area, and Unit-Spaced Zero Crossings
sin(t)
sinc(t) = sinc(0) = 1 sinc(t) = 0 when t = 1, 2, . . .
t
The sinc function is square integrable (an energy signal) but not absolutely integrable.

2.6 The Impulse Function

Loosely speaking, an impulse is a tall, narrow spike with finite area. An informal definition of the unit
impulse function, denoted by (t) and also called a delta function or Dirac function, is
- !
0, t = 0
(t) = ( ) d = 1 (2.18)
, t = 0

It says that (t) is of zero duration but possesses finite area. To put the best face on this, we introduce
a third, equally bizarre criterion that says (t) is unbounded (infinite or undefined) at t = 0 (all of which
would make any mathematician wince).

REVIEW PANEL 2.19

An Impulse Is a Tall Narrow Spike with Finite Area and Infinite Energy
! -
0, t = 0
( ) d = 1 (t) =
, t = 0

2.6.1 Impulses as Limiting Representations

A rigorous discussion of impulses involves distribution theory and the concept of generalized functions,
which are beyond our scope. What emerges is that many sequences of ordinary functions behave like an
impulse in their limiting form, in the sense of possessing the same properties as the impulse. As an example,
consider the rectangular pulse (1/ )rect(t/ ) of width and height 1/ shown in Figure 2.2.
22 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

( t)
1/

1/
(1)
1/ Area = 1
Area = 1 Area = 1 Area = 1
t t t t
Width = Width = Width =
Figure 2.2 The genesis of the impulse function

As we decrease , its width shrinks and the height increases proportionately to maintain unit area. As
0, we get a tall, narrow spike with unit area that satisfies all criteria associated with an impulse.
Signals such as the triangular pulse 1 tri(t/ ), the exponentials 1 exp(t/ )u(t) and 2 exp(|t|/ ), the
sinc functions 1 sinc(t/ ) and 1 sinc2 (t/ ), the Gaussian 1 exp[(t/ )2 ], and the Lorentzian /[( 2 + t2 )]
all possess unit area, and all are equivalent to the unit impulse (t) as 0.
The signal (t t0 ) describes an impulse located at t = t0 . Its area may be evaluated using any lower
and upper limits (say 1 and 2 ) that enclose its time of occurrence, t0 :
! 2 -
1, 1 < t0 < 2
( t0 ) d = (2.19)
1 0, otherwise
Notation: The area of the impulse A(t) equals A and is also called its strength. The function A(t) is
shown as an arrow with its area A labeled next to the tip. For visual appeal, we make its height proportional
to A. Remember, however, that its height at t = 0 is infinite or undefined. An impulse with negative area
is shown as an arrow directed downward.

2.6.2 Relating the Impulse and Step Function

If we consider the running integral of the unit impulse (t), it will equal zero until we enclose the impulse
at t = 0 and will equal the area of (t) (i.e. unity) thereafter. In other words, the running integral of (t)
describes the unit step u(t). The unit impulse may then be regarded as the derivative of u(t).

REVIEW PANEL 2.20

The Impulse Function Is the Derivative of the Step Function
! t
d u(t)
(t) = u(t) = (t) dt
dt

2.6.3 Derivative of Signals with Jumps

Since a signal with sudden jumps may be described by step functions, the derivative of such signals must give
rise to impulses. For example, the derivative of x(t) = Au(t)Bu(t) is given by x (t) = A(t)B(t).
This describes two impulses whose strengths A and B correspond to the jumps (up and down) at t = 0 and
t = . In general, the derivative at a jump results in an impulse whose strength equals the jump. This leads
to a simple rule for finding the generalized derivative of an arbitrary signal x(t). For its piecewise continuous
portions, we find the ordinary derivative x (t), and at each jump location in x(t), we include impulses whose
strength equals the jump.
2.6 The Impulse Function 23

REVIEW PANEL 2.21

The Derivative of a Signal with Jumps Includes Impulses at the Jump Locations
To find the derivative: Sketch the signal and check for any jumps.
At each jump location, include impulses (of strength equal to the jump) in the ordinary derivative.

EXAMPLE 2.6 (Derivative of Signals with Jumps)

(a) Sketch the derivative of y(t) = rect(t/2).
Since y(t) = rect(t/2) = u(t + 1) u(t 1), its derivative is y (t) = (t + 1) (t 1).
The signals y(t) and y (t) are sketched in Figure E2.6.
h (t)
y(t) y (t) h(t) (2)
1 2 t
(1) 2e - t
t 1 t 2e - t
1 1 1 t
(1) 2
Figure E2.6 The signals for Example 2.6

(b) Find the derivative of h(t) = 2et u(t).

The derivative is best found by sketching h(t) as shown. Its ordinary derivative is 2et . We also
include an impulse of strength 2 at the jump location t = 0. Thus, h (t) = 2(t) 2et u(t). The
signals h(t) and h (t) are also sketched in Figure E2.6.
It is not such a good idea to use the chain rule and get h (t) = 2et (t) 2et u(t) because we must
then use the product property (see the next section) to simplify the first term as 2et (t) = 2(t).

2.6.4 Three Properties of the Impulse

Three useful properties of the impulse function are the scaling property, the product property, and the sifting
property.

The Scaling Property

An impulse is a tall, narrow spike, and time scaling changes its area. Since (t) has unit area, the time-
compressed impulse (t) should have an area of || 1
. Since the impulse (t) still occurs at t = 0, it may
be regarded as an unscaled impulse || (t). In other words, (t) = ||
1 1
(t). A formal proof is based on a
change of variable in the defining integral. Since a time shift does not aect areas, we have the more general
result: 1 1
111
[(t )] = 11 11 (t ) (2.20)

24 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

The Product Property

This property says that if you multiply a signal x(t) by the impulse (t ), you get an impulse whose
strength corresponds to the signal value at t = . The product of a signal x(t) with a tall, narrow pulse of
unit area centered at t = is also a tall, narrow pulse whose height is scaled by the value of x(t) at t =
or x(). This describes an impulse whose area is x() and leads to the product property:

x(t)(t ) = x()(t ) x(t)(t) = x(0)(t) (2.21)

The Sifting Property

The product property immediately suggests that the area of the product x(t)(t ) = x()(t ) equals
x(). In other words, (t ) sifts out the value of x(t) at the impulse location t = , and thus,
! !
x(t)(t ) dt = x() x(t)(t) dt = x(0) (2.22)

This extremely important result is called the sifting property. It is the sifting action of an impulse (what
it does) that purists actually regard as a formal definition of the impulse.

REVIEW PANEL 2.22

The Scaling, Product, and Sifting Properties of an Impulse
Scaling Product ! Sifting
1
(t) = (t) x(t)(t ) = x()(t ) x(t)(t ) dt = x()
||

EXAMPLE 2.7 (Properties of the Impulse Function)

(a) Consider the signal"x(t) = 2r(t)2r(t2)4u(t3). Sketch x(t), f (t) = x(t)(t1), and g(t) = x (t).

Also evaluate I = x(t)(t 2) dt.
Refer to Figure E2.7A for the sketches.
x(t) x(t) (t 1) x (t)
4 2
3 t
(2)
2
t t (4)
2 3 1
Figure E2.7A The signals for Example 2.7(a)

From the product property, f (t) = x(t)(t 1) = x(1)(t 1). This is an impulse function with
strength x(1) = 2.
The derivative g(t) = x (t) includes the ordinary derivative (slopes) of x(t) and an impulse function of
strength 4 at t = 3.
"
By the sifting property, I = x(t)(t 2) dt = x(2) = 4.

(b) Evaluate z(t) = 4t2 (2t 4).

The scaling property gives z(t) = (4t2 )(0.5)(t 2) = 4(2)2 (0.5)(t 2) = 8(t 2).
2.6 The Impulse Function 25

Thus, z(t) is an impulse of strength 8 located at t = 2, a function we can sketch.

"
(c) Evaluate I1 = 0
4t2 (t + 1) dt.
The result is I1 = 0 because (t + 1) (an impulse at t = 1) lies outside the limits of integration.

"2
(d) Evaluate I2 = 4
cos(2t)(2t + 1) dt.
Using the scaling and sifting properties of the impulse, we get
! 2
I2 = cos(2t)[0.5(t + 0.5)] dt = 0.5 cos(2t)|t=0.5 = 0.5
4

2.6.5 Signal Approximation by Impulses

A signal x(t) multiplied by a periodic unit impulse train with period ts yields the ideally sampled signal,
xI (t), as shown in Figure 2.3. The ideally sampled signal is an impulse train described by

2
2
xI (t) = x(t) (t kts ) = x(kts )(t kts ) (2.23)
k= k=

x(t) x I (t)
Multiplier

t t
Analog signal i(t) ts
(1) (1)
t Ideally sampled signal
ts
Sampling function
Figure 2.3 The ideally sampled signal is a (nonperiodic) impulse train

Note that even though xI (t) is an impulse train, it is not periodic. The strength of each impulse equals
the signal value x(kts ). This form actually provides a link between analog and digital signals.

REVIEW PANEL 2.23

Ideally Sampled Signal: An Impulse Train Whose Strengths Are the Signal Values
2
xI (t) = x(kts )(t kts )
k=

To approximate a smooth signal x(t) by impulses, we section it into narrow rectangular strips of width
ts as shown in Figure 2.4 and replace each strip at the location kts by an impulse ts x(kts )(t kts ) whose
strength equals the area ts x(kts ) of the strip. This yields the impulse approximation

2
x(t) ts x(kts )(t kts ) (2.24)
k=
26 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

Section signal into narrow rectangular strips Replace each strip by an impulse

t t
ts ts

Figure 2.4 Signal approximation by impulses

Naturally, this approximation improves as ts decreases. As ts d 0, kts takes on a continuum of

values , and the summation approaches an integral
2 !
x(t) = lim ts x(kts )(t kts ) = x()(t ) d (2.25)
ts 0
k=

A signal x(t) may thus be regarded as a weighted, infinite sum of shifted impulses.

REVIEW PANEL 2.24

We Can Approximate a Signal by a Sum of Impulses (Tall, Narrow Pulses)
The area of the kth impulse is the pulse width ts times the signal height x(kts ).
2
x(t) ts x(kts )(t kts )
k=

2.7 The Doublet

The derivative of an impulse is +called
, a doublet and denoted by (t). To see what it represents,

consider
the triangular pulse x(t) = tri of Figure 2.5. As 0, x(t) approaches (t). Its derivative x (t) should
1 t

then correspond to (t). Now, x (t) is odd and shows two pulses of height 1/ 2 and 1/ 2 with zero area.
As 0, x (t) approaches + and from below and above, respectively. Thus, (t) is an odd function
characterized by zero width, zero area, and amplitudes of + and at t = 0. Formally, we write
- !
0, t = 0
(t) =

(t) dt = 0 (t) = (t) (2.26)
undefined, t=0

The two infinite spikes in (t) are not impulses (their area is not constant), nor do they cancel. In fact,
(t) is indeterminate at t = 0. The signal

" (t) is therefore sketched as a set

" of two spikes, which leads to
the name doublet. Even though its area (t) dt is zero, its absolute area | (t)| dt is infinite.

2.7.1 Three Properties of the Doublet

The doublet also possesses three useful properties. The scaling property comes about if we write the form
for the scaled impulse
1
[(t )] = (t ) (2.27)
||
and take the derivative of both sides to obtain
1 1
[(t )] = (t ) [(t )] = (t ) (2.28)
|| ||
2.7 The Doublet 27

x(t) x(t) x(t) ( t)

1/
1/ (1)
1/ Area = 1
Area = 1 Area = 1 Area = 1
t t t t

x (t) x (t) x (t) (t)

1/ 2
1/ 2 (1)
1/ 2 t t t t

1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2

Figure 2.5 The genesis of the doublet

With = 1, we get (t) = (t). This implies that (t) is an odd function.
The product property of the doublet has a surprise in store. The derivative of x(t)(t ) may be
described in one of two ways. First, using the rule for derivatives of products, we have
d
[x(t)(t )] = x (t)(t ) + x(t) (t ) = x ()(t ) + x(t) (t ) (2.29)
dt
Second, using the product property of impulses, we also have
d d
[x(t)(t )] = [x()(t )] = x() (t ) (2.30)
dt dt
Comparing the two equations and rearranging, we get the rather unexpected result
x(t) (t ) = x() (t ) x ()(t ) (2.31)
This is the product property. Unlike impulses, x(t) (t ) does not just equal x() (t )!

Integrating the two sides that describe the product property, we obtain
! ! !
x(t) (t ) dt = x() (t ) dt x ()(t ) dt = x () (2.32)

This describes the sifting property of doublets. The doublet (t ) sifts out the negative derivative of
x(t) at t = .
Remark: Higher derivatives of (t) obey (n) (t) = (1)n (n) (t), are alternately odd and even, and possess
zero area. All are limiting forms of the same sequences that generate impulses, provided their ordinary
derivatives (up to the required order) exist. None are absolutely integrable. The impulse is unique in being
the only absolutely integrable function from among all its derivatives and integrals (the step, ramp, etc.).

REVIEW PANEL 2.25

The Scaling, Product, and Sifting Properties of a Doublet
Scaling Product ! Sifting

1
(t) =

(t) x(t) (t) = x(0) (t) x (0)(t)

x(t) (t) dt = x (0)
||
28 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

EXAMPLE 2.8 (Properties of the Doublet)

(a) Consider the signal x(t) = 2r(t) 2r(t 2) 4u(t 3). Sketch x(t) and its first and second derivative.
Refer to Figure E2.8A for sketches.
x(t) x (t) x (t)
4 2 (2)
3 t 2 3 t
2
t (4) (2) (4)
2 3
Figure E2.8A The signals for Example 2.8(a)

The first derivative x (t) results in a rectangular pulse (the ordinary derivative of x(t)) and an impulse
(due to the jump) at t = 3.
The second derivative x (t) yields two impulses at t = 0 and t = 2 (the derivative of the rectangular
pulse) and a doublet at t = 3 (the derivative of the impulse).

(b) What does the signal x(t) = et (t) describe?

By the product property, x(t) = (t) (1)(t) = (t) + (t).
Thus, x(t) is the sum of an impulse and a doublet!

! 2
(c) Evaluate I = [(t 3)(2t + 2) + 8 cos(t) (t 0.5)] dt.
2

With (2t + 2) = 0.5(t + 1), the sifting property of impulses and doublets gives
1 1
1 d 1
I = 0.5(t 3)1 8 [cos(t)]11 = 0.5(1 3) + 8 sin 0.5 = 2 + 8 = 23.1327
t=1 dt t=0.5

2.8 Moments
Moments are general measures of signal size based on area. The nth moment is defined as
!
mn = tn x(t) dt (2.33)

"
The zeroth moment m0 = x(t) dt is just the area of x(t). The normalized first moment mx = m1 /m0
is called the mean. Moments about the mean are called central moments. The nth central moment is
denoted n .
" !

tx(t) dt
mx = " n = (t mx )n x(t) dt (2.34)

x(t) dt
2.8 Moments 29

To account for complex valued signals or sign changes, it is often more useful to define moments in terms of
the absolute quantities |x(t)| or |x(t)|2 . The second central moment 2 is called the variance. It is often
denoted by 2 and defined by
m2
2 = 2 = m2x (2.35)
m0
The first few moments find widespread application. In physics, if x(t) represents the mass density, then
mx equals the centroid, 2 equals the moment of inertia, and equals the radius of gyration. In probability
theory, if x(t) represents the density function of a random variable, then mx equals the mean, 2 equals the
variance, and equals the standard deviation.

REVIEW PANEL 2.26

The Moment mn and Central Moment n Are Measures of Signal Size
! !
m1
mn = n
t x(t) dt mx (mean) = n = (t mx )n x(t) dt
m0

For power signals, the normalized second moment, m2 /m0 , equals the total power, and 2 equals the ac
power (the dierence between the total power and the dc power). The variance 2 may thus be regarded as
the power in a signal with its dc oset removed. For an energy signal, mx is a measure of the eective signal
delay, and is a measure of its eective width, or duration.

REVIEW PANEL 2.27

The Delay and Duration of Energy Signals
' (1/2
m1 m2
Delay: mx = Duration: = m2x
m0 m0

EXAMPLE 2.9 (Moments of Energy Signals)

(a) Find the signal delay and duration for the signal x(t) = 13 , 0 t 3.
! 3 ! 3 ! 3
The moments of x(t) are m0 = 1
3 dt = 1, m 1 = 1
3 t dt = 3
2 , m2 = 1 2
3t dt = 3.
0 0 0
% &1/2
We find that delay = mx = m1
m0 = 1.5, and duration = = m2
m0 m2x = (3 94 )1/2 = 0.866.

(b) Find the signal delay and duration for the signal x(t) = et u(t).
! ! !
The moments of x(t) are m0 = e dt = 1, m1 =
t
tet dt = 1, m2 = t2 et dt = 2.
0 0 0
% &1/2
We find that delay = mx = m1
m0 = 1, and duration = = m2
m0 m2x = (2 1)1/2 = 1.
30 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

CHAPTER 2 PROBLEMS
DRILL AND REINFORCEMENT
2.1 (Operations on Signals) For each signal x(t) of Figure P2.1, sketch the following:
(a) y(t) = x(t) (b) f (t) = x(t + 3)
(c) g(t) = x(2t 2) (d) h(t) = x(2 2t)
(e) p(t) = x[0.5(t 2)] (f ) s(t) = x(0.5t 1)
(g) xe (t) (its even part) (h) xo (t) (its odd part)

x(t) Signal 1 x(t) Signal 2 x(t) Signal 3

2 2 2
t
t t 2 2
3 2 4 2
Figure P2.1 Signals for Problem 2.1

2.2 (Symmetry) Find the even and odd parts of each signal x(t).

(a) x(t) = et u(t) (b) x(t) = (1 + t)2 (c) x(t) = [sin(t) + cos(t)]2

2.3 (Symmetry) Evaluate the following integrals using the concepts of symmetry.
! 3 ! 2 3 4
(a) I = (4 t2 ) sin(5t) dt (b) I = 4 t3 cos(0.5t) dt
3 2

2.4 (Classification) For each periodic signal shown in Figure P2.4, evaluate the average value xav , the
energy E in one period, the signal power P , and the rms value xrms .
x(t) Signal 1 x(t) Signal 2 x(t) Signal 3
4 2
1
1
t 7 t t
2 2 5 2 2 5 2
2
5
Figure P2.4 Periodic signals for Problem 2.4

2.5 (Signal Classification) Classify each signal as a power signal, energy signal, or neither and find its
power or energy as appropriate.
(a) tet u(t) (b) et [u(t) u(t 1)] (c) te|t|
(d) et (e) 10et sin(t)u(t) (f ) sinc(t)u(t)

2.6 (Periodic Signals) Classify each of the following signals as periodic, nonperiodic, or almost periodic
and find the signal power where appropriate. For each periodic signal, also find the fundamental
frequency and the common period.
(a) x(t) = 4 3 sin(12t) + sin(30t) (b) x(t) = cos(10t)cos(20t)
(c) x(t) = cos(10t) cos(20t) (d) x(t) = cos(10t)cos(10t)

(e) x(t) = 2 cos(8t) + cos2 (6t) (f ) x(t) = cos(2t) 2 cos(2t 4 )
Chapter 2 Problems 31

2.7 (Periodic Signals) Classify each of the following signals as periodic, nonperiodic, or almost periodic
and find the signal power where appropriate. For each periodic signal, also find the fundamental
frequency and the common period.

(a) x(t) = 4 3 sin2 (12t) (b) x(t) = cos() + cos(20t) (c) x(t) = cos(t) + cos2 (t)

2.8 (Signal Description) For each signal x(t) shown in Figure P2.8,
(a) Express x(t) by intervals.
(b) Express x(t) as a linear combination of steps and/or ramps.
(c) Express x(t) as a linear combination of rect and/or tri functions.
(d) Sketch the first derivative x (t).
(e) Find the signal energy in x(t).

x(t) Signal 1 x(t) Signal 2 x(t) Signal 3

4 4 4
2 t 2 t t
2 4 6 2 3 4 6 2 4 6
x(t) Signal 4 x(t) Signal 5 x(t) Signal 6
4 4 4
t t t
3 6 2 3 4 6 2 4 6
Figure P2.8 Signals for Problem 2.8

2.9 (Sketching Signals) Sketch each of the following signals.

+ t2 ,
(a) x(t) = 3 sin(4t 30 ) (b) x(t) = 2 tri(t 1) + 2 tri 2 (c) x(t) = 9te3|t|
(d) x(t) = t rect(0.5t) (e) x(t) = rect(0.5t)sgn(t) (f ) x(t) = e2|t1|
(g) x(t) = sinc( t3
3 ) (h) x(t) = rect( 6t )tri( t2
2 ) (i) x(t) = u(1 |t|)
(j) x(t) = u(1 |t|)sgn(t) (k) x(t) = rect( 6t )rect( t2
4 ) (l) x(t) = u(t 1)u(3 t)

2.10 (Impulses and Comb Functions) Sketch the following signals. Note that the comb function is a

2
periodic train of unit impulses with unit spacing defined as comb(t) = (t k).
k=

(a) x(t) = 3(t 2) (b) x(t) = 3(2t 2) (c) x(t) = 3t(t 2)

(d) x(t) = 3t(2t 2) (e) x(t) = comb(t/2) (f ) x(t) = comb(0.5t)rect( t5
5 )

2.11 (The Sifting Property) Evaluate the following integrals.

! ! 6 ! 6
(a) (4 t )(t + 3) dt (b)
2
(4 t )(t + 4) dt (c)
2
(6 t2 )[(t + 4) + 2(2t + 4)] dt
3 3
! ! 6 ! t
(d) (t 2)(x t) dt (e) (4 t2 ) (t 4) dt (f ) [(t + 2) (t 2)] dt
3

2.12 (Generalized Derivatives) Sketch the signals x(t), x (t), and x (t) for the following:

(a) x(t) = 4 tri[ 21 (t 2)] (b) x(t) = et u(t) (c) x(t) = 2 rect(0.5t) + tri(t)
(d) x(t) = e|t| (e) x(t) = (1 et )u(t) (f ) x(t) = e2t rect( t1
2 )
32 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

2.13 (Ideally Sampled Signals) Sketch the ideally sampled signal and the impulse approximation for
each of the following signals, assuming a sampling interval of ts = 0.5 s.

(a) x(t) = rect(t/4) (b) x(t) = tri(t/2) (c) x(t) = sin(t) (d) x(t) = t rect(0.5t)

REVIEW AND EXPLORATION

2.14 (Periodic Signals) Justify the following statements about periodic signals.
(a) The area of the product of two periodic signals is either infinite or zero.
(b) If a periodic signal xp (t) with period T is both even and half-wave symmetric, it must show even
symmetry about t = T2 and odd symmetry about t = T4 .
(c) If a periodic signal xp (t) with period T is both odd and half-wave symmetric, it must show odd
symmetry about t = T2 and even symmetry about t = T4 .
(d) If a periodic signal xp (t) is shifted to xp (t ) or scaled to xp (t), the average value, signal
power, and rms value do not change.

2.15 (rms Value) Find the signal power and rms value for a periodic pulse train with peak value A and
duty ratio D if the pulse shape is the following:

(a) Rectangular (b) Half-sinusoid (c) Sawtooth (d) Triangular

2.16 (Sketching Signals) Sketch the following signals. Which of these signals (if any) are identical?
(a) x(t) = r(t 2) (b) x(t) = tu(t) 2u(t 2) (c) x(t) = 2u(t) (t 2)u(t 2)
(d) x(t) = tu(t 2) 2u(t 2) (e) x(t) = tu(t 2) 2u(t) (f ) x(t) = (t 2)u(t) u(t 2)

2.17 (Signals and Derivatives) Sketch each signal x(t) and represent it as a linear combination of step
and/or ramp functions where possible.
(a) x(t) = u(t + 1)u(1 t) (b) x(t) = sgn(t)rect(t) (c) x(t) = t rect(t)
(d) x(t) = t rect(t 0.5) (e) x(t) = t rect(t 2) (f ) x(t) = u(t + 1)u(1 t)tri(t + 1)

2.18 (Areas) Use the signals x(t) = (t) and x(t) = sinc(t) as examples to justify the following:
(a) If the area of |x(t)| is finite, the area of x2 (t) need not be finite.
(b) If the area of x2 (t) is finite, the area of |x(t)| need not be finite.
(c) If the area of x2 (t) is finite, the area of x(t) is also finite.

2.19 (Energy) Consider an energy signal x(t), over the range 3 t 3, with energy E = 12 J. Find the
range of the following signals and compute their signal energy.

(a) x(3t) (b) 2x(t) (c) x(t 4) (d) x(t) (e) x( 3t 2)

2.20 (Power) Consider a periodic signal x(t) with time period T = 6 and power P = 4 W. Find the time
period of the following signals and compute their signal power.

(a) x(3t) (b) 2x(t) (c) x(t 4) (d) x(t) (e) x( 3t 2)

Chapter 2 Problems 33

2.21 (Energy) If y(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t), the area of y 2 (t) equals

! ! ! !
y (t) dt = x1 (t) dt + x2 (t) dt + 2 x1 (t)x2 (t) dt
2 2 2

Use this result to show that for any energy signal, the signal energy equals the sum of the energy in
its odd and even parts.

2.22 (Areas and Energy) The area of the signal et u(t) equals unity. Use this result and the notion of
how the area changes upon time scaling to find the following (without formal integration).
(a) The area of x(t) = e2t u(t).
(b) The energy of x(t) = e2t u(t).
(c) The area of y(t) = 2e2t u(t) 6et u(t).
(d) The energy of y(t) = 2e2t u(t) 6et u(t).

2.23 (Power) Over one period, a periodic signal increases linearly from A to B in T1 seconds, decreases
linearly from B to A in T2 seconds, and equals A for the rest of the period. What is the power of this
periodic signal if its period T is given by T = 2(T1 + T2 )?

2.24 (Power and Energy) Use simple signals such as u(t), u(t 1), et u(t) (and others) as examples to
argue for or against the following statements.
(a) The sum of energy signals is an energy signal.
(b) The sum of a power and an energy signal is a power signal.
(c) The algebraic sum of two power signals can be an energy signal or a power signal or identically
zero.
(d) The product of two energy signals is zero or an energy signal.
(e) The product of a power and energy signal is an energy signal or identically zero.
(f ) The product of two power signals is a power signal or identically zero.

2.25 (Switched Periodic Signals) Let x(t) be a periodic signal with power Px . Show that the power Py
of the switched periodic signal y(t) = x(t)u(t t0 ) is given by Py = 0.5Px . Use this result to compute
the signal power for the following:
(a) y(t) = u(t) (b) y(t) = | sin(t)|u(t) (c) y(t) = 2 sin(2t)u(t) + 2 sin(t)
(d) y(t) = 2 u(t) (e) y(t) = (1 et )u(t) (f ) y(t) = 2 sin(t)u(t) + 2 sin(t)

2.26 (Power and Energy) Compute the signal energy or signal power as appropriate for each x(t).
(a) x(t) = e2t u(t) (b) x(t) = et1 u(t) (c) x(t) = e(1t) u(1 t)
(d) x(t) = e1+2t u(1 t) (e) x(t) = e(12t) u(1 2t) (f ) x(t) = et u(t 2)
2
(g) x(t) = e|1t| (h) x(t) = sinc(3t 1) (i) x(t) = et /2

2.27 (Power and Energy) Classify each signal as a power signal, energy signal, or neither, and compute
the signal energy or signal power where appropriate.
1
(a) x(t) = u(t) (b) x(t) = 1 + u(t) (c) x(t) =
1 + |t|
1 1
(d) x(t) = (e) x(t) = 1 + cos(t)u(t) (f ) x(t) = , t 1
1 + t2 t
1
(g) x(t) = , t 1 (h) x(t) = cos(t)u(t) (i) x(t) = cos(t)u(t) cos[(t 4)]u(t 4)
t
34 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

2.28 (Periodicity) The sum of two periodic signals is periodic if their periods T1 and T2 are commensurate.
Under what conditions will their product be periodic? Use sinusoids as examples to prove your point.

2.29 (Periodicity) Use Eulers identity to confirm that the signal x(t) = ej2f0 t is periodic with period
T = 1/f0 and use this result in the following:
(a) Is the signal
y(t) = x(2t) + 3x(0.5t) periodic? If so, what is its period?
(b) Is the signal
f (t) = 2ej16t + 3ej7t periodic? If so, what is its period?
(c) Is the signal
g(t) = 4ej16t 5e7t periodic? If so, what is its period?
(d) Is the signal
h(t) = 3ej16t 2e7 periodic? If so, what is its period?

2
(e) Is the signal s(t) = X[k]ej2kf0 t periodic? If so, what is its period?
k=

2.30 (Periodicity) It is claimed that each of the following signals is periodic. Verify this claim by sketching
each signal and finding its period. Find the signal power for those that are power signals.

(a) u[sin(t)] (b) sgn[sin(t)] (c) [sin(t)]

2.31 (Periodicity) Let x(t) = sin(2t).

(a) Sketch x(t) and find its period and power.
(b) Is y(t) = ex(t) periodic? If so, find its period and sketch.
(c) Is z(t) = ejx(t) periodic? If so, find its period and power.

2.32 (Periodicity) It is claimed that the sum of an energy signal x(t) and its shifted (by multiples of T )
replicas is a periodic signal with period T . Verify this claim by sketching the following and, for each
case, compare the area of one period of the periodic extension with the total area of x(t).
(a) The sum of x(t) = tri(t/2) and its replicas shifted by T = 6.
(b) The sum of x(t) = tri(t/2) and its replicas shifted by T = 4.
(c) The sum of x(t) = tri(t/2) and its replicas shifted by T = 3.

2.33 (Periodic Extension) The sum of an absolutely integrable signal x(t) and its shifted (by multiples
of T ) replicas is called the periodic extension of x(t) with period T . Show that the periodic extension
of the signal x(t) = et u(t) with period T is y(t) = x(t)/(1 eT ). How does the area of one period
of y(t) compare with the total area of x(t). Sketch y(t) and find its signal power.

2.34 (Half-Wave Symmetry) Argue that if a half-wave symmetric signal x(t) with period T is made
up of several sinusoidal components, each component is also half-wave symmetric over one period T .
Which of the following signals show half-wave symmetry?
(a) x(t) = cos(2t) + cos(6t) + cos(10t)
(b) x(t) = 2 + cos(2t) + sin(6t) + sin(10t)
(c) x(t) = cos(2t) + cos(4t) + sin(6t)

2.35 (Derivatives) Each of the following signals is zero outside the interval 1 t 1. Sketch the signals
x(t), x (t), and x (t).

(a) x(t) = cos(0.5t) (b) x(t) = 1 + cos(t) (c) x(t) = tri(t) (d) x(t) = 1 t2
Chapter 2 Problems 35

2.36 (Practical Signals) Energy signals that are commonly encountered as the response of analog systems
include the decaying exponential, the exponentially damped ramp, and the exponentially damped sine.
Compute the signal energy for the following:
(a) x(t) = et/ u(t) (b) x(t) = tet/ u(t) (c) f (t) = et sin(2t)u(t)
2.37 (Time Constant) For an exponential signal of the form x(t) = Aet/ u(t), the quantity is called
the time constant and provides a measure of how rapidly the signal decays. A practical estimate of
the time it takes for the signal to decay to less than 1% of its initial value is 5 . What is the actual
time it takes for x(t) to decay to exactly 1% of its initial value? How well does the practical estimate
compare with the exact result?
2.38 (Rise Time) The rise time is a measure of how fast a signal reaches a constant final value and is
commonly defined as the time it takes to rise from 10% to 90% of the final value. Compute the rise
time of the following signals.
-
sin(0.5t), 0 t 1
(a) x(t) = (1 e )u(t)
t
(b) y(t) =
1, t 1

2.39 (Rise Time and Scaling) In practice the rise time tR of the signal x(t) = (1 et/ )u(t) is often
approximated as tR 2.2 .
(a) What is the actual rise time of x(t), and how does it compare with the practical estimate?
(b) Compute the rise time of the signals f (t) = x(3t) and g(t) = x(t/3). How are these values related
to the rise time of x(t)? Generalize this result to find the rise time of h(t) = x(t).
2.40 (Settling Time) The settling time is another measure for signals that reach a nonzero final value.
The 5% settling time is defined as the time it takes for a signal to settle to within 5% of its final value.
Compute the 5% settling time of the following signals.
-
sin(0.5t), 0 t 1
(a) x(t) = (1 e )u(t)
t
(b) y(t) =
1, t 1
2.41 (Signal Delay) The delay of an energy signal is a measure of how far the signal has been shifted
from its mean position and is defined in one of two ways:
" "

tx(t) dt tx2 (t) dt
D1 = " D2 = "


x(t) dt
x2 (t) dt
(a) Verify that the delays D1 and D2 of x(t) = rect(t) are both zero.
(b) Find and compare the delays D1 and D2 of the following signals.
(1) x(t) = rect(t 2) (2) x(t) = et u(t) (3) x(t) = tet u(t)

2.42 (Signal Models) Argue that each of the following models can describe the signal of Figure P2.42,
and find the parameters A and for each model.
At
(a) x(t) = Atet u(t) (b) x(t) = A(et e2t ) (c) x(t) =
+ t2
x(t)
1

t
1
Figure P2.42 Signals for Problem 2.42
36 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

2.43 (Instantaneous Frequency) The instantaneous phase of the sinusoid x(t) = cos[(t)] is defined
as its argument (t), and the instantaneous frequency fi (t) is then defined by the derivative of the
instantaneous phase as fi (t) = (t)/2. Consider the signal y(t) = cos(2f0 t + ). Show that its
instantaneous frequency is constant and equals f0 Hz.

2.44 (Chirp Signals) Signals whose frequency varies linearly with time are called swept-frequency signals,
or chirp signals. Consider the signal x(t) = cos[(t)] where the time-varying phase (t) is also called
the instantaneous phase. The instantaneous frequency i (t) = (t) is defined as the derivative of the
instantaneous phase (in rad/s).
(a) What is the expression for (t) and x(t) if the instantaneous frequency is to be 10 Hz?
(b) What is the expression for (t) and x(t) if the instantaneous frequency varies linearly from 0 to
100 Hz in 2 seconds?
(c) What is the expression for (t) and x(t) if the instantaneous frequency varies linearly from 50 Hz
to 100 Hz in 2 seconds?
(d) Set up a general expression for a chirp signal x(t) whose frequency varies linearly from f0 Hz to
f1 Hz in t0 seconds.

2.45 (Chirp Signals) Chirp signals whose frequency varies linearly with time are often used in signal-
processing applications (such as radar). Consider the signal x(t) = cos(t2 ). How does the instanta-
neous frequency of x(t) vary with time. What value of will result in a signal whose frequency varies
from dc to 10 Hz in 4 seconds?

2.46 (Impulses as Limiting Forms) Argue that the following signals describe the impulse x(t) = A(t)
as 0. What is the constant A for each signal?

1 t2 /2
(a) x(t) = e (b) x(t) = (c) x(t) = 1
sinc( t ) (d) x(t) = 1 |t|/
e
2 + t2

2.47 (Impulses) It is possible to show that the signal [f (t)] is a string of impulses at the roots tk of
f (t) = 0 whose strengths equal 1/ | f (tk ) |. Use this result to sketch the following signals.

(a) x(t) = (t2 3t + 2) (b) x(t) = [sin(t)]

COMPUTATION AND DESIGN

ctsiggui A GUI for Signal Visualization

The graphical user interface ctsiggui allows you to plot a continuous-time signal x(t).
You can display results of the operation y(t) = A + Bx(Ct + D) for your choice of parameters.
You can also display the odd part, even part, derivative, and running integral of x(t).
To explore this routine, type ctsiggui at the Matlab prompt.
mathgui A GUI for Special Mathematical Functions
The graphical user interface ctsiggui allows you to plot and visualize the special mathematical
functions encountered in this book.
They include the sine integral, Fresnel integrals, Chebyshev functions, and Bessel functions.
To explore this routine, type mathgui at the Matlab prompt.
Chapter 2 Problems 37

2.48 (Periodicity) Use Matlab to plot each signal over the range 0 t 3, using a small time step (say,
0.01 s). If periodic, determine the period and compute the signal power (by hand if possible or using
Matlab otherwise).
(a) x(t) = sin(2t) (b) y(t) = ex(t) (c) z(t) = ejx(t)
(d) f (t) = cos[x(t)] (e) g(t) = cos[x2 (t)]

2.49 (Curious Signals) Let s(t) = sin(t). Use Matlab to sketch each of the following signals over the
range 2 t 6, using a small time step (say, 0.02 s). Confirm that each signal is periodic and find
the period and power.
(a) x(t) = u[s(t)] (b) y(t) = sgn[s(t)] (c) f (t) = sgn[s(t)] + sgn[s(t + 0.5)]
(d) g(t) = r[s(t)] (e) h(t) = es(t)
"
2.50 (Numerical Integration) A crude way to compute the definite integral I = x(t) dt is to ap-
proximate x(t) by N rectangular strips of width ts and find I as the sum of the areas under each
strip:
I ts [x(t1 ) + x(t2 ) + + x(tN )], tk = kts

This is called the rectangular rule. The sum of the quantity in brackets can be computed using the
Matlab routine sum and then multiplied by ts to approximate the integral I as the area.
(a) Use the rectangular rule to approximate the integrals of x(t) = tri(t) and y(t) = sin2 (t), 0
t 1 with N = 5 and N = 10 and compare with the exact values. Does increasing the the
number of strips N lead to more accurate results?
(b) The trapezoidal rule uses trapezoidal strips of width ts to approximate the integral I. Show that
this rule leads to the approximation
I ts [ 12 x(t1 ) + x(t2 ) + + 12 x(tN )], tk = kts
(c) Use the trapezoidal rule to approximate the integral of the signals y(t) = sin2 (t), 0 t 1 and
x(t) = tri(t) with N = 5 and N = 10 and compare with the exact values. Are the results for a
given N more accurate than those found by the rectangular rule?
"t
2.51 (Numerical Integration) A crude way to find the running integral y(t) = 0
x(t) dt is to approxi-
mate x(t) by rectangular strips and compute
n
2
y(t) ts x(kts )
k=0

The cumulative sum can be computed using the Matlab routine cumsum and then multiplied by ts to
obtain y(t). Let x(t) = 10et sin(2t), 0 t T0 . Find an exact closed form result for y(t).
(a) Let T0 = 2. Plot the exact expression and the approximate running integral of x(t) using a time
step of ts = 0.1 s and ts = 0.01 s. Comment on the dierences.
(b) Let T0 = 5. Plot the approximate running integral of x(t) with ts = 0.1 s and ts = 0.01 s. From
the graph, can you predict the area of x(t) as T0 ? Does the error between this predicted
value and the value from the exact result decrease as ts decreases? Should it? Explain.

2.52 (Numerical Derivatives) The derivative x (t) can be numerically approximated by the slope
x[n] x[n 1]
x (t)|t=nts
ts
38 Chapter 2 Analog Signals

where ts is a small time step. The Matlab routine diff yields the dierence x[n] x[n 1] (whose
length is 1 less than the length of x[n]). Use Matlab to obtain the approximate derivative of x(t)
over 0 t 3 with ts = 0.1 s. Compute the exact derivative of x(t) = 10et sin(2t)u(t) and plot
both the exact and approximate results on the same plot. Also plot the error between the exact and
approximate results. What happens to the error if ts is halved?

2.53 (Signal Operations) The ADSP routine operate can be used to plot scaled and/or shifted versions
of a signal x(t). Let x(t) = 2u(t + 1) r(t + 1) + r(t 1). Use Matlab to plot the signals
x(t), y(t) = x(2t 1), and f (t) = x(1 2t).

2.54 (Periodic Signals) The ADSP routines lcm1 and gcd1 allow us to find the LCM or GCD of an array
of rational fractions. Use these routines to find the common period and fundamental frequency of the
signal x(t) = 2 cos(2.4t) 3 sin(5.4t) + cos(14.4t 0.2).

2.55 (Energy and Power) The ADSP routine enerpwr also computes the energy (or power) if x(t) is a
string expression (it does not require you to specify a time step). Let x(t) = 6 sinc(2t), 0.5 t 0.5.
Use the routine enerpwr to find the energy in this signal and compute the signal power if x(t) describes
one period of a periodic signal with period T = 1.4 s.

2.56 (Beats) Consider the amplitude modulated signal given by x(t) = cos(2f0 t)cos[2(f0 + f )t].
(a) This signal can be expressed in the form x(t) = A cos(2f1 t) + B cos(2f2 t). How are A, B, f1 ,
and f2 related to the parameters of the original signal? Use Matlab to plot x(t) for 0 t 1 s
with a time step of 8192
1
s, f0 = 400 Hz, and A = B = 1 for the following values of f .

(1) f = 0 Hz (2) f = 1 Hz (3) f = 4 Hz (4) f = 5 Hz

Use the command sound to listen to each signal. Explain how you might determine the frequency
f from the plots.
(b) If f f0 , the frequencies f1 and f2 are very close together, and if we listen to the signal,
it seems to fade and grow, causing beats. Explain why this happens. Can you determine the
frequency of the beats? Would you be able to hear the beat signal even if f0 is not in the audible
range?

2.57 (Chirp Signals) Consider the chirp signal x(t) = cos(t2 /6). Plot x(t) over 0 t T using a small
time step (say, 0.02 s) with T = 2, 6, 10 s. What do the plots reveal as T is increased? Is this signal
periodic? Should it be? How does its instantaneous frequency vary with time?

2.58 (Simulating an Impulse) An impulse may be regarded as a tall, narrow spike that arises as a
limiting form of many ordinary functions such as the sinc and Gaussian. Consider the Gaussian signal
2
x(t) = t10 e(t/t0 ) . As we decrease t0 , its height increases to maintain a constant area.
(a) Plot x(t) over 2 t 2 for t0 = 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01 using a time step of 0.1t0 . What can you
say about the symmetry in x(t)?
(b) Find the area of x(t) for each t0 , using the Matlab command sum. How does the area change
with t0 ?
(c) Does x(t) approach an impulse as t0 0? If x(t) A(t), what is the value of A?
(d) Plot the (numerical) derivative x (t) for each t0 , using the Matlab command diff. Find the
area of x (t) for each t0 . How does the area change with t0 ? What can you say about the nature
of x(t) as t0 0?
Chapter 3

DISCRETE SIGNALS

3.0 Scope and Objectives

This chapter begins with an overview of discrete signals and how they arise. It develops various ways of
signal classification, shows how discrete signals can be manipulated by various operations, and quantifies the
measures used to characterize such signals. It explains how discrete-time (DT) sinusoids dier from their
analog counterparts, introduces the sampling theorem that forms the key to sampling analog signals without
loss of information, and concludes with a brief introduction to random signals.

3.1 Discrete Signals

Discrete signals (such as the annual population) may arise naturally or as a consequence of sampling con-
tinuous signals (typically at a uniform sampling interval ts ). A sampled or discrete signal x[n] is just an
ordered sequence of values corresponding to the integer index n that embodies the time history of the signal.
It contains no direct information about the sampling interval ts , except through the index n of the sample
locations. A discrete signal x[n] is plotted as lines against the index n. When comparing analog signals with
their sampled versions, we shall assume that the origin t = 0 also corresponds to the sampling instant n = 0.
We need information about ts only in a few situations such as plotting the signal explicitly against
! time t
(at t = nts ) or approximating the area of the underlying analog signal from its samples (as ts x[n]).

REVIEW PANEL 3.1

Notation for a Numeric Sequence x[n]

A marker () indicates the origin n = 0. Example: x[n] = {1, 2, 4, 8, . . .}.

Ellipses (. . .) denote infinite extent on either side. Example: x[n] = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}

A discrete signal x[n] is called right-sided if it is zero for n < N (where N is finite), causal if it is zero
for n < 0, left-sided if it is zero for n > N , and anti-causal if it is zero for n 0.

REVIEW PANEL 3.2

Discrete Signals Can Be Left-Sided, Right-Sided, Causal, or Anti-Causal
Left-sided Right-sided Causal Anti-causal
(zero for n>N ) (zero for n<N ) (zero for n< 0 ) (zero for n > 0 )

n n n n
N N

39
40 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

A discrete periodic signal repeats every N samples and is described by

x[n] = x[n kN ], k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (3.1)
The period N is the smallest number of samples that repeats. Unlike its analog counterpart, the period N of
discrete signals is always an integer. The common period of a linear combination of periodic discrete signals
is given by the least common multiple (LCM) of the individual periods.

REVIEW PANEL 3.3

The Period of Discrete Signals Is Measured as the Number of Samples per Period
The period N is always an integer. For combinations, N is the LCM of the individual periods.

3.1.1 Signal Measures

Signal measures for discrete signals are often based on summations. Summation is the discrete-time equiv-
alent of integration. The discrete sum SD , the absolute sum SA , and the cumulative sum (running sum)
sC [n] of a signal x[n] are defined by

"
" n
"
SD = x[n] SA = |x[n]| sC [n] = x[k] (3.2)
n= n= k=

Signals for which the absolute sum |x[n]| is finite are called absolutely summable. For nonperiodic signals,
the signal energy E is a useful measure. It is defined as the sum of the squares of the signal values

"
E= |x[n]|2 (3.3)
n=

The absolute value allows us to extend this relation to complex-valued signals. Measures for periodic signals
are based on averages since their signal energy is infinite. The average value xav and signal power P of a
periodic signal x[n] with period N are defined as the average sum per period and average energy per period,
respectively:
N 1 N 1
1 " 1 "
xav = x[n] P = |x[n]|2 (3.4)
N n=0 N n=0
Note that the index runs from n = 0 to n = N 1 and includes all N samples in one period. Only for
nonperiodic signals is it useful to use the limiting forms
M
" M
"
1 1
xav = lim x[n] P = lim |x[n]|2 (3.5)
M 2M + 1 M 2M + 1
n=M n=M

Signals with finite energy are called energy signals (or square summable). Signals with finite power are called
power signals. All periodic signals are power signals.

REVIEW PANEL 3.4

Energy and Power in Discrete Signals
" N 1
1 "
Energy: E = |x[n]|2 Power (if periodic with period N ): P = |x[n]|2
n=
N n=0
3.2 Operations on Discrete Signals 41

EXAMPLE 3.1 (Signal Energy and Power)

(a) Find the energy in the signal x[n] = 3(0.5)n , n 0.
This describes a one-sided decaying exponential. Its signal energy is

"
"
" #
" $
9 1
E= x [n] =
2
|3(0.5) | =
n 2
9(0.25) =
n
= 12 J Note: n =
n= n=0 n=0
1 0.25 n=0
1

(b) Consider the periodic signal x[n] = 6 cos(2n/4) whose period is N = 4.

One period of this signal is x1 [n] = {6, 0, 6, 0}. The average value and signal power of x[n] is

1% &
3 3
1" 1" 2
xav = x[n] = 0 P = x [n] = 36 + 36 = 18 W
4 n=0 4 n=0 4

(c) Consider the periodic signal x[n] = 6ej2n/4 whose period is N = 4.

This signal is complex-valued, with |x[n]| = 6. Its signal power is thus

1% &
3
1"
P = |x[n]|2 = 36 + 36 + 36 + 36 = 36 W
4 n=0 4

3.2 Operations on Discrete Signals

Common operations on discrete signals include elementwise addition and multiplication. In analogy with
analog signals, two other useful operations are time shift and folding or time reversal.
Time Shift: The signal y[n] = x[n ] describes a delayed version of x[n] for > 0. In other words, if x[n]
starts at n = N , then its shifted version y[n] = x[n ] starts at n = N + . Thus, the signal y[n] = x[n 2]
is a delayed (shifted right by 2) version of x[n], and the signal g[n] = x[n + 2] is an advanced (shifted left
by 2) version of x[n]. A useful consistency check for sketching shifted signals is based on the fact that if
y[n] = x[n ], a sample of x[n] at the original index n gets relocated to the new index nN based on the
operation n = nN .
Folding: The signal y[n] = x[n] represents a folded version of x[n], a mirror image of the signal x[n] about
the origin n = 0. The signal y[n] = x[n ] may be obtained from x[n] in one of two ways:

(a) x[n] delay (shift right) by x[n ] fold x[n ].

(b) x[n] fold x[n] advance (shift left) by x[n ].

In either case, a sample of x[n] at the original index n will be plotted at a new index nN given by
n = nN , and this can serve as a consistency check in sketches.
42 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

REVIEW PANEL 3.5

Time delay means x[n] x[n M ], M > 0, and folding means x[n] x[n]
You can generate x[n M ] from x[n] in one of two ways:
1. Shift right M units: x[n] x[n M ]. Then fold: x[n M ] x[n M ].
2. Fold: x[n] x[n]. Then shift left M units: x[n] x[(n + M )] = x[n M ].
Check: Use n nN M to confirm new locations nN for the origin n = 0 and end points of x[n].

EXAMPLE 3.2 (Operations on Discrete Signals)

Let x[n] = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Find and sketch the following:
y[n] = x[n 3], f [n] = x[n + 2], g[n] = x[n], h[n] = x[n + 1], s[n] = x[n 2]
Here is how we obtain the various signals:

y[n] = x[n 3] = {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (shift x[n] right 3 units)

f [n] = x[n + 2] = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (shift x[n] left 2 units)

g[n] = x[n] = {7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2} (fold x[n] about n = 0)

h[n] = x[n + 1] = {7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2} (fold x[n], then delay by 1)

s[n] = x[n 2] = {7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2} (fold x[n], then advance by 2)
Refer to Figure E3.2 for the sketches.
x [n] x [n 3] x [n +2] x [n ] x [n +1] x [n 2]
7 7 7 7 7 7

2
2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n
2 3 6 4 1 3 2 2 3 5
Figure E3.2 The signals for Example 3.2

3.2.1 Symmetry
If a signal x[n] is identical to its mirror image x[n], it is called an even symmetric signal. If x[n]
diers from its mirror image x[n] only in sign, it is called an odd symmetric or antisymmetric signal.
Mathematically,
xe [n] = xe [n] xo [n] = xo [n] (3.6)
In either case, the signal extends over symmetric limits N n N . For an odd symmetric signal, xo [0] = 0
and the sum of xo [n] over symmetric limits (, ) equals zero:
M
"
xo [k] = 0 (3.7)
k=M
3.2 Operations on Discrete Signals 43

REVIEW PANEL 3.6

Characteristics of Symmetric Signals
x e [n] x o [n]
n n

Even symmetry: x e [n] = x e [ n ] Odd symmetry: x o [n] = x o [ n ] and x o [0] = 0

3.2.2 Even and Odd Parts of Signals

Even symmetry and odd symmetry are mutually exclusive. Consequently, if a signal x(t) is formed by
summing an even symmetric signal xe [n] and an odd symmetric signal xo [n], it will be devoid of either
symmetry. Turning things around, any signal x[n] may be expressed as the sum of an even symmetric part
xe [n] and an odd symmetric part xo [n]:

x[n] = xe [n] + xo [n] (3.8)

To find xe [n] and xo [n] from x[n], we fold x[n] and invoke symmetry to get

x[n] = xe [n] + xo [n] = xe [n] xo [n] (3.9)

Adding and subtracting the two preceding equations, we obtain

xe [n] = 0.5x[n] + 0.5x[n] xo [n] = 0.5x[n] 0.5x[n] (3.10)

Naturally, if x[n] has even symmetry, xo [n] will equal zero, and if x[n] has odd symmetry, xe [n] will equal
zero.

REVIEW PANEL 3.7

Any Discrete Signal Is the Sum of an Even Symmetric and an Odd Symmetric Part
x[n] = xe [n] + xo [n] where xe [n] = 0.5x[n] + 0.5x[n] and xo [n] = 0.5x[n] 0.5x[n]
How to implement: Graphically, if possible. How to check: Does xe [n] + xo [n] give x[n]?

EXAMPLE 3.3 (Signal Symmetry)

(a) Let x[n] = {4, 2, 4, 6}. Find and sketch its odd and even parts.

We zero-pad the signal to x[n] = {4, 2, 4, 6, 0} so that it covers symmetric limits. Then

0.5x[n] = {2, 1, 2, 3, 0} 0.5x[n] = {0, 3, 2, 1, 2}
Zero-padding, though not essential, allows us to perform elementwise addition or subtraction with ease
to obtain

xe [n] = 0.5x[n] + 0.5x[n] = {2, 4, 4, 4, 2}

xo [n] = 0.5x[n] + 0.5x[n] = {2, 2, 0, 2, 2}

The various !signals are sketched in Figure E3.3A. As a consistency check you should confirm that
xo [0] = 0, xo [n] = 0, and that the sum xe [n] + xo [n] recovers x[n].
44 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

x [n] x e [n] x o [n]

4 4 0.5x [n] 0.5x [n] 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n
2 1 1 2
3 3 2
4 4
6
Figure E3.3A The signal x[n] and its odd and even parts for Example 3.3(a)

(b) Let x[n] = u[n] u[n 5]. Find and sketch its odd and even parts.
The signal x[n] and the genesis of its odd and even parts are shown in Figure E3.3B. Note the value
of xe [n] at n = 0 in the sketch.
x [n] 0.5x [n] 0.5x [n] x e [n] x o [n]
2 2
1 1 1 1
n n n n 4 n
4 4 4 4 4 4
1
Figure E3.3B The signal x[n] and its odd and even parts for Example 3.3(b)

3.3 Decimation and Interpolation

The time scaling of discrete-time signals must be viewed with care. For discrete-time signals, time scaling is
equivalent to decreasing or increasing the signal length. The problems that arise in time scaling are not in
what happens but how it happens.

3.3.1 Decimation
Suppose x[n] corresponds to an analog signal x(t) sampled at intervals ts . The signal y[n] = x[2n] then
corresponds to the compressed signal x(2t) sampled at ts and contains only alternate samples of x[n] (cor-
responding to x[0], x[2], x[4], . . .). We can also obtain y[n] directly from x(t) (not its compressed version)
if we sample it at intervals 2ts (or at a sampling rate S = 1/2ts ). This means a twofold reduction in the
sampling rate. Decimation by a factor of N is equivalent to sampling x(t) at intervals N ts and implies an
N-fold reduction in the sampling rate. The decimated signal x[N n] is generated from x[n] by retaining every
N th sample corresponding to the indices k = N n and discarding all others.

3.3.2 Interpolation
If x[n] corresponds to x(t) sampled at intervals ts , then y[n] = x[n/2] corresponds to x(t) sampled at ts /2
and has twice the length of x[n] with one new sample between adjacent samples of x[n]. If an expression for
x[n] (or the underlying analog signal) were known, it would be no problem to determine these new sample
values. If we are only given the sample values of x[n] (without its analytical form), the best we can do is
interpolate between samples. For example, we may choose each new sample value as zero (zero interpolation),
a constant equal to the previous sample value (step interpolation), or the average of adjacent sample values
(linear interpolation). Zero interpolation is referred to as up-sampling and plays an important role in
practical interpolation schemes. Interpolation by a factor of N is equivalent to sampling x(t) at intervals
ts /N and implies an N-fold increase in both the sampling rate and the signal length.
3.3 Decimation and Interpolation 45

REVIEW PANEL 3.8

How to Decimate or Interpolate by N
Decimate: Keep every N th sample (at n = kN ). This leads to potential loss of information.
Interpolate: Insert N 1 new values after each sample. The new sample values may equal
zero (zero interpolation), or the previous value (step interpolation), or linearly interpolated values.

Some Caveats
Consider the two sets of operations shown below:
x[n] decimate by 2 x[2n] interpolate by 2 x[n]

x[n] interpolate by 2 x[n/2] decimate by 2 x[n]

On the face of it, both sets of operations start with x[n] and appear to recover x[n], suggesting that interpo-
lation and decimation are inverse operations. In fact, only the second sequence of operations (interpolation

followed by decimation) recovers x[n] exactly. To see why, let x[n] = {1, 2, 6, 4, 8}. Using step interpolation,
for example, the two sequences of operations result in
decimate interpolate
{1, 2, 6, 4, 8} {1, 6, 8} {1, 1, 6, 6, 8, 8}
n 2n n n/2
interpolate decimate
{1, 2, 6, 4, 8} {1, 1, 2, 2, 6, 6, 4, 4, 8, 8} {1, 2, 6, 4, 8}
n n/2 n 2n

We see that decimation is indeed the inverse of interpolation, but the converse is not necessarily true.
After all, it is highly unlikely for any interpolation scheme to recover or predict the exact value of the
samples that were discarded during decimation. In situations where both interpolation and decimation are
to be performed in succession, it is therefore best to interpolate first. In practice, of course, interpolation or
decimation should preserve the information content of the original signal, and this imposes constraints on
the rate at which the original samples were acquired.

REVIEW PANEL 3.9

Decimation Is the Inverse of Interpolation but Not the Other Way Around
If a signal x[n] is interpolated by N and then decimated by N , we recover the original signal x[n].
If a signal x[n] is first decimated by N and then interpolated by N , we may not recover x[n].
Remember: If both interpolation and decimation are required, it is better to interpolate first.

EXAMPLE 3.4 (Decimation and Interpolation)

(a) Let x[n] = {1, 2, 5, 1}. Generate x[2n] and various interpolated versions of x[n/3].

To generate y[n] = x[2n], we remove samples at the odd indices to obtain x[2n] = {2, 1}.

The zero-interpolated signal is g[n] = x[ n3 ] = {1, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0}.

The step-interpolated signal is h[n] = x[ n3 ] = {1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 5, 5, 5, 1, 1, 1}.
46 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

The linearly interpolated signal is s[n] = x[ n3 ] = {1, 4 5
3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 1, 1, 23 , 13 }.
In linear interpolation, note that we interpolated the last two values toward zero.

(b) Let x[n] = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Find g[n] = x[2n 1] and the step-interpolated signal h[n] = x[0.5n 1].

In either case, we first find y[n] = x[n 1] = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Then

g[n] = y[2n] = x[2n 1] = {4, 6}.

h[n] = y[ n2 ] = x[0.5n 1] = {3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6}.

(c) Let x[n] = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Find y[n] = x[2n/3] assuming step interpolation where needed.
Since we require both interpolation and decimation, we first interpolate and then decimate to get

After interpolation: g[n] = x[ n3 ] = {3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6}.

After decimation: y[n] = g[2n] = x[ 23 n] = {3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6}.

3.3.3 Fractional Delays

Fractional (typically half-sample) delays are sometimes required in practice and can be implemented using
interpolation and decimation. If we require that interpolation be followed by decimation and integer shifts,
the only sequence of operations that will yield the correct result is interpolation followed by an integer shift
and decimation, as summarized in the following review panel.

REVIEW PANEL 3.10

Fractional Delay of x[n] Requires Interpolation, Shift, and Decimation (in That Order)
The idea is to ensure that each operation (interpolation, shift, and decimation) involves integers.
For x[n] x[n M N ] = x[
N nM
N ]: Interpolate x[n] by N , delay by M , then decimate by N .

EXAMPLE 3.5 (Fractional Delay)

Let x[n] = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find the signal y[n] = x[n 0.5] assuming linear interpolation where needed.
We first interpolate by 2, then delay by 1, and then decimate by 2 to get

After interpolation: g[n] = x[ n2 ] = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 4} (last sample interpolated to zero).

After delay: h[n] = g[n 1] = x[ n1
2 ] = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 4}.

After decimation: y[n] = h[2n] = x[ 2n1
2 ] = x[n 0.5] = { 3, 5, 7, 4}.
3.4 Common Discrete Signals 47

3.4 Common Discrete Signals

The discrete versions of the unit impulse (or sample) [n], unit step u[n], and unit ramp are defined as
' ' '
0, n = 0 0, n < 0 0, n < 0
[n] = u[n] = r[n] = nu[n] = (3.11)
1, n = 0 1, n 0 n, n 0
The discrete impulse is just a unit sample at n = 0. It is completely free of the kind of ambiguities associated
with the analog impulse (t) at t = 0. The discrete unit step u[n] also has a well-defined, unique value of
u[0] = 1 (unlike its analog counterpart u(t)). The signal x[n] = Anu[n] = Ar[n] describes a discrete ramp
whose slope A is given by x[k] x[k 1], the dierence between adjacent sample values.

REVIEW PANEL 3.11

The Discrete Impulse, Step, and Ramp Are Well Defined at n = 0
[n] u [n] r [n]
1 5
1 4
3
12
n n n

3.4.1 Properties of the Discrete Impulse

The product of a signal x[n] with the impulse [n k] results in

x[n][n k] = x[k][n k] (3.12)

This is just an impulse with strength x[k]. The product property leads directly to

"
x[n][n k] = x[k] (3.13)
n=

This is the sifting property. The impulse extracts the value x[k] from x[n] at the impulse location n = k.
The product and sifting properties are analogous to their analog counterparts.

3.4.2 Signal Representation by Impulses

Any discrete signal x[n] may be expressed as a sum of shifted impulses [nk] whose strengths x[k] correspond
to the signal values at n = k. Thus,
"
x[n] = x[k][n k] (3.14)
k=

For example, the signals u[n] and r[n] may be expressed as a train of shifted impulses:

"
"
u[n] = [n k] r[n] = k[n k] (3.15)
k=0 k=0

The signal u[n] may also be expressed as the cumulative sum of [n], and the signal r[n] may be described
as the cumulative sum of u[n]:
n
" n
"
u[n] = [k] r[n] = u[k] (3.16)
k= k=
48 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

3.4.3 Discrete Pulse Signals

The discrete versions of the rectangular pulse rect(n/2N ) and triangular pulse tri(n/N ) are given by
% n & ' 1, |n| N %n& '
1 |n|
N , |n| N
rect = tri = (3.17)
2N 0, elsewhere N 0, elsewhere
The signal rect( 2N
n
) has 2N + 1 unit samples over N n N . The factor 2N in rect( 2N n
) gets around
the problem of having to deal with half-integer values of n when N is odd. The signal x[n] = tri(n/N ) also
has 2N + 1 samples over N n N , with the end samples x[N ] and x[N ] being zero.

REVIEW PANEL 3.12

The Discrete rect and tri Functions
(N = 5) rect [n /2N ] (N = 5) tri [n /N ]
1 1

n n
-N N -N N

EXAMPLE 3.6 (Describing Sequences and Signals) !

(a) Let x[n] = (2)n and y[n] = [n 3]. Find z[n] = x[n]y[n] and evaluate the sum A = z[n].

The product, z[n] = x[n]y[n] = (2)3 [n 3] = 8[n 3], is an impulse.

! ! n
The sum, A = z[n], is given by (2) [n 3] = (2)3 = 8.

(b) Mathematically describe the signals of Figure E3.6B in at least two dierent ways.
x [n] y [n] h [n]
4 6 6
3 4 4 4
2 2 2
n 2 n n
1
1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 3 2 1 1 2 3
1
Figure E3.6B The signals for Example 3.6(b)

1. The signal x[n] may be described as the sequence x[n] = {4, 2, 1, 3}.
It may also be written as x[n] = 4[n + 1] + 2[n] [n 1] + 3[n 2].
2. The signal y[n] may be represented variously as
A numeric sequence: y[n] = {0, 0, 2, 4, 6, 6, 6}.
A sum of shifted impulses: y[n] = 2[n 2] + 4[n 3] + 6[n 4] + 6[n 5] + 6[n 6].
A sum of steps and ramps: y[n] = 2r[n 1] 2r[n 4] 6u[n 7].
Note carefully that the argument of the step function is [n 7] (and not [n 6]).
3. The signal h[n] may be described as h[n] = 6 tri(n/3) or variously as

A numeric sequence: h[n] = {0, 2, 4, 6, 4, 2, 0}.
A sum of impulses: h[n] = 2[n + 2] + 4[n + 1] + 6[n] + 4[n 1] + 2[n 2].
A sum of steps and ramps: h[n] = 2r[n + 3] 4r[n] + 2r[n 3].
3.5 Discrete-Time Harmonics and Sinusoids 49

3.4.4 The Discrete Sinc Function

The discrete sinc function is defined by
% n & sin(n/N )
sinc = , sinc(0) = 1 (3.18)
N (n/N )

The signal sinc(n/N ) equals zero at n = kN , k = 1, 2, . . .. At n = 0, sinc(0) = 0/0 and cannot be

evaluated in the limit since n can take on only integer values. We therefore define sinc(0) = 1. The envelope
of the sinc function shows a mainlobe and gradually decaying sidelobes. The definition of sinc(n/N ) also
implies that sinc(n) = [n].

3.4.5 Discrete Exponentials

Discrete exponentials are often described using a rational base. For example, the signal x[n] = 2n u[n] shows
exponential growth while y[n] = (0.5)n u[n] is a decaying exponential. The signal f [n] = (0.5)n u[n] shows
values that alternate in sign. The exponential x[n] = n u[n], where = rej is complex, may be described
using the various formulations of a complex number as
( )n
x[n] = n u[n] = rej u[n] = rn ejn u[n] = rn [cos(n) + j sin(n)]u[n] (3.19)

This complex-valued signal requires two separate plots (the real and imaginary parts, for example) for a
graphical description. If 0 < r < 1, x[n] describes a signal whose real and imaginary parts are exponentially
decaying cosines and sines. If r = 1, the real and imaginary parts are pure cosines and sines with a peak
value of unity. If r > 1, we obtain exponentially growing sinusoids.

3.5 Discrete-Time Harmonics and Sinusoids

If we sample an analog sinusoid x(t) = cos(2f0 t) at intervals of ts corresponding to a sampling rate of
S = 1/ts samples/s (or S Hz), we obtain the sampled sinusoid

x[n] = cos(2f nts + ) = cos(2n Sf + ) = cos(2nF + ) (3.20)

The quantities f and = 2f describe analog frequencies. The normalized frequency F = f /S is called the
digital frequency and has units of cycles/sample. The frequency = 2F is the digital radian frequency
with units of radians/sample. The various analog and digital frequencies are compared in Figure 3.1. Note
that the analog frequency f = S (or = 2S) corresponds to the digital frequency F = 1 (or = 2).

REVIEW PANEL 3.13

The Digital Frequency Is the Analog Frequency Normalized by Sampling Rate S
f (cycles/sec) (radians/sec)
F (cycles/sample) = (radians/sample) = = 2F
S(samples/sec) S(samples/sec)

3.5.1 Discrete-Time Sinusoids Are Not Always Periodic in Time

An analog sinusoid x(t) = cos(2f t + ) has two remarkable properties. It is unique for every frequency.
And it is periodic in time for every choice of the frequency f . Its sampled version, however, is a beast of a
dierent kind.
50 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

Connection between analog and digital frequencies

f (Hz) Analog frequency

S 0.5 S 0 0.5S S
F (F = f/S ) Digital frequency
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
= 2 f Analog frequency
2S S 0 S 2S
= 2 F Digital frequency
2 0 2

Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital frequencies

Are all discrete-time sinusoids and harmonics periodic in time? Not always! To understand this idea,
suppose x[n] is periodic with period N such that x[n] = x[n + N ]. This leads to
cos(2nF + ) = cos[2(n + N )F + ] = cos(2nF + + 2NF ) (3.21)
The two sides are equal provided NF equals an integer k. In other words, F must be a rational fraction (ratio
of integers) of the form k/N . What we are really saying is that a DT sinusoid is not always periodic but only
if its digital frequency is a ratio of integers or a rational fraction. The period N equals the denominator of
k/N , provided common factors have been canceled from its numerator and denominator. The significance
of k is that it takes k full periods of the analog sinusoid to yield one full period of the sampled sinusoid. The
common period of a combination of periodic DT sinusoids equals the least common multiple (LCM) of their
individual periods. If F is not a rational fraction, there is no periodicity, and the DT sinusoid is classified as
nonperiodic or almost periodic. Examples of periodic and nonperiodic DT sinusoids appear in Figure 3.2.
Even though a DT sinusoid may not always be periodic, it will always have a periodic envelope.

(a) cos(0.125n) is periodic. Period N=16 (b) cos(0.5n) is not periodic. Check peaks or zeros.
1 Envelope 1 Envelope
0.5 is periodic 0.5 is periodic
Amplitude

Amplitude

0 0

0.5 0.5

1 1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
DT Index n DT Index n

Figure 3.2 Discrete-time sinusoids are not always periodic

REVIEW PANEL 3.14

A DT Harmonic cos(2nF0 + ) or ej(2nF0 +) Is Not Always Periodic in Time
It is periodic only if its digital frequency F0 = k/N can be expressed as a ratio of integers.
Its period equals N if common factors have been canceled in k/N .
One period of the sampled sinusoid is obtained from k full periods of the analog sinusoid.
3.5 Discrete-Time Harmonics and Sinusoids 51

EXAMPLE 3.7 (Discrete-Time Harmonics and Periodicity)

(a) Is x[n] = cos(2F n) periodic if F = 0.32? If F = 3? If periodic, what is its period N ?

If F = 0.32, x[n] is periodic because F = 0.32 = 100

32
= 258
=N k
. The period is N = 25.

If F = 3, x[n] is not periodic because F is irrational and cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers.

(b) What is the period of the harmonic signal x[n] = ej0.2n + ej0.3n ?
The digital frequencies in x[n] are F1 = 0.1 = 1
10 = k1
N1 and F2 = 0.15 = 3
20 = N2 .
k2

Their periods are N1 = 10 and N2 = 20.

The common period is thus N = LCM(N1 , N2 ) = LCM(10, 20) = 20.

(c) The signal x(t) = 2 cos(40t) + sin(60t) is sampled at 75 Hz. What is the common period of the
sampled signal x[n], and how many full periods of x(t) does it take to obtain one period of x[n]?
The frequencies in x(t) are f1 = 20 Hz and f2 = 30 Hz. The digital frequencies of the individual
components are F1 = 2075 = 15 = N1 and F2 = 75 = 5 = N2 . Their periods are N1 = 15 and N2 = 5.
4 k1 30 2 k2

The common period is thus N = LCM(N1 , N2 ) = LCM(15, 5) = 15.

The fundamental frequency of x(t) is f0 = GCD(20, 30) = 10 Hz. One period of x(t) is T = f10 = 0.1 s.
Since N = 15 corresponds to a duration of N ts = NS = 0.2 s, it takes two full periods of x(t) to obtain
one period of x[n]. We also get the same result by computing GCD(k1 , k2 ) = GCD(4, 2) = 2.

3.5.2 Discrete-Time Sinusoids Are Always Periodic in Frequency

Unlike analog sinusoids, discrete-time sinusoids and harmonics are always periodic in frequency. If we start
with the sinusoid x[n] = cos(2nF + ) and add an integer m to F , we get

cos[2n(F + m) + ] = cos(2nF + + 2nm) = cos(2nF + ) = x[n]

This result says that discrete-time (DT) sinusoids at the frequencies F m are identical. Put another
way, a DT sinusoid is periodic in frequency (has a periodic spectrum) with period F = 1. The range
0.5 F 0.5 defines the principal period or principal range. A DT sinusoid with a frequency outside
this range can always be expressed as a DT sinusoid whose frequency is in the principal period by subtracting
out an integer. A DT sinusoid can be uniquely identified only if its frequency falls in the principal period.
To summarize, a discrete-time sinusoid is periodic in time only if its digital frequency F is a rational
fraction, but it is always periodic in frequency with period F = 1.

REVIEW PANEL 3.15

A DT Harmonic cos(2nF0 + ) Is Always Periodic in Frequency but Not Always Unique
Its frequency period is unity (harmonics at F0 and F0 M are identical for integer M ).
It is unique only if F0 lies in the principal period 0.5 < F0 0.5.
If F0 > 0.5, the unique frequency is Fa = F0 M , where M is chosen to ensure 0.5 < Fa 0.5.
52 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

3.6 Aliasing and the Sampling Theorem

The central concept in the digital processing of analog signals is that the sampled signal must be a unique
representation of the analog signal. For a sinusoid x(t) = cos(2f0 t + ), a sampling rate S > 2f0 ensures
that the digital frequency of the sampled signal falls in the principal period 0.5 F 0.5 and permits
a unique correspondence with the underlying analog signal. More generally, the sampling theorem says
that for a unique correspondence between an analog signal and the version reconstructed from its samples
(using the same sampling rate), the sampling rate must exceed twice the highest signal frequency fmax .
The critical rate S = 2fmax is called the Nyquist rate or Nyquist frequency, and ts = 2fmax 1
is called
the Nyquist interval. For the sinusoid x(t) = cos(2f0 t + ), the Nyquist rate is SN = 2f0 = T2 and
corresponds to taking two samples per period (because the sampling interval is ts = T2 ).

REVIEW PANEL 3.16

The Sampling Theorem: How to Sample an Analog Signal Without Loss of Information
For an analog signal band-limited to fmax Hz, the sampling rate S must exceed 2fmax .
S = 2fmax defines the Nyquist rate. ts = 2fmax 1
defines the Nyquist interval.
For an analog sinusoid: The Nyquist rate corresponds to taking two samples per period.

Consider an analog signal x(t) = cos(2f0 t + ) and its sampled version x[n] = cos(2nF0 + ), where
F0 = f0 /S. If x[n] is to be a unique representation of x(t), we must be able to reconstruct x(t) from x[n].
In practice, reconstruction uses only the copy or image of the periodic spectrum of x[n] in the principal
period 0.5 F 0.5, which corresponds to the analog frequency range 0.5S f 0.5S. We use a
lowpass filter to remove all other replicas or images, and the output of the lowpass filter corresponds to the
reconstructed analog signal. As a result, the highest frequency fH we can identify in the signal reconstructed
from its samples is fH = 0.5S.

REVIEW PANEL 3.17

The Highest Frequency Cannot Exceed Half the Sampling or Reconstruction Rate
Upon sampling or reconstruction, all frequencies must be brought into the principal period.

Whether the frequency of the reconstructed analog signal matches x(t) or not depends on the sampling
rate S. If S > 2f0 , the digital frequency F0 = f0 /S is always in the principal range 0.5 F 0.5, and the
reconstructed analog signal is identical to x(t). If S < 2f0 , the digital frequency exceeds 0.5. Its image in
the principal range appears at the lower digital frequency Fa = F0 M (corresponding to the lower analog
frequency fa = f0 MS), where M is an integer that places the digital frequency Fa between 0.5 and 0.5 (or
the analog frequency fa between 0.5S and 0.5S). The reconstructed analog signal xa (t) = cos(2fa t + )
is at a lower frequency fa = SFa than f0 and is no longer a replica of x(t). This phenomenon, where a
reconstructed sinusoid appears at a lower frequency than the original, is called aliasing. The real problem
is that the original signal x(t) and the aliased signal xa (t) yield identical sampled representations at the
sampling frequency S and prevent unique identification of x(t) from its samples!

REVIEW PANEL 3.18

Aliasing Occurs if the Analog Signal cos(2f0 t + ) Is Sampled Below the Nyquist Rate
If S < 2f0 , the reconstructed analog signal is aliased to a lower frequency |fa | < 0.5S. We find fa as
fa = f0 MS, where M is an integer that places fa in the principal period (0.5S < fa 0.5S).
3.6 Aliasing and the Sampling Theorem 53

EXAMPLE 3.8 (Aliasing and Its Eects)

(a) A 100-Hz sinusoid x(t) is sampled at 240 Hz. Has aliasing occurred? How many full periods of x(t)
are required to obtain one period of the sampled signal?
The sampling rate exceeds 200 Hz, so there is no aliasing. The digital frequency is F = 100
240 = 12 .
5

Thus, five periods of x(t) yield 12 samples (one period) of the sampled signal.

(b) A 100-Hz sinusoid is sampled at rates of 240 Hz, 140 Hz, 90 Hz, and 35 Hz. In each case, has aliasing
occurred, and if so, what is the aliased frequency?
To avoid aliasing, the sampling rate must exceed 200 Hz. If S = 240 Hz, there is no aliasing, and
the reconstructed signal (from its samples) appears at the original frequency of 100 Hz. For all other
choices of S, the sampling rate is too low and leads to aliasing. The aliased signal shows up at a lower
frequency. The aliased frequencies corresponding to each sampling rate S are found by subtracting out
multiples of S from 100 Hz to place the result in the range 0.5S f 0.5S. If the original signal
has the form x(t) = cos(200t + ), we obtain the following aliased frequencies and aliased signals:
1. S = 140 Hz, fa = 100 140 = 40 Hz, xa (t) = cos(80t + ) = cos(80t )
2. S = 90 Hz, fa = 100 90 = 10 Hz, xa (t) = cos(20t + )
3. S = 35 Hz, fa = 100 3(35) = 5 Hz, xa (t) = cos(10t + ) = cos(10t )

We thus obtain a 40-Hz sinusoid (with reversed phase), a 10-Hz sinusoid, and a 5-Hz sinusoid (with
reversed phase), respectively. Notice that negative aliased frequencies simply lead to a phase reversal
and do not represent any new information. Finally, had we used a sampling rate exceeding the Nyquist
rate of 200 Hz, we would have recovered the original 100-Hz signal every time. Yes, it pays to play by
the rules of the sampling theorem!

(c) Two analog sinusoids x1 (t) (shown light) and x2 (t) (shown dark) lead to an identical sampled version as
illustrated in Figure E3.8C. Has aliasing occurred? Identify the original and aliased signal. Identify the
digital frequency of the sampled signal corresponding to each sinusoid. What is the analog frequency
of each sinusoid if S = 50 Hz? Can you provide exact expressions for each sinusoid?

Two analog signals and their sampled version

1

0.5
Amplitude

0.5

1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time t [seconds]
Figure E3.8C The sinusoids for Example 3.8(c)

Look at the interval (0, 0.1) s. The sampled signal shows five samples per period. This covers three
full periods of x1 (t) and so F1 = 35 . This also covers two full periods of x2 (t), and so F2 = 25 . Clearly,
x1 (t) (with |F1 | > 0.5) is the original signal that is aliased to x2 (t). The sampling interval is 0.02 s.
54 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

So, the sampling rate is S = 50 Hz. The original and aliased frequencies are f1 = SF1 = 30 Hz and
f2 = SF2 = 20 Hz.
From the figure, we can identify exact expressions for x1 (t) and x2 (t) as follows. Since x1 (t) is a delayed
cosine with x1 (0) = 0.5, we have x1 (t) = cos(60t 3 ). With S = 50 Hz, the frequency f1 = 30 Hz
actually aliases to f2 = 20 Hz, and thus x2 (t) = cos(40t 3 ) = cos(40t + 3 ). With F = 30 50 = 0.6
(or F = 0.4), the expression for the sampled signal is x[n] = cos(2nF 3 ).

(d) A 100-Hz sinusoid is sampled, and the reconstructed signal (from its samples) shows up at 10 Hz.
What was the sampling rate S?
If you said 90 Hz (100 S = 10), you are not wrong. But you could also have said 110 Hz (100 S =
10). In fact, we can also subtract out integer multiples of S from 100 Hz, and S is then found from
the following expressions (as long as we ensure that S > 20 Hz):
1. 100 MS = 10
2. 100 MS = 10
Solving the first expression for S, we find, for example, S = 45 Hz (with M = 2) or S = 30 Hz (with
M = 3). Similarly, the second expression gives S = 55 Hz (with M = 2). Which of these sampling
rates was actually used? We have no way of knowing!

3.6.1 Reconstruction Using a Dierent Sampling Rate

There are situations when we sample a signal using one sampling rate S1 but reconstruct the analog signal
from samples using a dierent sampling rate S2 . In such situations, a frequency f0 in the original signal will
result in a recovered frequency of fr = f0 (S2 /S1 ) if S1 > 2f0 (no aliasing) or fr = fa (S2 /S1 ) if S1 < 2f0 ,
where fa is the aliased frequency. In other words, all frequencies, aliased or recovered, are identified by their
principal period.

REVIEW PANEL 3.19

Aliased or Reconstructed Frequencies Are Always Identified by Their Principal Period
Sampling: Unique digital frequencies always lie in the principal period 0.5 < Fa 0.5.
Reconstruction at SR : Analog frequencies lie in the principal period 0.5SR < fa 0.5SR .
The reconstructed frequency is fR = SR Fa = SR fSa .

EXAMPLE 3.9 (Signal Reconstruction at Dierent Sampling Rates)

A 100-Hz sinusoid is sampled at S Hz, and the sampled signal is then reconstructed at 540 Hz. What is the
frequency of the reconstructed signal if S = 270 Hz? If S = 70 Hz?
1. If S = 270 Hz, the digital frequency of the sampled signal is F = 100
270 = 27 , which lies in the principal
10

period. The frequency fr of the reconstructed signal is then fr = SF = 540F = 200 Hz.
2. If S = 70 Hz, the digital frequency of the sampled signal is F = 100
70 = 7 , which does not lie in the
10

principal period. The frequency of the principal period is F = 7 1 = 37 , and the frequency fr of
10

reconstructed signal is then fr = 70F = SF = 30 Hz. The negative sign simply translates to a phase
reversal in the reconstructed signal.
3.7 Random Signals 55

3.7 Random Signals

The signals we have studied so far are called deterministic or predictable. They are governed by a unique
mathematical representation that, once established, allows us to completely characterize the signal for all
time, past, present, or future. In contrast to this is the class of signals known as random or stochastic
whose precise value cannot be predicted in advance. We stress that only the future values of a random signal
pose a problem since past values of any signal, random or otherwise, are exactly known once they have
occurred. Randomness or uncertainty about future signal values is inherent in many practical situations. In
fact, a degree of uncertainty is essential for communicating information. The longer we observe a random
signal, the more the additional information we gain and the less the uncertainty. To fully understand the
nature of random signals requires the use of probability theory, random variables, and statistics. Even with
such tools, the best we can do is to characterize random signals only on the average based on their past
behavior.

3.7.1 Probability
Figure 3.3 shows the results of two experiments, each repeated under identical conditions. The first exper-
iment always yields identical results no matter how many times it is run and yields a deterministic signal.
We need to run the experiment only once to predict what the next, or any other run, will yield.

(a) Four realizations of a deterministic signal (b) Four realizations of a random signal
Amplitude

Amplitude

Time Time

Figure 3.3 Realizations of a deterministic and stochastic process

The second experiment gives a dierent result or realization x(t) every time the experiment is repeated
and describes a stochastic or random system. A random signal or random process X(t) comprises
the family or ensemble of all such realizations obtained by repeating the experiment many times. Each
realization x(t), once obtained, ceases to be random and can be subjected to the same operations as we use
for deterministic signals (such as derivatives, integrals, and the like). The randomness of the signal stems
from the fact that one realization provides no clue as to what the next, or any other, realization might yield.
At a given instant t, each realization of a random signal can assume a dierent value, and the collection of
all such values defines a random variable. Some values are more likely to occur, or more probable, than
others. The concept of probability is tied to the idea of repeating an experiment a large number of times
in order to estimate this probability. Thus, if the value 2 V occurs 600 times in 1000 runs, we say that the
probability of occurrence of 2 V is 0.6.
The probability of an event A, denoted Pr(A), is the proportion of successful outcomes to the (very
large) number of times the experiment is run and is a fraction between 0 and 1 since the number of successful
56 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

runs cannot exceed the total number of runs. The larger the probability Pr(A), the more the chance of event
A occurring. To fully characterize a random variable, we must answer two questions:
1. What is the range of all possible (nonrandom) values it can acquire? This defines an ensemble space,
which may be finite or infinite.
2. What are the probabilities for all the possible values in this range? This defines the probability
distribution function F (x). Clearly, F (x) must always lie between 0 and 1.
It is common to work with the derivative of the probability distribution function called the probability
density function f (x). The distribution function F (x) is simply the running integral of the density f (x):
* x
d F (x)
f (x) = or F (x) = f () d (3.22)
dx

The probability F (x1 ) = Pr[X x1 ] that X is less than x1 is given by

* x1
Pr[X x1 ] = f (x) dx (3.23)

The probability that X lies between x1 and x2 is Pr[x1 < X x2 ] = F (x2 ) F (x1 ). The area of f (x) is 1.

3.7.2 Measures for Random Variables

Measures or features of a random variable X are based on its distribution. Two commonly used features are
the mean and variance, defined by
* *

E(x) = mx = xf (x) dx
x2 = E[(x mx )2 ] = (x mx )2 f (x) dx (3.24)

The mean, or expectation, is a measure of where the distribution is centered. The variance measures the
spread of the distribution about its mean. The less the spread, the smaller is the variance. The variance
is also a measure of the ac power in a signal. The quantity is known as the standard deviation and
provides a measure of the uncertainty in a physical measurement.

3.7.3 Probability Distributions

Two of the most commonly encountered probability distributions are the uniform distribution and normal
(or Gaussian) distribution. These are illustrated in Figure 3.4.

Uniform density Uniform distribution Gaussian density Gaussian distribution

f(x) 1 F(x) f(x) F(x)
1

1 0.5
x x x x
mx mx

Figure 3.4 The uniform and normal probability distributions

In a uniform distribution, every value is equally likely, since the random variable shows no preference for
a particular value. The density function f (x) is just a rectangular pulse defined by

1
, x
f (x) = (uniform distribution) (3.25)
0, otherwise
3.7 Random Signals 57

and the distribution F (x) is a ramp that flattens out. When quantizing signals in uniform steps, the error
in representing a signal value is assumed to be uniformly distributed between 0.5 and 0.5, where is
the quantization step. The density function of the phase of a sinusoid with random phase is also uniformly
distributed between and .
The bell-shaped Gaussian probability density is also referred to as normal and defined by
. /
1 (x mx )2
f (x) = exp (normal distribution) (3.26)
2 2 2
The mean (or variance) of the sum of Gaussian distributions equals the sum of the individual means (or
variances). The probability distribution of combinations of statistically independent, random phenomena
often tends to a Gaussian. This is the central limit theorem.
The idea of distributions also applies to deterministic periodic signals for which they can be found as
exact analytical expressions. Consider the periodic signal x(t) of Figure 3.5. The probability Pr[X < 0] that
x(t) < 0 is zero. The probability Pr[X < 3] that x(t) is less than 3 is 1. Since x(t) is linear over one period
(T = 3), all values in this range are equally likely, and F (x) must vary linearly from 0 to 1 over this range.
This yields the distribution F (x) and density f (x) as shown. Note that the area of f (x) equals unity.

Periodic signal Distribution Density

x(t) F(x) f(x)
3
1
1/3
t x x
T=3 3 3
Figure 3.5 A periodic signal and its density and distribution functions

3.7.4 Stationary, Ergodic, and Pseudorandom Signals

A random signal is called stationary if its statistical features do not change over time. Stationarity suggests
a state of statistical equilibrium akin to the steady-state for deterministic situations. A stationary process is
typically characterized by a constant mean and constant variance. The statistical properties of a stationary
random signal may be found as ensemble averages across the process by averaging over all realizations at
one specific time instant or as time averages along the process by averaging a single realization over time.
The two are not always equal. If they are, a stationary process is said to be ergodic. The biggest advantage
of ergodicity is that we can use features from one realization to describe the whole process. Ergodicity is
assumed in most practical situations! For an ergodic signal, the mean equals the time average, and the
variance equals the ac power (the power in the signal with its dc component removed).

3.7.5 Statistical Estimates

Probability theory allows us to fully characterize a random signal from an a priori knowledge of its probability
distribution. This yields features like the mean and variance of the random variable. In practice, we are
faced with exactly the opposite problem of finding such features from a set of discrete data, often in the
absence of a probability distribution. The best we can do is get an estimate of such features and perhaps
even the distribution itself. This is what statistical estimation achieves. The mean and variance are typically
estimated directly from the observations xk , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 as
N 1 N 1
1 " 1 "
mx = xk x2 = (xk mx )2 (3.27)
N N 1
k=0 k=0
58 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

In many situations, we use artificially generated signals (which can never be truly random) with prescribed
statistical features called pseudorandom signals. Such signals are actually periodic (with a very long
period), but over one period their statistical features approximate those of random signals.
Histograms: The estimates fk of a probability distribution are obtained by constructing a histogram from
a large number of observations. A histogram is a bar graph of the number of observations falling within
specified amplitude levels, or bins, as illustrated in Figure 3.6.

Number of observations
Number of observations

Bin width Bin width

Histogram of a uniform random signal Histogram of a Gaussian random signal

Figure 3.6 Histograms of a uniformly distributed and a normally distributed random signal

Signal-to-Noise Ratio: For a noisy signal x(t) = s(t) + An(t) with a signal component s(t) and a noise
component An(t) (with noise amplitude A), the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal power
s2 and noise power A2 n2 and usually defined in decibels (dB) as
# 2 $
s
SNR = 10 log dB (3.28)
A2 n2

3.7.6 Application: Coherent Signal Averaging

Coherent signal averaging is a method of extracting signals from noise and assumes that the experiment can
be repeated and the noise corrupting the signal is random (and uncorrelated). Averaging the results of many
runs tends to average out the noise to zero, and the signal quality (or signal-to-noise ratio) improves. The
more the number of runs, the smoother and less noisy the averaged signal. We often remove the mean or any
linear trend before averaging. Figure 3.7 shows one realization of a noisy sine wave and the much smoother
results of averaging 8 and 48 such realizations. This method is called coherent because it requires time
coherence (time alignment of the signal for each run). It relies, for its success, on perfect synchronization of
each run and on the statistical independence of the contaminating noise.

(a) One realization of noisy sine (b) Average of 8 realizations (c) Average of 48 realizations

5 5 5
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude

0 0 0

5 5 5

0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
Time Time Time

Figure 3.7 Coherent averaging of a noisy sine wave

Chapter 3 Problems 59

CHAPTER 3 PROBLEMS
DRILL AND REINFORCEMENT
3.1 (Discrete Signals) Sketch each signal and find its energy or power as appropriate.

(a) x[n] = {6, 4, 2, 2} (b) x[n] = {3, 2, 1, 0, 1}

(c) x[n] = {0, 2, 4, 6} (d) x[n] = u[n] u[n 4]
(e) x[n] = cos(n/2) (f ) x[n] = 8(0.5)n u[n]

3.2 (Operations) Let x[n] = {6, 4, 2, 2}. Sketch the following signals and find their signal energy.

(a) y[n] = x[n 2] (b) f [n] = x[n + 2] (c) g[n] = x[n + 2] (d) h[n] = x[n 2]
3.3 (Operations) Let x[n] = 8(0.5)n (u[n + 1] u[n 4]). Sketch the following signals.

(a) y[n] = x[n 3] (b) f [n] = x[n + 1] (c) g[n] = x[n + 4] (d) h[n] = x[n 2]

3.4 (Decimation and Interpolation) Let x[n] = {4, 0, 2, 1, 3}. Find and sketch the following
signals and compare their signal energy with the energy in x[n].
(a) The decimated signal d[n] = x[2n]
(b) The zero-interpolated signal f [n] = x[ n2 ]
(c) The step-interpolated signal g[n] = x[ n2 ]
(d) The linearly interpolated signal h[n] = x[ n2 ]

3.5 (Symmetry) Sketch each signal and its even and odd parts.
(a) x[n] = 8(0.5)n u[n] (b) x[n] = u[n] (c) x[n] = 1 + u[n]

(d) x[n] = u[n] u[n 4] (e) x[n] = tri( n3
3 ) (f ) x[n] = {6, 4, 2, 2}
3.6 (Sketching Discrete Signals) Sketch each of the following signals:
(a) x[n] = r[n + 2] r[n 2] 4u[n 6] (b) x[n] = rect( n6 )
(c) x[n] = rect( n2
4 ) (d) x[n] = 6 tri( n4
3 )

3.7 (Signal Description) For each signal shown in Figure P3.7,

(a) Write out the numeric sequence, and mark the index n = 0 by an arrow.
(b) Write an expression for each signal using impulse functions.
(c) Write an expression for each signal using steps and/or ramps.
(d) Find the signal energy.
(e) Find the signal power, assuming that the sequence shown repeats itself.

x [n] Signal 1 x [n] Signal 2 x [n] Signal 3 x [n] Signal 4

2 4 6 5
4 5 4
1 3 3
3 3 n 2
1 2
n n n
3 8 2 5 4 8
Figure P3.7 Signals for Problem 3.7
60 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

3.8 (Discrete-Time Harmonics) Check for the periodicity of the following signals, and compute the
common period N if periodic.
(a) x[n] = cos( n2 ) (b) x[n] = cos( n2 )
(c) x[n] = sin( n
4 ) 2 cos( 6 )
n
(d) x[n] = 2 cos( n4 ) + cos ( 4 )
2 n

(e) x[n] = 4 3 sin( 7n

4 ) (f ) x[n] = cos( 5n
12 ) + cos( 9 )
4n

(g) x[n] = cos( 38 n) + cos( 83 n) (h) x[n] = cos( 3 ) cos( 2 )

8n n

(i) x[n] = ej0.3n (j) x[n] = 2ej0.3n + 3ej0.4n

(k) x[n] = ej0.3n (l) x[n] = (j)n/2

3.9 (Digital Frequency) Set up an expression for each signal, using a digital frequency |F | < 0.5, and
another expression using a digital frequency in the range 4 < F < 5.

(a) x[n] = cos( 4n

3 ) (b) x[n] = sin( 4n
3 ) + 3 sin( 3 )
8n

3.10 (Sampling and Aliasing) Each of the following sinusoids is sampled at S = 100 Hz. Determine if
aliasing has occurred and set up an expression for each sampled signal using a digital frequency in the
principal range (|F | < 0.5).
(a) x(t) = cos(320t + 4 ) (b) x(t) = cos(140t 4 ) (c) x(t) = sin(60t)

REVIEW AND EXPLORATION

3.11 (Signal Duration) Use examples to argue that the product of a right-sided and a left-sided discrete-
time signal is always time-limited or identically zero.

3.12 (Signal Representation) The two signals shown in Figure P3.12 may be expressed as
(a) x[n] = An (u[n] u[n N ]) (b) y[n] = A cos(2F n + )

Find the constants in each expression and then find the signal energy or power as appropriate.
x [n] y [n] 2 2
4 1 1 1
1 1
n
1
n 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 2 2
Figure P3.12 Signals for Problem 3.12

3.13 (Energy and Power) Classify the following as energy signals, power signals, or neither and find the
energy or power as appropriate.
(a) x[n] = 2n u[n] (b) x[n] = 2n u[n 1] (c) x[n] = cos(n)
1 1
(d) x[n] = cos(n/2) (e) x[n] = u[n 1] (f ) x[n] = u[n 1]
n n
1
(g) x[n] = u[n 1] (h) x[n] = ejn (i) x[n] = ejn/2
n2
(j) x[n] = e(j+1)n/4
(k) x[n] = j n/4 (l) x[n] = ( j)n + ( j)n

3.14 (Energy and Power) Sketch each of the following signals, classify as an energy signal or power
signal, and find the energy or power as appropriate.
Chapter 3 Problems 61

"
(a) x[n] = y[n kN ], where y[n] = u[n] u[n 3] and N = 6
k=

"
(b) x[n] = (2)n5k (u[n 5k] u[n 5k 4])
k=

3.15 (Sketching Signals) Sketch the following signals and describe how they are related.

(a) x[n] = [n] (b) f [n] = rect(n) (c) g[n] = tri(n) (d) h[n] = sinc(n)

3.16 (Discrete Exponentials) A causal discrete exponential has the form x[n] = n u[n].
(a) Assume that is real and positive. Pick convenient values for > 1, = 1, and < 1; sketch
x[n]; and describe the nature of the sketch for each choice of .
(b) Assume that is real and negative. Pick convenient values for < 1, = 1, and > 1;
sketch x[n]; and describe the nature of the sketch for each choice of .
(c) Assume that is complex and of the form = Aej , where A is a positive constant. Pick
convenient values for and for A < 1, A = 1, and A > 1; sketch the real part and imaginary
part of x[n] for each choice of A; and describe the nature of each sketch.
(d) Assume that is complex and of the form = Aej , where A is a positive constant. Pick
convenient values for and for A < 1, A = 1, and A > 1; sketch the magnitude and imaginary
phase of x[n] for each choice of A; and describe the nature of each sketch.

3.17 (Interpolation and Decimation) Let x[n] = 4 tri(n/4). Sketch the following signals and describe
how they dier.
(a) x[ 23 n], using zero interpolation followed by decimation
(b) x[ 23 n], using step interpolation followed by decimation
(c) x[ 23 n], using decimation followed by zero interpolation
(d) x[ 23 n], using decimation followed by step interpolation

3.18 (Fractional Delay) Starting with x[n], we can generate the signal x[n 2] (using a delay of 2) or
x[2n 3] (using a delay of 3 followed by decimation). However, to generate a fractional delay of the
form x[n MN ] requires a delay, interpolation, and decimation!
(a) Describe the sequence of operations required to generate x[n 23 ] from x[n].

(b) Let x[n] = {1, 4, 7, 10, 13}. Sketch x[n] and x[n 23 ]. Use linear interpolation where required.
(c) Generalize the results of part (a) to generate x[n M
N ] from x[n]. Any restrictions on M and N ?

3.19 (The Roots of Unity) The N roots of the equation z N = 1 can be found by writing it as z N = ej2k
to give z = ej2k/N , k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. What is the magnitude of each root? The roots can be
displayed as vectors directed from the origin whose tips lie on a circle.
(a) What is the length of each vector and the angular spacing between adjacent vectors? Sketch for
N = 5 and N = 6.
(b) Extend this concept to find the roots of z N = 1 and sketch for N = 5 and N = 6.

3.20 (Digital Sinusoids) Find the period N of each signal if periodic. Express each signal using a digital
frequency in the principal range (|F | < 0.5) and in the range 3 F 4.

(a) x[n] = cos( 7n

3 ) (b) x[n] = cos( 7n
3 ) + sin(0.5n) (c) x[n] = cos(n)
62 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

3.21 (Aliasing and Signal Reconstruction) The signal x(t) = cos(320t + 4 ) is sampled at 100 Hz,
and the sampled signal x[n] is reconstructed at 200 Hz to recover the analog signal xr (t).
(a) Has aliasing occurred? What is the period N and the digital frequency F of x[n]?
(b) How many full periods of x(t) are required to generate one period of x[n]?
(c) What is the analog frequency of the recovered signal xr (t)?
(d) Write expressions for x[n] (using |F | < 0.5) and for xr (t).

3.22 (Digital Pitch Shifting) One way to accomplish pitch shifting is to play back (or reconstruct) a
sampled signal at a dierent sampling rate. Let the analog signal x(t) = sin(15800t + 0.25) be
sampled at a sampling rate of 8 kHz.
(a) Find its sampled representation with digital frequency |F | < 0.5.
(b) What frequencies are heard if the signal is reconstructed at a rate of 4 kHz?
(c) What frequencies are heard if the signal is reconstructed at a rate of 8 kHz?
(d) What frequencies are heard if the signal is reconstructed at a rate of 20 kHz?

3.23 (Discrete-Time Chirp Signals) Consider the signal x(t) = cos[(t)], where (t) = t2 . Show that
its instantaneous frequency fi (t) = 2 (t) varies linearly with time.
1

(a) Choose such that the frequency varies from 0 Hz to 2 Hz in 10 seconds, and generate the
sampled signal x[n] from x(t), using a sampling rate of S = 4 Hz.
(b) It is claimed that, unlike x(t), the signal x[n] is periodic. Verify this claim, using the condition
for periodicity (x[n] = x[n + N ]), and determine the period N of x[n].
(c) The signal y[n] = cos(F0 n2/M ), n = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, describes an M -sample chirp whose digital
frequency varies linearly from 0 to F0 . What is the period of y[n] if F0 = 0.25 and M = 8?

3.24 (Time Constant) For exponentially decaying discrete signals, the time constant is a measure of
how fast a signal decays. The 60-dB time constant describes the (integer) number of samples it takes
for the signal level to decay by a factor of 1000 (or 20 log 1000 = 60 dB).
(a) Let x[n] = (0.5)n u[n]. Compute its 60-dB time constant and 40-dB time constant.
(b) Compute the time constant in seconds if the discrete-time signal is derived from an analog signal
sampled at 1 kHz.

3.25 (Signal Delay) The delay D of a discrete-time energy signal x[n] is defined by

"
kx2 [k]
k=
D=
"
x2 [k]
k=

(a) Verify that the delay of the symmetric sequence x[n] = {4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is zero.
(b) Compute the delay of the signals g[n] = x[n 1] and h[n] = x[n 2].
(c) What is the delay of the signal y[n] = 1.5(0.5)n u[n] 2[n]?

3.26 (Periodicity) It is claimed that the sum of an absolutely summable signal x[n] and its shifted (by
multiples of N ) replicas is a periodic signal xp [n] with period N . Verify this claim by sketching the
following and, for each case, compute the power in the resulting periodic signal xp [n] and compare the
sum and energy of one period of xp [n] with the sum and energy of x[n].
Chapter 3 Problems 63

(a) The sum of x[n] = tri(n/3) and its replicas shifted by N =7

(b) The sum of x[n] = tri(n/3) and its replicas shifted by N =6
(c) The sum of x[n] = tri(n/3) and its replicas shifted by N =5
(d) The sum of x[n] = tri(n/3) and its replicas shifted by N =4
(e) The sum of x[n] = tri(n/3) and its replicas shifted by N =3

3.27 (Periodic Extension) The sum of an absolutely summable signal x[n] and its shifted (by multiples
of N ) replicas is called the periodic extension of x[n] with period N . Show that one period of the
x[n]
periodic extension of the signal x[n] = n u[n] with period N is y[n] = , 0 n N 1. How
1 N
does the one-period sum of y[n] compare with the sum of x[n]? What is the signal power in x[n] and
y[n]?
3.28 (Signal Norms) Norms provide a measure of the size of a signal. The p-norm, or H older norm,
! 1/p
xp for discrete signals is defined by xp = ( |x|p ) , where 0 < p < is a positive integer. For
p = , we also define x as the peak absolute value |x|max .
(a) Let x[n] = {3, j4, 3 + j4}. Find x1 , x2 , and x .
(b) What is the significance of each of these norms?

COMPUTATION AND DESIGN

dtsiggui A GUI for Signal Visualization

The graphical user interface ctsiggui allows you to plot a discrete-time signal x[n].
You can display results of the operation y[n] = A + Bx[Cn + D] for your choice of parameters.
You can also display the odd part, even part, first dierence, and running sum of x[n].
To explore this routine, type dtsiggui at the Matlab prompt.
randgui A GUI for Random Signal Visualization
The graphical user interface randgui allows you to plot a random signal and its histogram.
You can select the distribution and display its histogram using various bin sizes.
You can also display the eect of adding several realizations of a random signal.
To explore this routine, type randgui at the Matlab prompt.

3.29 (Discrete Signals) Plot each signal x[n] over 10 n 10. Then, using the ADSP routine operate
(or otherwise), plot each signal y[n] and compare with the original.
(a) x[n] = u[n + 4] u[n 4] + 2[n + 6] [n 3] y[n] = x[n 4]
(b) x[n] = r[n + 6] r[n + 3] r[n 3] + r[n 6] y[n] = x[n 4]
(c) x[n] = rect( 10
n
) rect( n36 ) y[n] = x[n + 4]
(d) x[n] = 6 tri( 6 ) 3 tri( n3 )
n
y[n] = x[n + 4]
3.30 (Signal Interpolation) Let h[n] = sin(n/3), 0 n 10. Using the ADSP routine interpol (or
otherwise), plot h[n], the zero-interpolated, step-interpolated, and linearly interpolated signals using
interpolation by 3.
3.31 (Discrete Exponentials) A causal discrete exponential may be expressed as x[n] = n u[n], where
the nature of dictates the form of x[n]. Plot the following over 0 n 40 and comment on the
nature of each plot.
64 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

(a) The signal x[n] for = 1.2, = 1, and = 0.8.

(b) The signal x[n] for = 1.2, = 1, and = 0.8.
(c) The real part and imaginary parts of x[n] for = Aej/4 , with A = 1.2, A = 1, and A = 0.8.
(d) The magnitude and phase of x[n] for = Aej/4 , with A = 1.2, A = 1, and A = 0.8.

3.32 (Discrete-Time Sinusoids) Which of the following signals are periodic and with what period? Plot
each signal over 10 n 30. Do the plots confirm your expectations?
(a) x[n] = 2 cos( n
2 ) + 5 sin( 5 )
n
(b) x[n] = 2 cos( n
2 ) sin( 3 )
n

(c) x[n] = cos(0.5n) (d) x[n] = 5 sin( 8 + 4 ) 5 cos( n

n
8 4)

3.33 (Complex-Valued Signals) A complex-valued signal x[n] requires two plots for a complete descrip-
tion in one of two formsthe magnitude and phase vs. n or the real part vs. n and imaginary part
vs. n.

(a) Let x[n] = {2, 1 + j, j2, 2 j2, 4}. Sketch each form for x[n] by hand.
(b) Let x[n] = ej0.3n . Use Matlab to plot each form over 30 n 30. Is x[n] periodic? If so,
can you identify its period from the Matlab plots? From which form, and how?

3.34 (Complex Exponentials) Let x[n] = 5 2ej ( 9 4 ) . Plot the following signals and, for each case,
n

derive analytic expressions for the signals plotted and compare with your plots. Is the signal x[n]
periodic? What is the period N ? Which plots allow you determine the period of x[n]?
(a) The real part and imaginary part of x[n] over 20 n 20
(b) The magnitude and phase of x[n] over 20 n 20
(c) The sum of the real and imaginary parts over 20 n 20
(d) The dierence of the real and imaginary parts over 20 n 20

3.35 (Complex Exponentials) Let x[n] = ( j)n + ( j)n . Plot the following signals and, for each case,
derive analytic expressions for the sequences plotted and compare with your plots. Is the signal x[n]
periodic? What is the period N ? Which plots allow you determine the period of x[n]?
(a) The real part and imaginary part of x[n] over 20 n 20
(b) The magnitude and phase of x[n] over 20 n 20

3.36 (Discrete-Time Chirp Signals) An N -sample chirp signal x[n] whose digital frequency varies
linearly from F0 to F1 is described by
. # $/
F1 F0 2
x[n] = cos 2 F0 n + n , n = 0, 1, . . . , N 1
2N
(a) Generate and plot 800 samples of a chirp signal x whose digital frequency varies from F = 0 to
F = 0.5. Observe how the frequency of x varies linearly with time, using the ADSP command
timefreq(x).
(b) Generate and plot 800 samples of a chirp signal x whose digital frequency varies from F = 0 to
F = 1. Is the frequency always increasing? If not, what is the likely explanation?

3.37 (Chirp Signals) It is claimed that the chirp signal x[n] = cos(n2 /6) is periodic (unlike the analog
chirp signal x(t) = cos(t2 /6)). Plot x[n] over 0 n 20. Does x[n] appear periodic? If so, can you
identify the period N ? Justify your results by trying to find an integer N such that x[n] = x[n + N ]
(the basis for periodicity).
Chapter 3 Problems 65

3.38 (Signal Averaging) Extraction of signals from noise is an important signal-processing application.
Signal averaging relies on averaging the results of many runs. The noise tends to average out to zero,
and the signal quality or signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) improves.
(a) Generate samples of the sinusoid x(t) = sin(800t) sampled at S = 8192 Hz for 2 seconds. The
sampling rate is chosen so that you may also listen to the signal if your machine allows.
(b) Create a noisy signal s[n] by adding x[n] to samples of uniformly distributed noise such that s[n]
has an SNR of 10 dB. Compare the noisy signal with the original and compute the actual SNR
of the noisy signal.
(c) Sum the signal s[n] 64 times and average the result to obtain the signal sa [n]. Compare the
averaged signal sa [n], the noisy signal s[n], and the original signal x[n]. Compute the SNR of
the averaged signal xa [n]. Is there an improvement in the SNR? Do you notice any (visual and
audible) improvement? Should you?
(d) Create the averaged result xb [n] of 64 dierent noisy signals and compare the averaged signal
xb [n] with the original signal x[n]. Compute the SNR of the averaged signal xb [n]. Is there an
improvement in the SNR? Do you notice any (visual and/or audible) improvement? Explain how
the signal xb [n] diers from xa [n].
(e) The reduction in SNR is a function of the noise distribution. Generate averaged signals, using
dierent noise distributions (such as Gaussian noise) and comment on the results.

3.39 (The Central Limit Theorem) The central limit theorem asserts that the sum of independent noise
distributions tends to a Gaussian distribution as the number N of distributions in the sum increases.
In fact, one way to generate a random signal with a Gaussian distribution is to add many (typically 6
to 12) uniformly distributed signals.
(a) Generate the sum of uniformly distributed random signals using N = 2, N = 6, and N = 12 and
plot the histograms of each sum. Does the histogram begin to take on a Gaussian shape as N
increases? Comment on the shape of the histogram for N = 2.
(b) Generate the sum of random signals with dierent distributions using N = 6 and N = 12. Does
the central limit theorem appear to hold even when the distributions are not identical (as long
as you select a large enough N )? Comment on the physical significance of this result.

3.40 (Music Synthesis I) A musical composition is a combination of notes, or signals, at various frequen-
cies. An octave covers a range of frequencies from f0 to 2f0 . In the western musical scale, there are 12
notes per octave, logarithmically equispaced. The frequencies of the notes from f0 to 2f0 correspond
to
f = 2k/12 f0 k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 11
The 12 notes are as follows (the and stand for sharp and flat, and each pair of notes in parentheses
has the same frequency):

A (A or B ) B C (C or D ) D (D or E ) E F (F or G ) G (G or A )

An Example: Raga Malkauns: In Indian classical music, a raga is a musical composition based on
an ascending and descending scale. The notes and their order form the musical alphabet and grammar
from which the performer constructs musical passages, using only the notes allowed. The performance
of a raga can last from a few minutes to an hour or more! Raga malkauns is a pentatonic raga (with
five notes) and the following scales:
Ascending: D F G B C D Descending: C B G F D
66 Chapter 3 Discrete Signals

The final note in each scale is held twice as long as the rest. To synthesize this scale in Matlab, we
start with a frequency f0 corresponding to the first note D and go up in frequency to get the notes in
the ascending scale; when we reach the note D, which is an octave higher, we go down in frequency to
get the notes in the descending scale. Here is a Matlab code fragment.

f0=340; d=f0; % Pick a frequency and the note D

f=f0*(2^(3/12)); g=f0*(2^(5/12)); % The notes F and G
bf=f0*(2^(8/12)); c=f0*(2^(10/12)); % The notes B(flat) and C
d2=2*d; % The note D (an octave higher)

Generate sampled sinusoids at these frequencies, using an appropriate sampling rate (say, 8192 Hz);
concatenate them, assuming silent passages between each note; and play the resulting signal, using the
Matlab command sound. Use the following Matlab code fragment as a guide:

ts=1/8192; % Sampling interval

t=0:ts:0.4; % Time for each note (0.4 s)
s1=0*(0:ts:0.1); % Silent period (0.1 s)
s2=0*(0:ts:0.05); % Shorter silent period (0.05 s)
tl=0:ts:1; % Time for last note of each scale
d1=sin(2*pi*d*t); % Start generating the notes
f1=sin(2*pi*f*t); g1=sin(2*pi*g*t);
bf1=sin(2*pi*bf*t); c1=sin(2*pi*c*t);
dl1=sin(2*pi*d2*tl); dl2=sin(2*pi*d*tl);
asc=[d1 s1 f1 s1 g1 s1 bf1 s1 c1 s2 dl1]; % Create ascending scale
dsc=[c1 s1 bf1 s1 g1 s1 f1 s1 dl2]; % Create descending scale
y=[asc s1 dsc s1]; sound(y) % Malkauns scale (y)

3.41 (Music Synthesis II) The raw scale of raga malkauns will sound pretty dry! The reason for
this is the manner in which the sound from a musical instrument is generated. Musical instruments
produce sounds by the vibrations of a string (in string instruments) or a column of air (in woodwind
instruments). Each instrument has its characteristic sound. In a guitar, for example, the strings are
plucked, held, and then released to sound the notes. Once plucked, the sound dies out and decays.
Furthermore, the notes are never pure but contain overtones (harmonics). For a realistic sound, we
must include the overtones and the attack, sustain, and release (decay) characteristics. The sound
signal may be considered to have the form x(t) = (t)cos(2f0 t + ), where f0 is the pitch and (t)
is the envelope that describes the attack-sustain-release characteristics of the instrument played. A
crude representation of some envelopes is shown in Figure P3.41 (the piecewise linear approximations
will work just as well for our purposes). Woodwind instruments have a much longer sustain time and
a much shorter release time than do plucked string and keyboard instruments.
(t) Envelopes of (t) Envelopes of
woodwind instruments 1 string and keyboard instruments
1

t t
1 1
Figure P3.41 Envelopes and their piecewise linear approximations (dark) for Problem 3.41
Experiment with the scale of raga malkauns and try to produce a guitar-like sound, using the appro-
priate envelope form. You should be able to discern an audible improvement.
Chapter 3 Problems 67

3.42 (Music Synthesis III) Synthesize the following notes, using a woodwind envelope, and synthesize
the same notes using a plucked string envelope.
F (0.3) D(0.4) E(0.4) A(1) A(0.4) E(0.4) F (0.3) D(1)

All the notes cover one octave, and the numbers in parentheses give a rough indication of their relative
duration. Can you identify the music? (It is Big Ben.)

3.43 (Music Synthesis IV) Synthesize the first bar of Pictures at an Exhibition by Mussorgsky, which
has the following notes:
A(3) G(3) C(3) D(2) G (1) E(3) D(2) G (1) E(3) C(3) D(3) A(3) G(3)

All the notes cover one octave except the note G , which is an octave above G. The numbers in
parentheses give a rough indication of the relative duration of the notes (for more details, you may
want to listen to an actual recording). Assume that a keyboard instrument (such as a piano) is played.

3.44 (DTMF Tones) In dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) or touch-tone telephone dialing, each number
is represented by a dual-frequency tone. The frequencies for each digit are listed in Chapter 18.
(a) Generate DTMF tones corresponding to the telephone number 487-2550, by sampling the sum of
two sinusoids at the required frequencies at S = 8192 Hz for each digit. Concatenate the signals
by putting 50 zeros between each signal (to represent silence) and listen to the signal using the
Matlab command sound.
(b) Write a Matlab program that generates DTMF signals corresponding to a vector input repre-
senting the digits in a phone number. Use a sampling frequency of S = 8192 Hz.
Chapter 4

ANALOG SYSTEMS

4.0 Scope and Objectives

Analog systems are used to process analog signals. A description of systems relies heavily on how they
respond to arbitrary or specific signals. In the time domain, many analog systems can be described by
their response to arbitrary signals using dierential equations. The class of linear, time-invariant systems
can also be described by their impulse response, the response to an impulse input. This chapter deals
with continuous-time systems and their classification, time-domain representation, and analysis based on
the solution of dierential equations. It also introduces the all-important concept of the impulse response,
which forms a key ingredient in both system description and system analysis.

4.1 Introduction
In its broadest sense, a physical system is an interconnection of devices and elements subject to physical
laws. A system that processes analog signals is referred to as an analog system or continuous-time (CT)
system. The signal to be processed forms the excitation or input to the system. The processed signal is
termed the response or output.
The response of any system is governed by the input and the system details. A system may of course
be excited by more than one input, and this leads to the more general idea of multiple-input systems. We
address only single-input, single-output systems in this text. The study of systems involves the input, the
output, and the system specifications. Conceptually, we can determine any one of these in terms of the other
two. System analysis implies a study of the response subject to known inputs and system formulations.
Known input-output specifications, on the other hand, usually allow us to identify, or synthesize, the system.
System identification or synthesis is much more dicult because many system formulations are possible
for the same input-output relationship.
Most real-world systems are quite complex and almost impossible to analyze quantitatively. Of necessity,
we are forced to use models or abstractions that retain the essential features of the system and simplify
the analysis, while still providing meaningful results. The analysis of systems refers to the analysis of the
models that in fact describe such systems, and it is customary to treat the system and its associated models
synonymously. In the context of signal processing, a system that processes the input signal in some fashion
is also called a filter.

4.1.1 Terminology of Systems

A system requires two separate descriptions for a complete specification, one in terms of its components
or external structure and the other in terms of its energy level or internal state. The state of a system is
described by a set of state variables that allow us to establish the energy level of the system at any instant.

68
4.1 Introduction 69

Such variables may represent physical quantities or may have no physical significance whatever. Their choice
is governed primarily by what the analysis requires. For example, capacitor voltages and inductor currents
are often used as state variables since they provide an instant measure of the system energy. Any inputs
applied to the system result in a change in the energy or state of the system. All physical systems are,
by convention, referenced to a zero-energy state (variously called the ground state, the rest state, the
relaxed state, or the zero state) at t = .
The behavior of a system is governed not only by the input but also by the state of the system at the
instant at which the input is applied. The initial values of the state variables define the initial conditions
or initial state. This initial state, which must be known before we can establish the complete system
response, embodies the past history of the system. It allows us to predict the future response due to any
input regardless of how the initial state was arrived at.

4.1.2 Operators
Any equation is based on a set of operations. An operator is a rule or a set of directionsa recipe if you
willthat shows us how to transform one function to another. For example, the derivative operator s ddt
transforms a function x(t) to y(t) = s{x(t)} or d x(t)
dt . If an operator or a rule of operation is represented by
the symbol O, the equation
O{x(t)} = y(t) (4.1)
implies that if the function x(t) is treated exactly as the operator O requires, we obtain the function y(t).
For example, the operation O{ } = 4 dt d
{ } + 6 says that to get y(t), we must take the derivative of x(t),
multiply by 4 and then add 6 to the result 4 dt d
{x(t)} + 6 = 4 dx
dt + 6 = y(t).
If an operation on the sum of two functions is equivalent to the sum of operations applied to each
separately, the operator is said to be additive. In other words,
O{x1 (t) + x2 (t)} = O{x1 (t)} + O{x2 (t)} (for an additive operation) (4.2)
If an operation on Kx(t) is equivalent to K times the linear operation on x(t) where K is a scalar, the
operator is said to be homogeneous. In other words,
O{Kx(t)} = KO{x(t)} (for a homogeneous operation) (4.3)
Together, the two describe the principle of superposition. An operator O is termed a linear operator
if it is both additive and homogeneous. In other words,
O{Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t)} = AO{x1 (t)} + BO{x2 (t)} (for a linear operation) (4.4)
If an operation performed on a linear combination of x1 (t) and x2 (t) produces the same results as a linear
combination of operations on x1 (t) and x2 (t) separately, the operation is linear. If not, it is nonlinear.
Linearity thus implies superposition. An important concept that forms the basis for the study of linear
systems is that the superposition of linear operators is also linear.

REVIEW PANEL 4.1

A Linear Operator Obeys Superposition: aO{x1 (t)} + bO{x2 (t)} = O{ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)}
Superposition implies both homogeneity and additivity.
Homogeneity: O{ax(t)} = aO{x(t)} Additivity: O{x1 (t)} + O{x2 (t)} = O{x1 (t) + x2 (t)}

Testing an Operator for Linearity: If an operator fails either the additive or the homogeneity test,
it is nonlinear. In all but a few (usually contrived) cases, if an operator passes either the additive or the
homogeneity test, it is linear (meaning that it will also pass the other). In other words, only one test,
additivity or homogeneity, suces to confirm linearity (or lack thereof) in most cases.
70 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

EXAMPLE 4.1 (Testing for Linear Operations)

(a) Consider the operator O{ } = log{ }.
Since log(Kx) = K log x, the log operator is nonlinear because it is not homogeneous.

(b) Consider the operator O{x} = C{x} + D.

If we test for homogeneity, we find that O{Kx} = KCx + D but KO{x} = KCx + KD.
The operator is thus nonlinear. Only if D = 0 is the operation linear.

(c) Consider the squaring operator O{ } = { }2 , which transforms x(t) to x2 (t).

We find AO{x(t)} = Ax2 (t) but O{Ax(t)} = [Ax(t)]2 = A2 x2 (t).
Since the two are not equal, the squaring operator is also nonlinear.

d{ }
(d) Consider the derivative operator O{ } = dt , which transforms x(t) to x (t).
We find that AO{x(t)} = Ax (t) and O{Ax(t)} = x (At) = Ax (t).
The two are equal, and the derivative operator is homogeneous and thus linear.
Of course, to be absolutely certain, we could use the full force of the linearity relation to obtain
O{Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t)} = d
dt [Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t)] and AO{x1 (t)} + AO{x2 (t)} = Ax1 (t) + Bx2 (t).
The two results are equal, and we thus confirm the linearity of the derivative operator.

4.2 System Classification

Systems may be classified in several ways. Such classifications allow us to make informed decisions on the
choice of a given method of analysis over others, depending on the context in which the system is considered.
At the quantitative level, analog systems are usually modeled by dierential equations that relate the output
y(t) and input x(t) through the system parameters and the independent variable t. Using the notation
n
y (n) (t) d dty(t)
n , the general form of a dierential equation may be written as

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an1 y (1) (t) + an y(t) = b0 x(m) (t) + b1 x(m1) (t) + + bm1 x(1) (t) + bm x(t) (4.5)

The order n of the dierential equation refers to the order of the highest derivative of the output y(t).
It is customary to normalize the coecient of the highest derivative of y(t) to 1. The coecients ak and bk
k
may be functions of x(t) and/or y(t) and/or t. Using the derivative operator sk ddtk with s0 1, we may
recast this equation in operator notation as

{sn + a1 sn1 + + an1 s + an }y(t) = {b0 sm + b1 sm1 + + bm1 s + bm }x(t) (4.6)

d y(t) d2 y(t)
Notation: For low-order systems, we will also use the notation y (t) dt , y (t) dt2 etc.
4.2 System Classification 71

4.2.1 Linearity and Time Invariance

A linear system is one for which superposition applies and implies three constraints:
1. The system equation must involve only linear operators.
2. The system must contain no internal independent sources.
3. The system must be relaxed (with zero initial conditions).

REVIEW PANEL 4.2

What Makes a System Nonlinear?
(1) nonlinear elements or (2) nonzero initial conditions or (3) internal sources

For a linear system, scaling the input leads to an identical scaling of the output. In particular, this means
zero output for zero input and a linear input-output relation passing through the origin. This is possible only
if every system element obeys a similar relationship at its own terminals. Since independent sources have
terminal characteristics that are constant and do not pass through the origin, a system that includes such
sources is therefore nonlinear. Formally, a linear system must also be relaxed (with zero initial conditions) if
superposition is to hold. We can, however, use superposition even for a system with nonzero initial conditions
(or internal sources) that is otherwise linear. We treat it as a multiple-input system by including the initial
conditions (or internal sources) as additional inputs. The output then equals the superposition of the outputs
due to each input acting alone, and any changes in the input are related linearly to changes in the response.
As a result, the response can be written as the sum of a zero-input response (due to the initial conditions
alone) and the zero-state response (due to the input alone). This is the principle of decomposition,
which allows us to analyze linear systems in the presence of nonzero initial conditions. Both the zero-input
response and the zero-state response obey superposition individually.

REVIEW PANEL 4.3

Linearity from the Input-Output Relation
The input-output relation is a straight line passing through the origin.
!
d v(t) 1 t
Examples: Input = v(t) Output = C Input = v(t) Output = v(t) dt
dt L

EXAMPLE 4.2 (Linearity from the Input-Output Relation)

The input-output relations for four systems are shown in Figure E4.2. Which systems are linear?
Output Output Output Output

Input Input Input Input

(a) Linear (b) Nonlinear (c) Nonlinear (d) Nonlinear

Figure E4.2 Input-output relations of the systems for Example 4.2
Only the first one is linear because the input-output relation is a straight line that passes through the
origin. All other systems are nonlinear. The second system describes a half-wave rectifier, the third describes
an internal source, and the fourth describes an operational amplifier.
72 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.2.2 Time-Invariant (Shift-Invariant) Systems

Time invariance (also called shift invariance) implies that the shape of the response y(t) depends only on
the shape of the input x(t) and not on the time when it is applied. If the input is shifted to x(t ), the
response equals y(t ) and is shifted by the same amount. In other words, the system does not change
with time. Such a system is also called stationary or fixed.
Every element of a time-invariant system must itself be time invariant with a value that is constant with
respect to time. If the element value depends on the input or output, this only makes the system nonlinear.
Coecients in a system equation that depend on the element values cannot show explicit dependence on
time for time-invariant systems. In a time-varying system, the value of at least one system element is a
function of time. As a result, the system equation contains time-dependent coecients. An example is a
system containing a time-varying resistor. In physical systems, aging of components often contributes to
their time-varying nature.
Formally, if the operator O transforms the input x(t) to the output y(t) such that O{x(t)} = y(t), a
time-invariant system requires that

If O{x(t)} = y(t) then O{x(t t0 )} = y(t t0 ) (for a time-invariant operation) (4.7)

REVIEW PANEL 4.4

Time Invariance from the Operational Relation
If O{x(t)} = y(t) then O{x(t t0 )} = y(t t0 ) (shift input by shift output by ).

EXAMPLE 4.3 (Linearity and Time Invariance of Operators)

(a) y(t) = x(t)x (t) is nonlinear but time invariant.

The operation is O{ } = ({ })( d{dt} ). We find that

AO{x(t)} = A[x(t)x (t)] but O{Ax(t)} = [Ax(t)][Ax (t)] = A2 x(t)x (t). The two are not equal.
O{x(t t0 )} = x(t t0 )x (t t0 ) and y(t t0 ) = x(t t0 )x (t t0 ). The two are equal.

(b) y(t) = tx(t) is linear but time varying.

The operation is O{ } = t{ }. We find that
AO{x(t)} = A[tx(t)] and O{Ax(t)} = t[Ax(t)]. The two are equal.
O{x(t t0 )} = t[x(t t0 )] but y(t t0 ) = (t t0 )x(t t0 ). The two are not equal.

(c) y(t) = x(t) is linear but time varying. With t t, we see that AO{x(t)} = A[x(t)] and O{Ax(t)} =
Ax(t). The two are equal.
To test for time invariance, we find that O{x(t t0 )} = x(t t0 ) but y(t t0 ) = x[(t t0 )]. The
two are not equal, and the time-scaling operation is time varying. Figure E4.3C illustrates this for
y(t) = x(2t), using a shift of t0 = 2.
4.2 System Classification 73

x(t) y1(t) y1(t2)

1 Time scale 1 Delay 1
(compress by 2) 2 units
4 2 2 4

x(t 2) y2 (t)
1 Time scale 1
(compress by 2) Not the same!!

2 6 1 3
Figure E4.3C Illustrating time variance of the system for Example 4.3(c)

(d) y(t) = x(t 2) is linear and time invariant. The operation t t 2 reveals that
AO{x(t)} = A[x(t 2)] and O{Ax(t)} = Ax(t 2). The two are equal.
O{x(t t0 )} = x(t t0 2) and y(t t0 ) = x(t t0 2). The two are equal.

(e) y(t) = ex(t) x(t) is nonlinear but time invariant.

The operation is O{ } = e{ } { } and reveals that
AO{x(t)} = Aex(t) x(t) but O{Ax(t)} = eAx(t) [Ax(t)]. The two are not equal.
O{x(t t0 )} = ex(tt0 ) x(t t0 ) and y(t t0 ) = ex(tt0 ) x(t t0 ). The two are equal.

4.2.3 Linear Time-Invariant Systems

The important class of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems are described by dierential equations with
constant coecients. To test for linearity or time invariance of systems described by dierential equations,
we can formally apply the linearity or time-invariance test to each operation or recognize the nonlinear or
time-varying operations by generalizing the results of the previous examples as follows.
1. Terms containing products of the input and/or output make a system equation nonlinear. A constant
term also makes a system equation nonlinear.
2. Coecients of the input or output that are explicit functions of t make a system equation time varying.
Time-scaled inputs or outputs such as y(2t) also make a system equation time varying.

REVIEW PANEL 4.5

An LTI System Is Described by a Linear Constant-Coecient Dierential Equation (LCCDE)
y (n) (t) + An1 y (n1) (t) + + A0 y(t) = Bm x(m) (t) + Bm1 x(m1) (t) + + B0 x(t)
All terms contain x(t) or y(t). All coecients are constant (not functions of x(t) or y(t) or t).
dn y(t) d y(t) d2 y(t)
Notation: y (n) (t) = dtn , y (0) (t) = y(t) Also, y (t) = dt , y (t) = dt2

REVIEW PANEL 4.6

What Makes a System Dierential Equation Nonlinear or Time Varying?
It is nonlinear if any term is a constant or a nonlinear function of x(t) or y(t).
It is time varying if the coecient of any term in x(t) or y(t) is an explicit function of t.
74 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

EXAMPLE 4.4 (Linearity and Time Invariance of Systems)

(a) We test for the linearity and time invariance of the following systems:
1. y (t) 2y(t) = 4x(t). This is LTI.
2. y (t) 2ty (t) = x(t). This is linear but time varying.
3. y (t) + 2y 2 (t) = 2x (t) x(t). This is nonlinear but time invariant.
4. y (t) 2y(t) = ex(t) x(t). This is nonlinear but time invariant.
5. y (t) 4y(t)y(2t) = x(t). This is nonlinear and time varying.

(b) What can you say about the linearity and time-invariance of the four circuits and their governing
dierential equations shown in the Figure E4.4B.
3 + 3 i 2 (t) 3 3t
+ + + +
i(t) i(t) i(t) i(t)

v(t) v(t) v(t) v(t)

2H 2H 2H 2H
4V

+
di(t) di(t) di(t) di(t)
2 + 3 i(t) = v(t) 2 + 3 i 2 (t) = v(t) 2 + 3 i(t) + 4 = v(t) 2 + 3t i(t) = v(t)
dt dt dt dt

(a) LTI (b) Nonlinear (c) Nonlinear (d) Time varying

Figure E4.4B The circuits for Example 4.4(b)

For (a), 2i (t) + 3i(t) = v(t). This is LTI because all the element values are constants.
For (b), 2i (t) + 3i2 (t) = v(t). This is nonlinear due to the nonlinear element.
For (c), 2i (t) + 3i(t) + 4 = v(t). This is nonlinear due to the 4-V internal source.
For (d), 2i (t) + 3ti(t) = v(t). This is time varying due to the time-varying resistor.

Implications of Linearity and Time Invariance

In most practical cases, if an input x(t) to a relaxed LTI system undergoes a linear operation, the output
y(t) undergoes the same linear operation. For example, the input x (t) results in the response y (t). The
superposition property is what makes the analysis of linear systems so much more tractable. Often, an
arbitrary function may be decomposed into its simpler constituents, the response due to each analyzed
separately and more eectively, and the total response found using superposition. This approach forms the
basis for several methods of system analysis. Representing a signal x(t) as a weighted sum of impulses is the
basis for the convolution method (Chapter 6), representing a periodic signal x(t) as a linear combination of
harmonic signals is the basis for the Fourier series (Chapter 8), and representing a signal x(t) as a weighted
sum of complex exponentials is the basis for Fourier and Laplace transforms (Chapters 9 and 11).
4.2 System Classification 75

4.2.4 Causal and Dynamic Systems

A causal or non-anticipating system is one whose present response does not depend on future values of
the input. The system cannot anticipate future inputs in order to generate or alter the present response.
Systems whose present response is aected by future inputs are termed noncausal or anticipating. A
formal definition of causality requires identical inputs up to a given duration to produce identical responses
over the same duration. Ideal systems (such as ideal filters) often turn out to be noncausal but also form
the yardstick by which the performance of many practical systems, implemented to perform the same task,
is usually assessed. A dierential equation describes a noncausal system if, for example, the output terms
have an argument of the form y(t) and an input term has the argument x(t + ), > 0.
A dynamic system, or a system with memory, is characterized by dierential equations. Its present
response depends on both present and past inputs. The memory or past history is due to energy-storage
elements that lead to the dierential form. In contrast, the response of resistive circuits or circuits operating
in the steady state depends only on the instantaneous value of the input, not on past or future values. Such
systems are also termed instantaneous, memoryless, or static. All instantaneous systems are also causal.
The system equation of an instantaneous system is algebraic, and the input and output are each of the
form x(t) and y(t) (with identical scaling or shift, if any). Dynamic systems include (but are not limited to)
systems described by dierential equations.

REVIEW PANEL 4.7

Causal, Static, and Dynamic Systems
It is causal if the output y(t) does not depend on future inputs such as x(t + 1).
It is static if the output y(t0 ) depends only on the instantaneous value of the input x(t0 ).
It is dynamic if energy storage is present, and y(t0 ) also depends on its own past history.

REVIEW PANEL 4.8

Noncausal and Static Systems from the System Dierential Equation
It is noncausal if output terms have the form y(t) and any input term contains x(t + ), > 0.
It is static if no derivatives are present, and every term in x and y has identical arguments.

EXAMPLE 4.5 (Causal and Dynamic Systems)

We investigate the following systems for causality and memory.
(a) y (t) 2ty (t) = x(t). This is causal and dynamic.
(b) y(t) = x(t) + 3. This is causal and instantaneous (but nonlinear).
(c) y(t) = 2(t + 1)x(t). This is causal and instantaneous (but time varying).
(d) y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t + 5). This is noncausal and dynamic.
(e) y (t + 4) + 2y(t) = x(t + 2). This is causal and dynamic.
(f ) y(t) = x(t + 2). This is noncausal and dynamic (the arguments of x and y dier).
(g) y(t) = 2x(t) is causal and instantaneous for = 1, causal and dynamic for < 1, and noncausal and
dynamic for > 1. It is also time varying if = 1.
76 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.3 Analysis of LTI Systems

LTI systems can be analyzed in the time domain using any of the following models:
The dierential equation representation is quite general and applies even to nonlinear and time-varying
systems. For LTI systems it allows the computation of the response using superposition even in the presence
of initial conditions. Its major disadvantages are that, as the system order and complexity increases, both the
formulation of the dierential equations and the evaluation of the initial conditions become quite dicult.
The state variable representation describes an nth-order system by n simultaneous first-order equations,
called state equations, in terms of n state variables. It is quite useful for complex or nonlinear systems and
those with multiple inputs and outputs. For linear systems, the state equations can be solved using matrix
methods. We do not discuss this method in this book.
The impulse response representation describes a relaxed LTI system by its impulse response h(t).
Unlike dierential or state representations, the system response y(t) appears explicitly in the governing
relation called the convolution integral. It also provides the formal ties that allow us to relate time-domain
and transformed-domain methods of system analysis. We discuss this method in detail in Chapter 6.

4.4 LTI Systems Described by Dierential Equations

An nth-order dierential equation requires n initial conditions for its complete solution. Typically, the initial
conditions (ICs) are specified as y(0), y (1) (0), . . . , y (n1) (0) (the response and its n 1 successive derivatives
at t = 0), and the resulting solution is valid for t 0. A convenient technique for solving a linear constant-
coecient dierential equation (LCCDE) is the method of undetermined coecients, which yields the
total response as the sum of the natural response yN (t) and the forced response yF (t).

4.4.1 The Single-Input Case

We start with an nth-order dierential equation with a single input x(t) whose coecient is unity:

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an1 y (1) (t) + an y(t) = x(t) (4.8)
{a0 sn + a1 sn1 + + an1 s + an }y(t) = x(t) (4.9)

The Natural, Forced, and Total Response

The form of the natural response depends only on the system details and is independent of the nature of
the input. It is a sum of exponentials whose exponents are the roots (real or complex) of the so-called
characteristic equation or characteristic polynomial defined by
a0 sn + a1 sn1 + a2 sn2 + + an2 s2 + an1 s + an = 0 (4.10)
Its n roots, s1 , s2 , . . . , sn , define the form of the natural response as
yN (t) = K1 es1 t + K2 es2 t + + Kn esn t (4.11)
Here, K1 , K2 , . . . , Kn are as yet undetermined constants (which are evaluated by using the specified initial
conditions but only after setting up the total response). The form for yN (t) must be modified for multiple
roots. Table 4.1 summarizes the various forms.
Since complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, their associated constants also form conjugate pairs to
ensure that yN (t) is real. Algebraic details lead to the preferred form with two real constants, listed as the
second and fourth entries in Table 4.1.
4.4 LTI Systems Described by Dierential Equations 77

Table 4.1 Form of the Natural Response for Analog LTI Systems
Entry Root of Characteristic Equation Form of Natural Response

1 Real and distinct: r Kert

2 Complex conjugate: j et [K1 cos(t) + K2 sin(t)]

3 Real, repeated: rp+1 ert (K0 + K1 t + K2 t2 + + Kp tp )

et cos(t)(A0 + A1 t + A2 t2 + + Ap tp )
4 Complex, repeated: ( j)p+1
+ et sin(t)(B0 + B1 t + B2 t2 + + Bp tp )

Table 4.2 Form of the Forced Response for Analog LTI Systems
Note: If the right-hand side (RHS) is et , where is also a root of the characteristic
equation repeated r times, the forced response form must be multiplied by tr .
Entry Forcing Function (RHS) Form of Forced Response

1 C0 (constant) C1 (another constant)

2 et (see note above) Cet

3 cos(t + ) C1 cos(t) + C2 sin(t) or C cos(t + )

4 et cos(t + ) (see note above) et [C1 cos(t) + C2 sin(t)]

5 t C0 + C1 t

6 tp C0 + C1 t + C2 t2 + + Cp tp

7 tet (see note above) et (C0 + C1 t)

8 tp et (see note above) et (C0 + C1 t + C2 t2 + + Cp tp )

9 t cos(t + ) (C1 + C2 t)cos(t) + (C3 + C4 t)sin(t)

REVIEW PANEL 4.9

The Response of LTI Systems Described by Dierential Equations
Total Response = Natural Response + Forced Response
The roots of the characteristic equation determine only the form of the natural response.
The input terms (RHS) of the dierential equation completely determine the forced response.
Initial conditions satisfy the total response to yield the constants in the natural response.
78 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

The forced response arises due to the interaction of the system with the input and thus depends on
both the input and the system details. It satisfies the given dierential equation and has the same form
as the input. Table 4.2 summarizes these forms for various types of inputs. The constants in the forced
response can be found uniquely and independently of the natural response or initial conditions simply by
satisfying the given dierential equation.
The total response is found by first adding the forced and natural response and then evaluating the
undetermined constants (in the natural component) using the prescribed initial conditions.
Remarks: For stable systems, the natural response is also called the transient response, since it decays to
zero with time. For systems with harmonic or switched harmonic inputs, the forced response is a harmonic
at the input frequency and is termed the steady-state response.

EXAMPLE 4.6 (Natural and Forced Response)

(a) (A First-Order System)
Consider the first-order system y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t). Find its response if
1. x(t) = 6, y(0) = 8
2. x(t) = cos(2t), y(0) = 2
3. x(t) = e2t , y(0) = 3
The characteristic equation s + 2 = 0 has the root s = 2.
The natural response is thus yN (t) = Ke2t .

1. Since x(t) = 6 is a constant, we choose yF (t) = C.

Then yF (t) = 0 and yF (t) + 2yF (t) = 2C = 6, and thus yF (t) = C = 3.
The total response is y(t) = yN (t) + yF (t) = Ke2t + 3.
With y(0) = 8, we find 8 = K + 3 (or K = 5) and y(t) = 5e2t + 3, t 0 or y(t) = (5e2t + 3)u(t).
2. Since x(t) = cos(2t), we choose yF (t) = A cos(2t) + B sin(2t).
Then yF (t) = 2A sin(2t) + 2B cos(2t), and
yF (t) + 2yF (t) = (2A + 2B)cos(2t) + (2B 2A)sin(2t) = cos(2t).
Comparing the coecients of the sine and cosine terms on either side, we obtain
2A + 2B = 1, 2B 2A = 0 or A = 0.25, B = 0.25. This gives
yF (t) = 0.25 cos(2t) + 0.25 sin(2t).
The total response is y(t) = yN (t) + yF (t) = Ke2t + 0.25 cos(2t) + 0.25 sin(2t).
With y(0) = 2, we find 2 = K + 0.25 (or K = 1.75) and
y(t) = [1.75e2t + 0.25 cos(2t) + 0.25 sin(2t)]u(t)
The steady-state response is yss (t) = 0.25 cos(2t) + 0.25 sin(2t), a sinusoid at the input frequency.
3. Since x(t) = e2t has the same form as yN (t), we must choose yF (t) = Cte2t (see Table 4.2).
Then yF (t) = Ce2t 2Cte2t , and yF (t) + 2yF (t) = Ce2t 2Cte2t + 2Cte2t = e2t .
This gives C = 1, and thus yF (t) = te2t and y(t) = yN (t) + yF (t) = Ke2t + te2t .
With y(0) = 3, we find 3 = K + 0 and y(t) = (3e2t + te2t )u(t).
4.4 LTI Systems Described by Dierential Equations 79

(b) (A Second-Order System)

Let y t + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t), t 0 with y(0) = 3, y (0) = 4. Find its response if
1. x(t) = 4e3t
2. x(t) = 4e2t

The characteristic equation is s2 + 3s + 2 = 0 with roots s1 = 1 and s2 = 2.

The natural response is yN (t) = K1 et + K2 e2t .

1. Since x(t) = 4e3t , we select the forced response as yF (t) = Ce3t . Then
yF (t) = 3Ce3t , yF (t) = 9Ce3t , and yF (t) + 3yF (t) + 2yF (t) = (9C 9C + 2C)e3t = 4e3t .
Thus, C = 2, yF (t) = 2e3t , and y(t) = yN (t) + yF (t) = K1 et + K2 e2t + 2e3t .
Using initial conditions, we get y(0) = K1 + K2 + 2 = 3 and y (0) = K1 2K2 6 = 4.
This gives K2 = 11, K1 = 12, and y(t) = (12et 11e2t + 2e3t )u(t).
2. Since x(t) = 4e2t has the same form as a term of yN (t), we must choose yF (t) = Cte2t .
Then yF (t) = 2Cte2t + Ce2t , and yF (t) = 2C(1 2t)e2t 2Ce2t . Thus,
yF (t) + 3yF (t) + 2yF (t) = (2C + 4Ct 2C 6Ct + 3C + 2Ct)e2t = 4e2t . This gives C = 4.
Thus, yF (t) = 4te2t , and y(t) = yN (t) + yF (t) = K1 et + K2 e2t 4te2t .
Using initial conditions, we get y(0) = K1 + K2 = 3 and y (0) = K1 2K2 4 = 4.
Thus, K2 = 11, K1 = 14, and y(t) = (14et 11e2t 4te2t )u(t).

4.4.2 The Zero-State Response and Zero-Input Response

It is often more convenient to describe the response y(t) of an LTI system as the sum of its zero-state
response (ZSR) yzs (t) (assuming zero initial conditions) and zero-input response (ZIR) yzi (t) (assuming zero
input). Each component is found using the method of undetermined coecients. Note that the natural and
forced components yN (t) and yF (t) do not, in general, correspond to the zero-input and zero-state response,
respectively, even though each pair adds up to the total response. Remember also that the zero-state response
obeys superposition (as does the zero-input response).

REVIEW PANEL 4.10

The Zero-Input Response (ZIR) and Zero-State Response (ZSR) of LTI Systems
Total response = ZIR (assume zero input, use given ICs) + ZSR (assume zero ICs).
Each obeys superposition. Each is found from its own natural and forced components.

REVIEW PANEL 4.11

Solving y (n)
(t) + a1 y (n1)
(t) + + an y(t) = x(t)
(n) (n1)
1. Find the ZSR from yzs (t) + a1 yzs (t) + + an yzs (t) = x(t) with zero initial conditions.
(n) (n1)
2. Find the ZIR from yzi (t) + a1 yzi (t) + + an yzi (t) = 0 with given initial conditions.
3. Find complete response as y(t) = yzs (t) + yzi (t)
80 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

EXAMPLE 4.7 (Zero-Input and Zero-State Response for the Single-Input Case)
Let y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) with x(t) = 4e3t and initial conditions y(0) = 3 and y (0) = 4.
Find its zero-input response and zero-state response.
The characteristic equation is s2 + 3s + 2 = 0 with roots s1 = 1 and s2 = 2.
Its natural response is yN (t) = K1 es1 t + K2 es2 t = K1 et + K2 e2t .

1. The zero-input response is found from yN (t) and the prescribed initial conditions:

yzi (t) = K1 et + K2 e2t yzi (0) = K1 + K2 = 3

yzi (0) = K1 2K2 = 4

This yields K2 = 7, K1 = 10, and yzi (t) = 10et 7e2t .

2. Similarly, yzs (t) is found from the general form of y(t) but with zero initial conditions.
Since x(t) = 4e3t , we select the forced response as yF (t) = Ce3t .
Then, yF (t) = 3Ce3t , yF (t) = 9Ce3t , and yF (t) + 3yF (t) + 2yF (t) = (9C 9C + 2C)e3t = 4e3t .
Thus, C = 2, yF (t) = 2e3t , and yzs (t) = K1 et + K2 e2t + 2e3t .
With zero initial conditions, we obtain

yzs (0) = K1 + K2 + 2 = 0
yzs (0) = K1 2K2 6 = 0

This yields K2 = 4, K1 = 2, and yzs (t) = 2et 4e2t + 2e3t .

3. The total response is the sum of yzs (t) and yzi (t):

y(t) = yzi (t) + yzs (t) = 12et 11e2t + 2e3t , t0

4.4.3 Solution of the General Dierential Equation

The solution to the general nth-order dierential equation described by

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an y(t) = b0 x(m) (t) + b1 x(m1) (t) + + bm x(t) (4.12)

is found by invoking linearity and superposition as follows:

1. Compute the zero-state response y0 (t) to the single-input system
(n) (n1)
y0 (t) + a1 y0 (t) + + an y0 (t) = x(t) (4.13)

2. Use linearity and superposition to find yzs (t) as

(m) (m1)
yzs (t) = b0 y0 (t) + b1 y0 (t) + + bm y0 (t) (4.14)

3. Find the zero-input response yzi (t).

4. Find the total response as y(t) = yzs (t) + yzi (t).
Note that the zero-input response is computed and included just once.
4.5 The Impulse Response of LTI Systems 81

REVIEW PANEL 4.12

Solving y (n)
(t) + a1 y (n1)
(t) + + an y(t) = b0 x(m) (t) + b1 x(m1) (t) + + bm x(t)
(n) (n1)
1. Find y0 (t) from y0 (t) + a1 y0 (t) + + an y0 (t) = x(t) using zero initial conditions.
(m) (m1)
2. Find ZSR (using superposition) as yzs (t) = b0 y0 (t) + b1 y0 (t) + + bm y0 (t)
(n) (n1)
3. Find ZIR from yzi (t)
+ (t)
+ + an yzi (t) = 0 using given initial conditions.
a1 yzi
4. Find complete response as y(t) = yzs (t) + yzi (t)

EXAMPLE 4.8 (Solving a Dierential Equation: The General Case)

Find the response of y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 2x (t) + x(t), with x(t) = 4e3t , y(0) = 0, and y (0) = 1.

1. The characteristic equation is s2 + 3s + 2 = 0 with roots s1 = 1 and s2 = 2.

Its natural response is yN (t)K1 et + K2 e2t . Since x(t) = 4e3t , choose yF (t) = Ce3t .
Then, y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 9Ce3t 9Ce3t + 2Ce3t = 4e3t , and C = 2, and yF (t) = 2e3t
Thus, y0 (t) has the form y0 (t) = K1 et + K2 e2t + 2e3t .
Using zero initial conditions, K1 + K2 + 2 = 0 and K1 2K2 6 = 0. Then K1 = 2, K2 = 4.
Thus, y0 (t) = 2et 4e2t + 2e3t .

2. Since y0 (t) = 2et + 8e2t 6e3t , we find the ZSR as

yzs (t) = 2y0 (t) + y0 (t) = 2et + 12e2t 10e3t , t0

3. The ZIR is found from yzi (t) = C1 et + C2 e2t , with y(0) = 0 and y (0) = 1. This yields
yzi (0) = C1 + C2 = 0 and yzi

(0) C1 2C2 = 1. We find C1 = 1 and C2 = 1. Then,
yzi (t) = et e2t

4. Finally, the total response is y(t) = yzs (t) + yzi (t) = et + 11e2t 10e3t , t 0.

4.5 The Impulse Response of LTI Systems

The impulse response, denoted by h(t), is simply the response of a relaxed LTI system to a unit impulse
(t). The impulse response provides us with a powerful method for evaluating the zero-state response of LTI
systems to arbitrary inputs using superposition (as described in the next chapter). The impulse response is
also related to the transfer function, which is used extensively for system analysis in the transformed domain
(Chapters 812). The impulse response and step response are often used to characterize the time-domain
performance of systems and filters.
Methods for finding the impulse response in the time domain are often tedious. It is often easier to find
the impulse response of a system by resorting to the transformed domain. Here we consider approaches that
rely only on time-domain methods and on the concepts of linearity.
82 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

REVIEW PANEL 4.13

The Impulse Response and Step Response Is Defined Only for Relaxed LTI Systems

Impulse input (t) Relaxed LTI system Impulse response h(t)

Impulse response h(t): The output of a relaxed LTI system if the input is a unit impulse (t).
Step response s(t): The output of a relaxed LTI system if the input is a unit step u(t).

4.5.1 Impulse Response from the Step Response

For a linear system, if a unit step input u(t) leads to the step response s(t), the impulse (t) = u (t) leads
to the impulse response h(t) = s (t). This result is the basis for the assertion that the impulse response h(t)
equals the derivative of the step response s(t), a concept that suggests a simple way of finding h(t) for a
relaxed system. We evaluate the step response s(t) and then let h(t) = s (t).

REVIEW PANEL 4.14

The Impulse Response h(t) Is the Derivative of the Step Response s(t)
! t
d s(t)
h(t) = s (t) = s(t) = h(t) dt
dt

4.5.2 Impulse Response of a First-Order System

Consider the first-order system y (t) + ay(t) = x(t), where x(t) = u(t). Its characteristic equation (s + a = 0)
yields the natural response sN (t) = K exp(at), t 0. The forced response is a constant of the form
sF (t) = B. Substituting into the governing dierential equation, we obtain 0 + aB = 1 or B = 1/a. The
total response is then given by
1
s(t) = sF (t) + sN (t) = + Keat , t0
a
Since s(0) = 0, we get 0 = 1
a + K or K = 1/a. The step response is thus

1 eat
s(t) = u(t) (4.15)
a
The impulse response h(t) equals the derivative of the step response. Thus,
" #
d 1 eat
h(t) = s (t) =

u(t) = eat u(t) (4.16)
dt a

4.5.3 Impulse Response for the Single-Input Case

To find the impulse response directly, we must apparently (and without success) solve y (t) + ay(t) = 0, a
homogeneous dierential equation (because (t) = 0, t > 0) subject to zero initial conditions. Of course,
what is missing is that the impulse produces a sudden change in the initial conditions and then disappears.
In other words, the impulse response h(t) is equivalent to solving a homogeneous dierential equation, but
subject to the nonzero initial conditions produced by the impulse. For the impulse response of the first-order
circuit considered previously, we note that h(0) = 1. Finding the impulse response of y (t) + ay(t) = x(t) is
then equivalent to solving the homogeneous equation y (t) + ay(t) = 0 with y(0) = 1.
4.5 The Impulse Response of LTI Systems 83

REVIEW PANEL 4.15

An Impulse Produces a Sudden Change in State (Initial Conditions)
Solving y (t) + y(t) = (t), y(0) = 0 is equivalent to solving y (t) + y(t) = 0, y(0) = 1.

Similarly, it turns out that the impulse response of the second-order system y (t)+a1 y (t)+a2 y(t) = x(t)
can be found as the solution to the homogeneous equation y (t) + a1 y (t) + a2 y(t) = 0, with initial conditions
y(0) = 0 and y (0) = 1. These results can be generalized to higher-order systems. For the nth-order,
single-input system given by

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an y(t) = x(t) (4.17)

the impulse response h(t) is found as the solution to the homogeneous equation

h(n) (t) + a1 h(n1) (t) + + an h(t) = 0 h(n1) (0) = 1 (and all other ICs zero) (4.18)

Note that the highest-order initial condition is h(n1) (0) = 1 and all other initial conditions are zero.

REVIEW PANEL 4.16

Impulse Response of y (t) + a1 y
(n) (n1)
(t) + + an y(t) = x(t)
Find h(t) from h(n) (t) + a1 h(n1) (t) + + an h(t) = 0, with h(n1) (0) = 1 (and all other ICs zero).

EXAMPLE 4.9 (Impulse Response for the Single-Input Case)

(a) (A First-Order System)
Find the impulse response of the system described by y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t).

The characteristic equation s + 2 = 0 has the root s = 2.

The natural response is thus h(t) = Ke2t .
With h(0) = 1, we obtain h(0) = K = 1, and h(t) = e2t u(t).

(b) (A Second-Order System)

Find the impulse response of the system described by y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t).

The characteristic equation s2 + 3s + 2 = 0 has the roots s1 = 1 and s2 = 2.

The natural response is h(t) = K1 et + K2 e2t .
With h(0) = 0 and h (0) = 1, we obtain
h(0) = K1 + K2 = 0 and h (0) = K1 2K2 = 1. This gives K1 = 1 and K2 = 1.
Thus, h(t) = (et e2t )u(t).
84 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.5.4 Impulse Response for the General Case

To find the impulse response h(t) of the general system described by

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an y(t) = b0 x(m) (t) + + bm x(t) (4.19)

we use linearity and superposition as follows:

1. Start with the single-input system

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an y(t) = x(t)

and compute its impulse response h0 (t) from the homogeneous equation
(n) (n1) (n1)
h0 (t) + a1 h0 (t) + + an h0 (t) = 0, h0 (0) = 1 (4.20)

2. Then use linearity and superposition to compute h(t) as

(m) (m1)
h(t) = b0 h0 (t) + b1 h0 (t) + + bm h0 (t) (4.21)

REVIEW PANEL 4.17

Impulse Response of y (n)
(t) + a1 y (n1)
(t) + + an y(t) = b0 x(m) (t) + + bm x(t)
(n) (n1) (n1)
1. Find h0 (t) from h0 (t) + a1 h0 (t) + + an h0 (t) = 0, IC: h0 (0) = 1 (all other ICs zero).
(m) (m1)
2. Find h(t) (using superposition) as h(t) = b0 h0 (t) + b1 h0 (t) + + bm h0 (t).

EXAMPLE 4.10 (Impulse Response for the General Case)

(a) Find the impulse response of the system y (t) + 2y(t) = 3x(t).
The impulse response h0 (t) of the single-input system y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) is h0 (t) = e2t u(t).
The impulse response of the given system is thus h(t) = 3h0 (t) = 3e2t u(t).

(b) Find the impulse response of the system y (t) + 2y(t) = x (t) + 3x(t).
The impulse response h0 (t) of the single-input system y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) is h0 (t) = e2t u(t).
The impulse response of the given system is thus
h(t) = h0 (t) + 3h0 (t) = (t) 2e2t u(t) + 3e2t u(t) = (t) + e2t u(t).

(c) Find the impulse response of the system y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = x (t).
The impulse response h0 (t) of the system y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) is (from Example 4.9)
h0 (t) = (et e2t )u(t). The required impulse response is then h(t) = h0 (t). We compute:
h0 (t) = (et + 2e2t )u(t)
d
h(t) = h0 (t) = [h (t)] = (et 4e2t )u(t) + (t)
dt 0
4.6 System Stability 85

4.6 System Stability

Stability is important in practical design and is defined in many contexts. In the time domain, stability
involves constraints on the nature of the system response. Bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO)
stability implies that every bounded input results in a bounded output. For an LTI system described by
the dierential equation

y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an y(t) = b0 x(m) (t) + b1 x(m1) (t) + + bm x(t), mn (4.22)

the conditions for BIBO stability involve the roots of the characteristic equation. A necessary and sucient
condition for BIBO stability of an LTI system is that every root of its characteristic equation must have
a negative real part (and the highest derivative of the input must not exceed that of the output). This
criterion is based on the results of Tables 4.1 and 4.2. Roots with negative real parts ensure that the natural
(and zero-input) response always decays with time (see Table 4.1), and the forced (and zero-state) response
always remains bounded for every bounded input. Roots with zero real parts make the system unstable.
Simple (non-repeated) roots with zero real parts produce a constant (or sinusoidal) natural response which
is bounded, but if the input is also a constant (or a sinusoid at the same frequency), the forced response is a
ramp or growing sinusoid (see Table 4.2) and hence unbounded. Repeated roots with zero real parts result
in a natural response that is itself a growing sinusoid or polynomial and thus unbounded.
If the highest derivative of the input exceeds (not just equals) that of the output, the system is unstable.
For example, if y(t) = d x(t)
dt , a step input (which is bounded) produces an impulse output (which is unbounded
at t = 0). In the next chapter, we shall see that the stability condition described here is entirely equivalent
to having an LTI system whose impulse response h(t) is absolutely integrable. The stability of nonlinear or
time-varying systems must usually be checked by other means.

REVIEW PANEL 4.18

Requirements for BIBO Stability of Analog Systems
1. The degree of the highest derivative of x(t) must not exceed that of the highest derivative of y(t).
2. Every root of the characteristic equation must have a negative real part.

EXAMPLE 4.11 (Concepts Based on Stability)

(a) The system y (t)+3y (t)+2y(t) = x(t) is stable since the roots of its characteristic equation s2 +3s+2 =
0 are s = 1, 2 and have negative real parts.

(b) The system y (t) + 3y (t) = x(t) is unstable. The roots of its characteristic equation s2 + 3s = 0 are
s1 = 0 , and s2 = 3, and one of the roots does not have a negative real part. Although its natural
response is bounded (it has the form yN (t) = Au(t) + Be3t u(t)), the input x(t) = u(t) produces a
forced response of the form Ctu(t), which becomes unbounded.

(c) The system y (t) + 3y (t) = x(t) is unstable. The roots of its characteristic equation s3 + 3s2 = 0 are
s1 = s2 = 0, and s3 = 3. They result in the natural response yN (t) = Au(t) + Btu(t) + Ce3t u(t),
which becomes unbounded.
86 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.7 Application-Oriented Examples

In this section, we analyze several circuits that are useful in understanding the concepts of signal processing
and discuss some of their performance characteristics based on the results of the analysis.

4.7.1 An RC Lowpass Filter

Consider the relaxed RC lowpass filter sketched in the following review panel. Writing a node equation
(based on Kirchhos current law) at the node labeled A, we get the result
1 1
y (t) + y(t) = x(t) (4.23)

where = RC defines the time constant of the circuit. The characteristic equation s + 1 = 0 yields the
natural response yN (t) = Ket/ . To find the step response, we let x(t) = u(t) = 1, t 0. So the forced
response, yF (t) = B, is a constant. Then, with yF (t) = 0, we obtain
1 1
yF (t) + yF (t) = = 0 + B or B=1

Thus, y(t) = yF (t) + yN (t) = 1 + Ket/ . With y(0) = 0, we get 0 = 1 + K and

s(t) = y(t) = (1 et/ )u(t) (step response) (4.24)

The impulse response h(t) equals the derivative of the step response. Thus,
1 t/
h(t) = s (t) = e u(t) (impulse response) (4.25)

REVIEW PANEL 4.19

Unit Step Response and Unit Impulse Response of an RC Lowpass Filter
The output is the capacitor voltage. The time constant is = RC.
A s(t) h(t)
1 + +
+ R 1 + R
1
(1)
1 - t /
e
C C
1 e- t /
t t t t

Step response: s(t) = (1 et/ )u(t) Impulse response: h(t) = s (t) = e
1 t/
u(t)

Performance Measures
The time-domain performance of systems is often measured in terms of their impulse response and/or step
response. For an exponential signal Aet/ , the smaller the time constant , the faster is the decay. For
first-order systems, the time constant is a useful measure of the speed of the response, as illustrated in
Figure 4.1.
The smaller the time constant, the faster the system responds, and the more the output resembles
(matches) the applied input. An exponential decays to less than 1% of its peak value in about 5 . As
a result, the step response is also within 1% of its final value in about 5 . This forms the basis for the
observation that it takes about 5 to reach steady state. For higher-order systems, the rate of decay and the
4.7 Application-Oriented Examples 87

Exponential A e t / Step response Step response

A A A
Small 0.9A
Delay
Large 0.5A
Large
Small t t 0.1A t
Rise time

Figure 4.1 Time-domain performance measures

time to reach steady state depends on the largest time constant max (corresponding to the slowest decay)
associated with the exponential terms in its impulse response. A smaller max implies a faster response and
a shorter time to reach steady state. The speed of response is also measured by the rise time, which is often
defined as the time it takes for the step response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value. Another useful
measure of system performance is the delay time, which is often defined as the time it takes for the step
response to reach 50% of its final value. These measures are also illustrated in Figure 4.1. Another measure
is the settling time, defined as the time it takes for the step response to settle to within a small fraction
(typically, 5%) of its final value.

REVIEW PANEL 4.20

Time Domain Measures of System Performance
Time constant The smaller the , the more the output resembles the input.
Speed of response Depends on the largest time constant max in h(t).
Steady state Steady state is reached in about 5max .
Rise time Time for step response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.
Delay time Time for step response to reach 50% of its final value.
5% settling time Time for step response to settle to within 5% of its final value.

EXAMPLE 4.12 (Some Analog Filters)

Find the step response and impulse response of the circuits shown in Figure E4.12.

+ 1 + + + + +
1 3
H 2 1H 1 2H
x(t) 1F y(t) x(t) 1F y(t) x(t) 1F 1F 1 y(t)

Second-order Bessel filter Second-order Butterworth filter Third-order Butterworth filter
Figure E4.12. Circuits for Example 4.12.

(a) (A Second-Order Bessel Filter)

The governing dierential equation is y (t) + 3y (t) + 3y(t) = 3x(t).

The characteristic equation is s2 + 3s + 3 = 0. Its roots are s1,2 = 32 j 23 .

The natural response is thus yN (t) = e3t/2 [K1 cos( 3t/2) + K2 sin( 3t/2)].
For the step response, x(t) = 1, t 0, and we assume yF (t) = B.
Then yF (t) + yF (t) + 3yF (t) = 0 + 0 + 3B = 3, and B = 1.
88 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

The total response is y(t) = 1 + e3t/2 [K1 cos( 3t/2) + K2 sin( 3t/2)].

Using zero initial conditions, we get y(0) = 0 = 1 + K1 and y (0) = 0 = 23 K2 32 K1 .

Thus, K1 = 1, K2 = 3, and y(t) = u(t) e3t/2 [cos( 3t/2) + 3 sin( 3t/2)]u(t).
The impulse response h(t) equals the derivative of the step response.

Thus, h(t) = y (t) = 2 3e3t/2 sin( 3t/2)u(t).
The impulse response decays to nearly zero in about 3 s (five time constants).

(b) (A Second-Order Butterworth Filter)

The governing dierential equation is y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x(t).

The characteristic equation is s2 + 2s + 1 = 0. Its roots are s1,2 = 12 j 12 .

The natural response is thus yN (t) = et/ 2 [K1 cos(t/ 2) + K2 sin(t/ 2)].
For the step response, x(t) = 1, t 0, and we assume yF (t) = B.

Then yF (t) + 2yF (t) + yF (t) = B = 1.

The total response is y(t) = 1 + et/ 2 [K1 cos(t/ 2) + K2 sin(t/ 2)].
Using zero initial conditions, we get y(0) = 0 = 1 + K1 and y (0) = 0 = 12 (K2 K1 ).

Thus, K1 = K2 = 1 and y(t) = u(t) et/ 2 [cos(t/ 2) + sin(t/ 2)]u(t).
The impulse response h(t) equals the derivative of the step response.

Thus, h(t) = y (t) = 2et/ 2 sin(t/ 2)u(t).
The impulse response decays to nearly zero in about 7 s (five time constants).

(c) (A Third-Order Butterworth Filter)

The governing dierential equation is y (t) + 2y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = 12 x(t).

The characteristic equation is s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1 = 0. Its roots are s1,2 = 12 j 23 and s3 = 1.

The natural response is thus yN (t) = et/2 [K1 cos( 3t/2) + K2 sin( 3t/2)] + K3 et .
For the step response, x(t) = 1, t 0, and we assume yF (t) = B.
Then yF (t) + 2yF (t) + 2yF (t) + yF (t) = 0 + 0 + B = 12 .

The total response is y(t) = 12 + e3t/2 [K1 cos( 3t/2) + K2 sin( 3t/2)] + K3 et .
Using zero initial conditions, we get

y(0) = 0 = 1
2 + K1 + K3 y (0) = 0 = 12 K1 + 3
2 K2 K3y (0) = 0 = 12 K1 23 K2 + K3

Thus, K1 = 0, K2 = 13 , K3 = 12 , and y(t) = 12 u(t) 13 et/2 sin( 3t/2)u(t) 12 et u(t).
The impulse response h(t) equals the derivative of the step response.

Thus, h(t) = et/2 [ 2
1
3
sin( 3t/2) 12 cos( 3t/2)]u(t) 12 et u(t).
Chapter 4 Problems 89

CHAPTER 4 PROBLEMS
DRILL AND REINFORCEMENT
4.1 (Operators) Which of the following describe linear operators?
$t
(a) O{ } = 4{ } (b) O{ } = 4{ } + 3 (c) y(t) = x(t) dt
d x(t)
(d) O{ } = sin{ } (e) y(t) = x(4t) (f ) y(t) = 4 + 3x(t)
dt
4.2 (System Classification) In each of the following systems, x(t) is the input and y(t) is the output.
Classify each system in terms of linearity, time invariance, memory, and causality.
(a) y (t) + 3y (t) = 2x (t) + x(t) (b) y (t) + 3y(t)y (t) = 2x (t) + x(t)
(c) y (t) + 3tx(t)y (t) = 2x (t) (d) y (t) + 3y (t) = 2x2 (t) + x(t + 2)
(e) y(t) + 3 = x2 (t) + 2x(t) (f ) y(t) = 2x(t + 1) + 5
(g) y (t) + et y (t) = |x (t 1)| (h) y(t) = x2 (t) + 2x(t + 1)
$t
(i) y (t) + cos(2t)y (t) = x (t + 1) (j) y(t) + t y(t) dt = 2x(t)
$t $ t+1
(k) y (t) + 0 y(t) dt = |x (t)| x(t) (l) y (t) + t 0 y(t) dt = x (t) + 2

4.3 (Classification) Classify the following systems in terms of their linearity, time invariance, causality,
and memory.
(a) The modulation system
y(t) = x(t)cos(2f0 t).
(b) The modulation system
y(t) = [A + x(t)]cos(2f0 t).
(c) The modulation system
y(t) = cos[2f0 tx(t)].
(d) The modulation system
y(t) = cos[2f0 t + x(t)].
%
(e) The sampling system y(t) = x(t) (t kts ).
k=

4.4 (Forced Response) Evaluate the forced response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 2y(t) = u(t) (b) y (t) + 2y(t) = cos(t)u(t)
(c) y (t) + 2y(t) = et u(t) (d) y (t) + 2y(t) = e2t u(t)
(e) y (t) + 2y(t) = tu(t) (f ) y (t) + 2y(t) = te2t u(t)

4.5 (Forced Response) Evaluate the forced response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 3u(t) (b) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 6et u(t)
(c) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 5 cos(t)u(t) (d) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 2e2t u(t)
(e) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 2tu(t) (f ) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = (6et + 2e2t )u(t)

4.6 (Steady-State Response) The forced response of a system to sinusoidal inputs is termed the steady-
state response. Evaluate the steady-state response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 5y(t) = 2u(t) (b) y (t) + y(t) = cos(t)u(t)
(c) y (t) + 3y(t) = sin(t)u(t) (d) y (t) + 4y(t) = cos(t) + sin(2t)
(e) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = cos(3t)u(t) (f ) y (t) + 4y (t) + 4y(t) = cos(2t)u(t)
90 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.7 (Zero-State Response) Evaluate the zero-state response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 2y(t) = u(t) (b) y (t) + y(t) = cos(t)u(t)
(c) y (t) + y(t) = r(t) (d) y (t) + 3y(t) = et u(t)
(e) y (t) + 2y(t) = e2t u(t) (f ) y (t) + 2y(t) = e2t cos(t)u(t)

4.8 (Zero-State Response) Evaluate the zero-state response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 6u(t) (b) y (t) + 4y (t) + 3y(t) = 2e2t u(t)
(c) y (t) + 2y (t) + 2y(t) = 2et u(t) (d) y (t) + 4y (t) + 5y(t) = cos(t)u(t)
(e) y (t) + 4y (t) + 3y(t) = r(t) (f ) y (t) + 5y (t) + 4y(t) = (2et + 2e3t )u(t)

4.9 (System Response) Evaluate the natural, forced, zero-state, zero-input, and total response of the
following systems.
(a) y (t) + 5y(t) = u(t) y(0) = 2
(b) y (t) + 3y(t) = 2e2t u(t) y(0) = 1
(c) y (t) + 4y(t) = 8tu(t) y(0) = 2
(d) y (t) + 2y(t) = 2 cos(2t)u(t) y(0) = 4
(e) y (t) + 2y(t) = 2e2t u(t) y(0) = 6
(f ) y (t) + 2y(t) = 2e2t cos(t)u(t) y(0) = 8

4.10 (System Response) Evaluate the response y(t) of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + y(t) = 2x (t) + x(t) x(t) = 4e2t u(t) y(0) = 2
(b) y (t) + 3y(t) = 3x (t) x(t) = 4e2t u(t) y(0) = 0
(c) y (t) + 4y(t) = x (t) x(t) x(t) = 4u(t) y(0) = 6
(d) y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) + 2x(t 1) x(t) = 4u(t) y(0) = 0
(e) y (t) + 2y(t) = x (t) 2x(t 1) x(t) = 2et u(t) y(0) = 0
(f ) y (t) + 2y(t) = x (t) 2x (t 1) + x(t 2) x(t) = 2et u(t) y(0) = 4

4.11 (System Response) For each of the following, evaluate the natural, forced, zero-state, zero-input,
and total response. Assume y (0) = 1 and all other initial conditions zero.
(a) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 6u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 1
(b) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = 2et u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 1
(c) y (t) + 4y (t) + 3y(t) = 36tu(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 1
(d) y (t) + 4y (t) + 4y(t) = 2e2t u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 1
(e) y (t) + 4y (t) + 4y(t) = 8 cos(2t)u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 1
(f ) [(s + 1)2 (s + 2)]y(t) = e2t u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 1 y (0) = 0

4.12 (System Response) Evaluate the response y(t) of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 2x (t) + x(t) x(t) = 4u(t) y(0) = 2 y (0) = 1
(b) y (t) + 4y (t) + 3y(t) = 3x (t) x(t) = 4e2t u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 0
(c) y (t) + 4y (t) + 4y(t) = x (t) x(t) x(t) = 4u(t) y(0) = 6 y (0) = 3
(d) y (t) + 2y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) + 2x(t 1) x(t) = 4u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 0
(e) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = x (t) 2x(t 1) x(t) = 2et u(t) y(0) = 0 y (0) = 0
(f ) y (t) + 5y (t) + 4y(t) = x (t) 2x (t 1) x(t) = 3et u(t) y(0) = 4 y (0) = 4

4.13 (Impulse Response) Find the impulse response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 3y(t) = x(t) (b) y (t) + 4y(t) = 2x(t)
(c) y (t) + 2y(t) = x (t) 2x(t) (d) y (t) + y(t) = x (t) x(t)
Chapter 4 Problems 91

4.14 (Impulse Response) Find the impulse response of the following systems.
(a) y (t) + 5y (t) + 4y(t) = x(t) (b) y (t) + 4y (t) + 4y(t) = 2x(t)
(c) y (t) + 4y (t) + 3y(t) = 2x (t) x(t) (d) y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x (t) + x (t)

4.15 (Stability) Which of the following systems are stable, and why?
(a) y (t) + 4y(t) = x(t) (b) y (t) 4y(t) = 3x(t)
(c) y (t) + 4y(t) = x (t) + 3x(t) (d) y (t) + 5y (t) + 4y(t) = 6x(t)
(e) y (t) + 4y(t) = 2x (t) x(t) (f ) y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y(t) = x (t)
(g) y (t) 5y (t) + 4y(t) = x(t) (h) y (t) + 2y (t) 3y(t) = 2x (t)

4.16 (Impulse Response) The voltage input to a series RC circuit with a time constant is 1 t/
e u(t).

(a) Find the analytical form for the capacitor voltage.

(b) Show that as 0, we obtain the impulse response h(t) of the RC circuit.

4.17 (System Response) The step response of an LTI system is given by s(t) = (1 et )u(t).
(a) Establish its impulse response h(t) and sketch both s(t) and h(t).
(b) Evaluate and sketch the response y(t) to the input x(t) = rect(t 0.5).

REVIEW AND EXPLORATION

4.18 (System Classification) Explain why the system y (t) + y (t) = t sin(t) is time invariant, whereas
the system y (t) + y (t) = tx(t), where x(t) = sin(t), is time varying.

4.19 (System Classification) Investigate the linearity, time invariance, memory, causality, and stability
of the following operations.
! t ! t
(a) y(t) = y(0) + x() d (b) y(t) = x() d, t > 0
! t+1 0 !0 t+
(c) y(t) = x() d (d) y(t) = x( + 2) d
!t1
t !t
t+
(e) y(t) = x( 2) d (f ) y(t) = x( + 1) d
t t1

4.20 (Classification) Check the following for linearity, time invariance, memory, causality, and stability.
(a) The time-scaling system y(t) = x(2t)
(b) The folding system y(t) = x(t)
(c) The time-scaling system y(t) = x(0.5t)
(d) The sign-inversion system y(t) = sgn[x(t)]
(e) The rectifying system y(t) = |x(t)|

4.21 (Classification) Consider the two systems (1) y(t) = x(t) and (2) y(t) = x(t + ).
(a) For what values of is each system linear?
(b) For what values of is each system causal?
(c) For what values of is each system time invariant?
(d) For what values of is each system instantaneous?
92 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.22 (System Response) Consider the relaxed system y (t) + y(t) = x(t).
(a) The input is x(t) = u(t). What is the response?
(b) Use the result of part (a) (and superposition) to find the response of this system to the input
x1 (t) shown in Figure P4.22.
(c) The input is x(t) = tu(t). What is the response?
(d) Use the result of part (c) (and superposition) to find the response of this system to the input
x2 (t) shown in Figure P4.22.
(e) How are the results of parts (a) and (b) related to the results of parts (c) and (d)?

x 1(t) x 2(t)
4 4
2 t t
1 1 2
4 4
Figure P4.22 Input signals for Problem 4.22

4.23 (System Response) Consider the relaxed system y (t) + 1 y(t) = x(t).
(a) What is the response of this system to the unit step x(t) = u(t)?
(b) What is the response of this system to the unit impulse x(t) = (t)?
(c) What is the response of this system to the rectangular pulse x(t) = u(t) u(t )? Under what
conditions for and will the response resemble (be a good approximation to) the input?

4.24 (System Response) It is known that the response of the system y (t) + y(t) = x(t), = 0, is given
by y(t) = (5 + 3e2t )u(t).
(a) Identify the natural and forced response.
(b) Identify the values of and y(0).
(c) Identify the zero-input and zero-state response.
(d) Identify the input x(t).

4.25 (System Response) It is known that the response of the system y (t) + y(t) = x(t) is given by
y(t) = (5et + 3e2t )u(t).
(a) Identify the zero-input and zero-state response.
(b) What is the zero-input response of the system y (t) + y(t) = x(t) if y(0) = 10?
(c) What is the response of the relaxed system y (t) + y(t) = x(t 2)?
(d) What is the response of the relaxed system y (t) + y(t) = x (t) + 2x(t)?

4.26 (System Response) It is known that the response of the system y (t) + y(t) = x(t) is given by
y(t) = (5 + 2t)e3t u(t).
(a) Identify the zero-input and zero-state response.
(b) What is the zero-input response of the system y (t) + y(t) = x(t) if y(0) = 10?
(c) What is the response of the relaxed system y (t) + y(t) = x(t 2)?
(d) What is the response of the relaxed system y (t) + y(t) = 2x(t) + x (t)?
(e) What is the complete response of the system y (t) + y(t) = x (t) + 2x(t) if y(0) = 4?
Chapter 4 Problems 93

4.27 (Impulse Response) Consider the relaxed system y (t) + 1 y(t) = x(t).
(a) What is the impulse response of this system?
(b) What is the response of this system to the rectangular pulse x(t) = 1 [u(t) u(t )]? Show
that as 0, we obtain the system impulse response h(t).
(c) What is the response of this system to the exponential input x(t) = 1 et/ u(t)? Show that as
0, we obtain the system impulse response h(t).

4.28 (System Response) Find the response of the following systems for t 0.
(a) y (t) + 2y(t) = 2e(t1) u(t 1) y(0) = 5
(b) y (t) + 2y(t) = e2t u(t) + 2e(t1) u(t 1) y(0) = 5
(c) y (t) + 2y(t) = tet + 2e(t1) u(t 1) y(0) = 5
(d) y (t) + 2y(t) = cos(2t) + 2e(t1) u(t 1) y(0) = 5

4.29 (Impulse Response) Find the step response and impulse response of each circuit in Figure P4.29.

+ R + + R + + +
C
x(t) R y(t) x(t) y(t) x(t) R y(t)
C

Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3

+ L + + R + + R +

x(t) R y(t) x(t) R C y(t) x(t) R L y(t)

Circuit 4 Circuit 5 Circuit 6
Figure P4.29 Circuits for Problem 4.29

4.30 (Impulse Response) The input-output relation for an LTI system is shown in Figure P4.30. What
is the impulse response h(t) of this system?
x(t) Input y(t) Output
4 4
2
t 5 t
1 3 1 3
4
Figure P4.30 Figure for Problem 4.30

4.31 (System Response) Consider two relaxed RC circuits with 1 = 0.5 s and 2 = 5 s. The input to
both is the rectangular pulse x(t) = 5 rect(t 0.5) V. The output is the capacitor voltage.
(a) Find and sketch the outputs y1 (t) and y2 (t) of the two circuits.
(b) At what time t > 0 does the output of both systems attain the same value?

4.32 (Classification and Stability) Argue for or against the following statements, assuming relaxed
systems and constant element values. You may validate your arguments using simple circuits.
(a) A system with only resistors is always instantaneous and stable.
(b) A system with only inductors and/or capacitors is always stable.
(c) An RLC system with at least one resistor is always linear, causal, and stable.
94 Chapter 4 Analog Systems

4.33 (Dierential Equations from Impulse Response) Though there is an easy way of obtaining a
system dierential equation from its impulse response using transform methods, we can also obtain such
a representation by working in the time domain itself. Let a system be described by h(t) = et u(t). If
we compute h (t) = (t) et u(t), we find that h (t) + h(t) = (t), and the system dierential equation
follows as y (t) + y(t) = x(t). Using this idea, determine the system dierential equation corresponding
to each impulse response h(t).

(a) h(t) = et u(t) (b) h(t) = et u(t) e2t u(t)

4.34 (Inverse Systems) If the input to a system is x0 (t) and its response is y0 (t), the inverse system
is defined as a system that recovers x0 (t) when its input is y0 (t). Inverse systems are often used to
undo the eects of measurement systems such as a transducers. The system equation of the inverse of
many LTI systems can be found simply by switching the input and output. For example, if the system
equation is y(t) = x(t 3), the inverse system is x(t) = y(t 3) (or y(t) = x(t + 3), by time invariance).
Find the inverse of each system and determine whether the inverse system is stable.

(a) y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) (b) y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x (t) + 2x(t)

4.35 (Inverse Systems) A requirement for a system to have an inverse is that unique inputs must produce
unique outputs. Thus, the system y(t) = |x(t)| does not have an inverse because of the sign ambiguity.
Determine which of the following systems are invertible and, for those that are, find the inverse system.
(a) y(t) = x2 (t) (b) y(t) = ex(t) (c) y(t) = cos[x(t)]
(d) y(t) = ejx(t) (e) y(t) = x(t 2) (f ) y (t) + y(t) = x(t)

COMPUTATION AND DESIGN

ctsimgui A GUI for Numerical Simulation of System Response

The graphical user interface ctsimgui allows you to simulate and visualize the response of analog
systems, using various numerical integration methods.
You can select the input signal, the system parameters, and the simulation method.
You can display the input and simulated response for various choices of the time step.
To explore this routine, type ctsimgui at the Matlab prompt.

4.36 (System Response in Symbolic Form) The ADSP routine sysresp1 yields a symbolic result for
the system response (see Chapter 21 for examples of its usage). Consider the system y (t) + 2y(t) =
2x(t). Use sysresp1 to obtain its
(a) Step response.
(b) Impulse response.
(c) Zero-state response to x(t) = 4e3t u(t).
(d) Complete response to x(t) = 4e3t u(t) with y(0) = 5.

4.37 (System Response) Use the ADSP routine sysresp1 to find the step response and impulse response
of the following filters and plot each result over 0 t 4. Compare the features of the step response
of each filter. Compare the features of the impulse response of each filter.
(a) y (t) + y(t)
= x(t) (a first-order lowpass filter)
(b) y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x(t) (a second-order Butterworth lowpass filter)

Chapter 4 Problems 95

(c) y (t) + y (t) + y(t) = x (t) (a bandpass filter)

(d) y (t) + 2y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x(t) (a third-order Butterworth lowpass filter)

4.38 (Rise Time and Settling Time) For systems whose step response rises to a nonzero final value,
the rise time is commonly defined as the time it takes to rise from 10% to 90% of the final value. The
settling time is another measure for such signals. The 5% settling time, for example, is defined as the
time it takes for a signal to settle to within 5% of its final value. For each system, use the ADSP
routine sysresp1 to find the impulse response and step response and plot the results over 0 t 4.
For those systems whose step response rises toward a nonzero final value, use the ADSP routine trbw
to numerically estimate the rise time and the 5% settling time.
(a) y (t) + y(t)
= x(t) (a first-order lowpass filter)
(b) y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x(t) (a second-order Butterworth lowpass filter)
(c) y (t) + y (t) + y(t) = x (t) (a bandpass filter)
(d) y (t) + 2y (t) + 2y (t) + y(t) = x(t) (a third-order Butterworth lowpass filter)

4.39 (System Response) Consider the system y (t) + 4y(t) + Cy(t) = x(t).
(a) Use sysresp1 to obtain its step response and impulse response for C = 3, 4, 5 and plot each
response over an appropriate time interval.
(b) How does the step response dier for each value of C? For what value of C would you expect
the smallest rise time? For what value of C would you expect the smallest 3% settling time?
(c) Confirm your predictions in the previous part by numerically estimating the rise time and settling
time, using the ADSP routine trbw.

4.40 (Steady-State Response in Symbolic Form) The ADSP routine ssresp yields a symbolic ex-
pression for the steady-state response to sinusoidal inputs (see Chapter 21 for examples of its usage).
Find the steady-state response to the input x(t) = 2 cos(3t 3 ) for each of the following systems and
plot the results over 0 t 3, using a time step of 0.01 s.
(a) y (t) + y(t) = 2x(t), for = 1, 2
(b) y (t) + 4y(t) + Cy(t) = x(t), for C = 3, 4, 5

4.41 (Numerical Simulation of Analog Systems) The ADSP routine ctsim returns estimates of
the system response using numerical integration such as Simpsons rule and Runge-Kutta methods.
Consider the dierential equation y (t) + y(t) = x(t). In the following, use the second-order Runge-
Kutta method throughout.
(a) Let x(t) = rect(t 0.5) and = 1. Evaluate its response y(t) analytically. Use ctsim to evaluate
its response y1 (t) over 0 t 3, using a time step of 0.1 s. Plot both results on the same graph
and compare.
(b) Let x(t) = sin(t), 0 t . Use ctsim to evaluate its response y1 (t) over 0 t 6, using
= 1, 3, 10 and a time step of 0.02 s. Plot each response along with the input x(t) on the same
graph. Does the response begin to resemble the input as is increased? Should it? Explain.
(c) Let x(t) = sin(t), 0 t . Use ctsim to evaluate its response y1 (t) over 0 t 6, using
= 100 and a time step of 0.02 s. Plot the response along with the input x(t) on the same graph.
Now change the time step to 0.03 s. What is the response? To explain what is happening, find
and plot the response for time steps of 0.0201 s, 0.0202 s, and 0.0203 s. Describe what happens
to the computed response and why.
Chapter 5

DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

5.0 Scope and Objectives

The processing of discrete-time signals is accomplished by discrete-time (DT) systems or digital filters.
Their description relies heavily on how they respond to arbitrary or specific signals. Many discrete-time
systems may be described by dierence equations relating the input and output. The class of linear, time-
invariant systems may also be described by their impulse response, the response to an impulse input. This
chapter deals with discrete-time systems and their classification, time-domain representation, and analysis
based on the solution of dierence equations. It also introduces the all-important concept of the impulse
response, which forms a key ingredient in both system description and system analysis.

5.1 Discrete-Time Operators

In the time domain, many discrete-time systems can be modeled by dierence equations. For example,
the system described by y[n] = y[n 1] + x[n] produces the present output y[n] as the sum of the previous
output y[n 1] and the present input x[n]. Dierence equations involve signals and their shifted versions,
which can be conveniently expressed using operator notation. A unit delay is represented by the backward
shift operator, denoted by z 1 and transforms x[n] to x[n 1]. We express this transformation in operator
notation as z 1 {x[n]} = x[n 1]. A delay of 2 units is denoted by z 2 . The forward shift operator z k
describes an advance of k units and transforms x[n] to x[n + k]; we express this transformation in operator
notation as z k {x[n]} = x[n + k]. An operator allows us to transform one function to another. If an operator
is represented by the symbol O, the equation
O{x[n]} = y[n] (5.1)
implies that if the function x[n] is treated exactly as the operator O tells us, we obtain the function y[n].
For example, the operation O{ } = 4z 3 { } + 6 says that to get y[n], we must shift x[n] 3 units, multiply by
4, and then add 6 to the result to obtain 4z 3 {x[n]} + 6 = 4x[n + 3] + 6 = y[n]

5.1.1 Linear Operators and Superposition

If an operation on the sum of two functions is equivalent to the sum of operations applied to each separately,
the operator is said to be additive. In other words,
O{x1 [n] + x2 [n]} = O{x1 [n]} + O{x2 [n]} (for an additive operation) (5.2)
If an operation on Kx[n] is equivalent to K times the linear operation on x[n] where K is a scalar, the
operator is said to be homogeneous. In other words,
O{Kx[n]} = KO{x[n]} (for a homogeneous operation) (5.3)

96
5.2 System Classification 97

Together, the two describe the principle of superposition. An operator O is termed a linear operator
if it is both additive and homogeneous:

O{Ax1 [n] + Bx2 [n]} = AO{x1 [n]} + BO{x2 [n]} (for a linear operation) (5.4)

Otherwise, it is nonlinear. In many instances, it suces to test only for homogeneity (or additivity) to
confirm the linearity of an operation (even though one does not imply the other). An important concept
that forms the basis for the study of linear systems is that the superposition of linear operators is also linear.

REVIEW PANEL 5.1

A Linear Operator Obeys Superposition: aO{x1 [n]} + bO{x2 [n]} = O{ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]}
Superposition implies both homogeneity and additivity.
Homogeneity: O{ax[n]} = aO{x[n]} Additivity: O{x1 [n]} + O{x2 [n]} = O{x1 [n] + x2 [n]}

EXAMPLE 5.1 (Testing for Linear Operators)

(a) Consider the operator O{ } = C{ } + D.
Applying the homogeneity test, O{Ax[n]} = C(Ax[n]) + D, but AO{x[n]} = A(Cx[n] + D).
The two dier, so the operation is nonlinear (it is linear only if D = 0).

(b) Consider the squaring operator O{ } = { }2 , which transforms x[n] to x2 [n].

We find that AO{x[n]} = Ax2 [n], but O{Ax[n]} = (Ax[n])2 = A2 x2 [n].
The two are not equal, and the squaring operator is nonlinear.

5.2 System Classification

Discrete-time systems modeled by dierence equations relate the output y[n] to the input x[n]. The general
form of an N th-order dierence equation may be written as

y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (5.5)

The order N describes the output term with the largest delay. It is customary to normalize the leading
coecient to unity.

5.2.1 Linearity
A linear system is one for which superposition applies and implies that the system is relaxed (with zero initial
conditions) and the system equation involves only linear operators. However, we can use superposition even
for a system with nonzero initial conditions that is otherwise linear. We treat it as a multiple-input system by
including the initial conditions as additional inputs. The output then equals the superposition of the outputs
due to each input acting alone, and any changes in the input are related linearly to changes in the response.
As a result, its response can be written as the sum of a zero-input response (due to the initial conditions
alone) and the zero-state response (due to the input alone). This is the principle of decomposition,
which allows us to analyze linear systems in the presence of nonzero initial conditions. Both the zero-input
response and the zero-state response obey superposition.
98 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.2.2 Time Invariance

Time invariance implies that the shape of the response y[n] depends only on the shape of the input x[n]
and not on the time when it is applied. If the input is shifted to x[n n0 ], the response equals y[n n0 ]
and is shifted by the same amount. In other words, the system does not change with time. Formally, if the
operator O transforms the input x[n] to the output y[n] such that O{x[n]} = y[n], time invariance requires
that
O{x[n n0 ]} = y[n n0 ] (for time invariance) (5.6)

REVIEW PANEL 5.2

Time Invariance from the Operational Relation
If O{x[n]} = y[n], then O{x[n n0 )} = y[n n0 ] (shift input by shift output by ).

EXAMPLE 5.2 (Linearity and Time Invariance of Operators)

(a) y[n] = x[n]x[n 1] is nonlinear but time invariant.
The operation is O{ } = ({ })(z 1 { }). We find that
AO{x[n]} = A(x[n]x[n 1]), but O{Ax[n]} = (Ax[n])(Ax[n 1]). The two are not equal.
O{x[n n0 ]} = x[n n0 ]x[n n0 1], and y[n n0 ] = x[n n0 ]x[n n0 1]. The two are equal.

(b) y[n] = nx[n] is linear but time varying.

The operation is O{ } = n{ }. We find that
AO{x[n]} = A(nx[n]), and O{Ax[n]} = n(Ax[n]). The two are equal.
O{x[n n0 ]} = n(x[n n0 ]), but y[n n0 ] = (n n0 )x[n n0 ]. The two are not equal.

(c) y[n] = x[2n] is linear but time varying. The operation n 2n reveals that
AO{x[n]} = A(x[2n]), and O{Ax[n]} = (Ax[2n]). The two are equal.
O{x[n n0 ]} = x[2n n0 ], but y[n n0 ] = x[2(n n0 )]. The two are not equal.

(d) y[n] = x[n 2] is linear and time invariant. The operation n n 2 reveals that
AO{x[n]} = A(x[n 2]), and O{Ax[n]} = (Ax[n 2]). The two are equal.
O{x[n n0 ]} = x[n n0 2], and y[n n0 ] = x[n n0 2]. The two are equal.

(e) y[n] = 2x[n] x[n] is nonlinear but time invariant.

The operation is O{ } = (2){ } { } and reveals that
AO{x[n]} = A(2)x[n] x[n], but O{Ax[n]} = (2)Ax[n] (Ax[n]). The two are not equal.
O{x[n n0 ]} = (2)x[nn0 ] x[n n0 ], and y[n n0 ] = (2)x[nn0 ] x[n n0 ]. The two are equal.
5.2 System Classification 99

5.2.3 Linear Time-Invariant Systems

The important class of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems are described by dierence equations with
constant coecients. To test for linearity or time-invariance, we can formally apply the linearity or time-
invariance tests to each operation in the dierence equation or recognize nonlinear or time-varying operations
by generalizing the results of the previous example as follows:

1. Terms containing products of the input and/or output make a system equation nonlinear. A constant
term also makes a system equation nonlinear.

2. Coecients of the input or output that are explicit functions of n make a system equation time varying.
Time-scaled inputs or outputs such as y[2n] also make a system equation time varying.

REVIEW PANEL 5.3

An LTI System Is Described by a Linear Constant Coecient Dierence Equation (LCCDE)
y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ]
All terms contain x[n] or y[n]. All coecients are constant (not functions of x[n] or y[n] or n).

REVIEW PANEL 5.4

What Makes a System Dierence Equation Nonlinear or Time Varying?
It is nonlinear if any term is a constant or a nonlinear function of x[n] or y[n].
It is time varying if the coecient of any term in x[n] or y[n] is an explicit function of n.

EXAMPLE 5.3 (Linearity and Time Invariance of Systems)

We check the following systems for linearity and time invariance.

(a) y[n] 2y[n 1] = 4x[n]. This is LTI.

(b) y[n] 2ny[n 1] = x[n]. This is linear but time varying.

(c) y[n] + 2y 2 [n] = 2x[n] x[n 1]. This is nonlinear but time invariant.

(d) y[n] 2y[n 1] = (2)x[n] x[n]. This is nonlinear but time invariant.

(e) y[n] 4y[n]y[2n] = x[n]. This is nonlinear and time varying.

Implications of Linearity and Time Invariance

In most practical cases, if an input x[n] to a relaxed LTI system undergoes a linear operation, the output
y[n] undergoes the same linear operation. Often, an arbitrary function may be decomposed into its simpler
constituents, the response due to each analyzed separately and more eectively, and the total response found
using superposition. This approach forms the basis for several methods of system analysis. Representing an
arbitrary signal x[n] as a weighted sum of shifted DT impulses is the basis for the discrete convolution method
(Chapter 7). Representing a signal x[n] as a linear combination of DT harmonics or complex exponentials
is the basis for the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) and the z-transform (Chapters 15 and 17).
100 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.2.4 Causality and Memory

In a causal system, the present response y[n] cannot depend on future values of the input, such as x[n + 2].
Systems whose present response requires future inputs are termed noncausal. We can check for causality
by examining the operational transfer function H(z) derived from the dierence equation in operator
form. Its general form may be expressed as
B0 z M + B1 z M 1 + + BM 1 z + BM PM (z)
H(z) = = (5.7)
A0 z N + A1 z N 1 + + AN 1 z + AN QN (z)
If the order of the numerator polynomial exceeds the order of the denominator polynomial (i.e., M > N ),
the system is noncausal.

REVIEW PANEL 5.5

What Makes a System Dierence Equation Noncausal?
It is noncausal if the least delayed output term is y[n] and an input term like x[n + K], K > 0 is present.
Examples: y[n] 2y[n 2] = x[n] is causal. y[n] 2y[n 2] = x[n + 1] is noncausal.
Examples: y[n + 1] y[n] = x[n + 1] is causal. y[n + 1] y[n] = x[n + 2] is noncausal.

Instantaneous and Dynamic Systems

If the response of a system at n = n0 depends only on the input at n = n0 and not at any other times (past
or future), the system is called instantaneous or static. The system equation of an instantaneous system
is not only algebraic but also the input and output display identical arguments such as x[n 1] and y[n 1].
The response of a dynamic system depends on past (and/or future) inputs. Dynamic systems are usually
described by (but not limited to) dierence equations.

REVIEW PANEL 5.6

What Makes a System Static or Dynamic?
It is static if the output y[n0 ] depends only on the instantaneous value of the input x[n0 ].
Examples: y[n 2] = 3x[n 2] is static, but y[n] = 3x[n 2] is dynamic.
Most dynamic systems are described by dierence equations.

EXAMPLE 5.4 (Causal and Dynamic Systems)

(a) y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + A2 y[n 2] + + AN y[n N ] = x[n + K] is causal for K 0. It is also dynamic
(because it describes a dierence equation).
(b) y[n + N ] + A1 y[n + N 1] + A2 y[n + N 2] + + AN y[n] = x[n + K] is causal for K N and
dynamic.
(c) y[n] = x[n + 2] is noncausal (to find y[0], we need x[2]) and dynamic (y[n0 ] does not depend on x[n0 ]
but on x[n0 + 2]).
(d) y[n + 4] + y[n + 3] = x[n + 2] is causal and dynamic. It is identical to y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n 2].
(e) y[n] = 2x[n] is causal and instantaneous for = 1, causal and dynamic for < 1, and noncausal and
dynamic for > 1. It is also time varying if = 1.
(f ) y[n] = 2(n + 1)x[n] is causal and instantaneous (but time varying).
5.3 Digital Filters 101

5.3 Digital Filters

A digital filter may be described by the dierence equation

y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (5.8)

This describes an N th-order recursive filter whose present output depends on its own past values y[n k]
and on the past and present values of the input. It is also called an infinite impulse response (IIR) filter
because its impulse response h[n] (the response to a unit impulse input) is usually of infinite duration. Now
consider the dierence equation described by

y[n] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (FIR filter) (5.9)

Its present response depends only on the input terms and shows no dependence (recursion) on past values of
the response. It is called a nonrecursive filter, or a moving average filter, because its response is just
a weighted sum (moving average) of the input terms. It is also called a finite impulse response (FIR)
filter (because its impulse response is of finite duration).

REVIEW PANEL 5.7

The Terminology of Digital Filters
Recursive (IIR): y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ]
Nonrecursive (FIR): y[n] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ]

5.3.1 Digital Filter Realization

Digital filters described by dierence equations can be realized by using elements corresponding to the
operations of scaling (or multiplication), shift (or delay), and summing (or addition) that naturally occur
in such equations. These elements describe the gain (scalar multiplier), delay, and summer (or adder),
represented symbolically in Figure 5.1.

Delay Multiplier Summer

x [n] x [n 1] x [n] A Ax [n]

x [n]
+ x [n] + y [n]
z1 +

y [n]

Figure 5.1 The building blocks for digital filter realization

Delay elements in cascade result in an output delayed by the sum of the individual delays. The operational
notation for a delay of k units is z k . A nonrecursive filter described by

y[n] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BN x[n N ] (5.10)

can be realized using a feed-forward structure with N delay elements, and a recursive filter of the form

y[n] = A1 y[n 1] AN y[n N ] + x[n] (5.11)

requires a feedback structure (because the output depends on its own past values). Each realization is
shown in Figure 5.2 and requires N delay elements. The general form described by

y[n] = A1 y[n 1] AN y[n N ] + B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BN x[n N ] (5.12)

102 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

requires both feed-forward and feedback and 2N delay elements, as shown in Figure 5.3. However, since
LTI systems may be cascaded in any order (as we shall learn in the next chapter), we can switch the two
subsystems to obtain a canonical realization with only N delays, as also shown in Figure 5.3.

x [n]
B0 +
y [n] x [n]
+ y [n]
+ +
z1 z1
A1
+
B1 + + +
z1 z1
A2

B2 +
+
+ +

z1 AN z1
BM

Figure 5.2 Realization of a nonrecursive (left) and recursive (right) digital filter

x [n]
+ + y [n] x [n]
+ + y [n]
+ B0 + + B0 +
z1 z1 z1
A1 A1
+ +
+ +

+ B1 + + B1 +
z1 z1 z1
A2 A2
+ + + +
+ B2 + + B2 +

z1 z1 z1
AN BN AN BN

Figure 5.3 Direct (left) and canonical (right) realization of a digital filter

5.3.2 Analysis of Digital Filters

Digital filters or DT systems can be analyzed in the time domain using any of the following models:
The dierence equation representation applies to linear, nonlinear, and time-varying systems. For LTI
systems, it allows computation of the response using superposition even if initial conditions are present.
The impulse response representation describes a relaxed LTI system by its impulse response h[n]. The
output y[n] appears explicitly in the governing relation called the convolution sum. It also allows us to relate
time-domain and transformed-domain methods of system analysis. We discuss the details of this method in
Chapter 7.
5.4 Digital Filters Described by Dierence Equations 103

The state variable representation describes an nth-order system by n simultaneous first-order dierence
equations called state equations in terms of n state variables. It is useful for complex or nonlinear systems
and those with multiple inputs and outputs. For LTI systems, state equations can be solved using matrix
methods. The state variable form is also readily amenable to numerical solution. We do not pursue this
method in this book.

5.4 Digital Filters Described by Dierence Equations

We now examine how to find the response y[n] of a digital filter excited by an input x[n]. For nonrecursive
filters, whose output depends only on the input, the response is simply the weighted sum of the input terms
exactly as described by its system equation.
For recursive systems, whose dierence equation incorporates dependence on past values of the input,
we can use recursion and successively compute the values of the output as far as desired. This approach
is simple, but it is not always easy to discern a closed-form solution for the output. We can also use an
analytical approach that exactly parallels the solution of dierential equations. Typically, we specify y[1])
for a first-order system, y[1] and y[2] for a second-order system, and y[1], y[2], . . . , y[N ] for an N th-
order system. In other words, an N th-order dierence equation requires N consecutive initial conditions for
its complete solution. The following example illustrates this approach.

5.4.1 Solution by Recursion

The solution of a dierence equation by recursion is straightforward. Given an N th-order dierence equation
subject to the initial conditions y[1], y[2], . . . , y[N ], we successively generate values of y[0], y[1], . . . , as
far as desired.

EXAMPLE 5.5 (System Response Using Recursion)

(a) Consider a system described by y[n] = a1 y[n 1] + b0 u[n]. Let the initial condition be y[1] = 0. We
then successively compute
y[0] = a1 y[1] + b0 u[0] = b0
y[1] = a1 y[0] + b0 u[1] = a1 b0 + b0 = b0 [1 + a1 ]
y[2] = a1 y[1] + b0 u[2] = a1 [a1 b0 + b0 ] + b0 = b0 [1 + a1 + a21 ]
The form of y[n] may be discerned as
y[n] = b0 [1 + a1 + a21 + + an1
1 + an1 ]
Using the closed form for the geometric sequence results in
b0 (1 an+1 )
y[n] = 1
1 a1

(b) Consider a system described by y[n] = a1 y[n 1] + b0 nu[n]. Let the initial condition be y[1] = 0. We
then successively compute
y[0] = a1 y[1] = 0
y[1] = a1 y[0] + b0 u[1] = b0
y[2] = a1 y[1] + 2b0 u[2] = a1 b0 + 2b0
y[3] = a1 y[2] + 3b0 u[3] = a1 [a1 b0 + 2b0 ] + 3b0 = a21 + 2a1 b0 + 3b0
104 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

The general form is thus y[n] = an1

1 + 2b0 an2
1 + 3b0 an3
1 + (n 1)b0 a1 + nb0 .
We can find a more compact form for this, but not without some eort. By adding and subtracting
b0 an1
1 and factoring out an1 , we obtain
y[n] = an1 b0 an1
1 + b0 an1 [a1 2 3 n
1 + 2a1 + 3a1 + + na1 ]

Using the closed form for the sum kxk from k = 1 to k = N (with x = a1 ), we get
a1 [1 (n + 1)an + na(n+1) ]
y[n] = an1 b0 an1 + b0 an1
1
(1 a1 )2
What a chore! More elegant ways of solving dierence equations are described later in this chapter.

(c) Consider the recursive system y[n] = y[n 1] + x[n] x[n 3]. If x[n] equals [n] and y[1] = 0, we
successively obtain
y[0] = y[1] + [0] [3] = 1 y[3] = y[2] + [3] [0] = 1 1 = 0
y[1] = y[0] + [1] [2] = 1 y[4] = y[3] + [4] [1] = 0
y[2] = y[1] + [2] [1] = 1 y[5] = y[4] + [5] [2] = 0
The impulse response of this recursive filter is zero after the first three values and has a finite length.
It is actually a nonrecursive (FIR) filter in disguise!

5.4.2 Formal Solution of Dierence Equations

In analogy with dierential equations, we start with an N th-order dierence equation with a single input:
y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + A2 y[n 2] + + AN y[n N ] = x[n] (5.13)
Its solution, subject to the given initial conditions y[1], y[2], y[3], . . . , y[N ], may be expressed as a
superposition of the natural response and the forced response. The natural response contains only
exponentials whose exponents correspond to the roots (real or complex) of the characteristic equation defined
by
1 + A1 z 1 + A2 z 2 + + AN z N = z N + A1 z N 1 + + AN = 0 (5.14)
This equation has N roots, z1 , z2 , . . . , zN . The natural response is a linear combination of N discrete-time
exponentials of the form
yN [n] = K1 z1n + K2 z2n + + KN zN
n
(5.15)
This form must be modified for multiple roots. Table 5.1 summarizes the preferred forms for multiple or
complex roots. The N constants K1 , K2 , . . . , KN are evaluated by using the specified initial conditions but
only after setting up the total response.
The forced response satisfies the given dierence equation and has the same form as the input. Table 5.2
summarizes these forms for various types of input signals. The constants in the forced response can be found
uniquely and independently of the natural response or initial conditions by satisfying the given dierence
equation.
The total response is found by first adding the forced and natural response and then evaluating the
undetermined constants (in the natural component), using the prescribed initial conditions.
For stable systems, the natural response is also called the transient response since it decays to zero
with time. For a system with harmonic or switched harmonic inputs, the forced response is also a harmonic
at the input frequency and is called the steady-state response.
5.4 Digital Filters Described by Dierence Equations 105

Table 5.1 Form of the Natural Response for Discrete LTI Systems

Entry Root of Characteristic Equation Form of Natural Response

1 Real and distinct: r Krn

2 Complex conjugate: rej rn [K1 cos(n) + K2 sin(n)]

3 Real, repeated: rp+1 rn (K0 + K1 n + K2 n2 + + Kp np )

! "p+1 rn cos(n)(A0 + A1 n + A2 n2 + + Ap np )
4 Complex, repeated: rej
+ rn sin(n)(B0 + B1 n + B2 n2 + + Bp np )

Table 5.2 Form of the Forced Response for Discrete LTI Systems

Note: If the right-hand side (RHS) is n , where is also a root of the characteristic
equation repeated p times, the forced response form must be multiplied by np .
Entry Forcing Function (RHS) Form of Forced Response

1 C0 (constant) C1 (another constant)

2 n (see note above) Cn

3 cos(n + ) C1 cos(n) + C2 sin(n) or C cos(n + )

4 n cos(n + ) (see note above) n [C1 cos(n) + C2 sin(n)]

5 n C0 + C1 n

6 np C0 + C1 n + C2 n2 + + Cp np

7 nn (see note above) n (C0 + C1 n)

8 np n (see note above) n (C0 + C1 n + C2 n2 + + Cp np )

9 n cos(n + ) (C1 + C2 n)cos(n) + (C3 + C4 n)sin(n)

REVIEW PANEL 5.8

Response of LTI Systems Described by Dierence Equations
Total Response = Natural Response + Forced Response
The roots of the characteristic equation determine only the form of the natural response.
The input terms (RHS) of the dierence equation completely determine the forced response.
Initial conditions satisfy the total response to yield the constants in the natural response.
106 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

EXAMPLE 5.6 (Forced and Natural Response)

(a) Consider the system shown in Figure E5.6A.
Find its response if x[n] = (0.4)n , n 0 and the initial condition is y[1] = 10.

x [n]
+ y [n]
+
z1
0.6

Figure E5.6A The system for Example 5.6(a)

The dierence equation describing this system is y[n] 0.6y[n 1] = x[n] = (0.4)n , n 0.
Its characteristic equation is 1 0.6z 1 = 0 or z 0.6 = 0.
Its root z = 0.6 gives the form of the natural response yN [n] = K(0.6)n .
Since x[n] = (0.4)n , the forced response is yF [n] = C(0.4)n .
We find C by substituting for yF [n] into the dierence equation
yF [n] 0.6yF [n 1] = (0.4)n = C(0.4)n 0.6C(0.4)n1 .
Cancel out (0.4)n from both sides and solve for C to get
C 1.5C = 1 or C = 2.
Thus, yF [n] = 2(0.4)n . The total response is y[n] = yN [n] + yF [n] = 2(0.4)n + K(0.6)n .
We use the initial condition y[1] = 10 on the total response to find K:
y[1] = 10 = 5 + K
0.6 and K = 9.
Thus, y[n] = 2(0.4) + 9(0.6)n , n 0.
n

(b) Consider the dierence equation y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = 5 cos(0.5n), n 0 with y[1] = 4.
Its characteristic equation is 1 0.5z 1 = 0 or z 0.5 = 0.
Its root z = 0.5 gives the form of the natural response yN [n] = K(0.5)n .
Since x[n] = 5 cos(0.5n), the forced response is yF [n] = A cos(0.5n) + B sin(0.5n).
We find yF [n 1] = A cos[0.5(n 1)] + B sin[0.5(n 1)] = A sin(0.5n) B cos(0.5n). Then
yF [n] 0.5yF [n 1] = (A + 0.5B)cos(0.5n) (0.5A B)sin(0.5n) = 5 cos(0.5n)
Equate the coecients of the cosine and sine terms to get
(A + 0.5B) = 5, (0.5A B) = 0 or A = 4, B = 2, and yF [n] = 4 cos(0.5n) + 2 sin(0.5n).
The total response is y[n] = K(0.5)n + 4 cos(0.5n) + 2 sin(0.5n). With y[1] = 4, we find
y[1] = 4 = 2K 2 or K = 3, and thus y[n] = 3(0.5)n + 4 cos(0.5n) + 2 sin(0.5n), n 0.
The steady-state response is 4 cos(0.5n) + 2 sin(0.5n), and the transient response is 3(0.5)n .
5.4 Digital Filters Described by Dierence Equations 107

(c) Consider the dierence equation y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = 3(0.5)n , n 0 with y[1] = 2.
Its characteristic equation is 1 0.5z 1 = 0 or z 0.5 = 0.
Its root, z = 0.5, gives the form of the natural response yN [n] = K(0.5)n .
Since x[n] = (0.5)n has the same form as the natural response, the forced response is yF [n] = Cn(0.5)n .
We find C by substituting for yF [n] into the dierence equation:
yF [n] 0.5yF [n 1] = 3(0.5)n = Cn(0.5)n 0.5C(n 1)(0.5)n1 .
Cancel out (0.5)n from both sides and solve for C to get Cn C(n 1) = 3, or C = 3.
Thus, yF [n] = 3n(0.5)n . The total response is y[n] = yN [n] + yF [n] = K(0.5)n + 3n(0.5)n .
We use the initial condition y[1] = 2 on the total response to find K:
y[1] = 2 = 2K 6, and K = 4.
Thus, y[n] = 4(0.5)n + 3n(0.5)n = (4 + 3n)(0.5)n , n 0.

(d) (A Second-Order System) Consider the system shown in Figure E5.6D.

Find the forced and natural response of this system if x[n] = u[n] and y[1] = 0, y[2] = 12.
x [n]
+ 4
y [n]
+
z1
1/6
+
+
z1
1/6

Figure E5.6D The system for Example 5.6(d)

Comparison with the generic realization of Figure 5.2 reveals that the system dierence equation is

y[n] 16 y[n 1] 16 y[n 2] = 4x[n] = 4u[n]

Its characteristic equation is 1 16 z 1 16 z 2 = 0 or z 2 16 z 1

6 = 0.
Its roots are z1 = 1
2 and z2 = 13 .
The natural response is thus yN [n] = K1 (z1 )n + K2 (z2 )n = K1 ( 12 )n + K2 ( 13 )n .
Since the forcing function is 4u[n] (a constant for n 0), the forced response yF [n] is constant.
Let yF [n] = C. Then yF [n 1] = C, yF [n 2] = C, and
yF [n] 16 yF [n 1] 16 yF [n 2] = C 16 C 16 C = 4. This yields C = 6.
Thus, yF [n] = 6. The total response y[n] is y[n] = yN [n] + yF [n] = K1 ( 21 )n + K2 ( 13 )n + 6.
To find the constants K1 and K2 , we use the initial conditions on the total response to obtain
y[1] = 0 = 2K1 3K2 + 6, and y[2] = 12 = 4K1 + 9K2 + 6. We find K1 = 1.2 and K2 = 1.2.
Thus, y[n] = 1.2( 12 )n + 1.2( 31 )n + 6, n 0.
Its transient response is 1.2( 21 )n + 1.2( 31 )n . Its steady-state response is a constant that equals 6.
108 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.4.3 The Zero-Input Response and Zero-State Response

It is often more convenient to describe the response y(t) of an LTI system as the sum of its zero-state
response (ZSR) yzs [n] (assuming zero initial conditions) and zero-input response (ZIR) yzi [n] (assuming zero
input). Each component is found using the method of undetermined coecients. Note that the natural and
forced components yN [n] and yF [n] do not, in general, correspond to the zero-input and zero-state response,
respectively, even though each pair adds up to the total response. Remember also that the zero-state response
obeys superposition (as does the zero-input response).

REVIEW PANEL 5.9

The Zero-Input Response (ZIR) and Zero-State Response (ZSR) of LTI Systems
Total Response = ZIR (assume zero input, use given IC) + ZSR (assume zero IC).
Each obeys superposition. Each is found from its own natural and forced components.

REVIEW PANEL 5.10

Solving y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = x[n]
1. Find ZSR from yzs [n] + A1 yzs [n 1] + + AN yzs [n N ] = x[n], with zero initial conditions.
2. Find ZIR from yzi [n] + A1 yzi [n 1] + + AN yzi [n N ] = 0, using given initial conditions.
3. Find complete response as y[n] = yzs [n] + yzi [n].

EXAMPLE 5.7 (Zero-Input and Zero-State Response for the Single-Input Case)
(a) Consider the dierence equation y[n] 0.6y[n 1] = (0.4)n , n 0, with y[1] = 10.
The forced response and the form of the natural response were found in Example 5.6(a) as:
yF [n] = 2(0.4)n yN [n] = K(0.6)n

1. Its ZSR is found from the form of the total response is yzs [n] = 2(0.4)n + K(0.6)n , with zero
initial conditions:
yzs [1] = 0 = 5 + K
0.6 K=3 yzs [n] = 2(0.4)n + 3(0.6)n , n 0
2. Its ZIR is found from the natural response yzi [n] = K(0.6)n , with given initial conditions:

yzi [1] = 10 = K
0.6 K=6 yzi [n] = 6(0.6)n , n 0

3. The total response is y[n] = yzi [n] + yzs [n] = 2(0.4)n + 9(0.6)n , n 0.
This matches the results of Example 5.6(a).

(b) Let y[n] 16 y[n 1] 16 y[n 2] = 4, n 0, with y[1] = 0 and y[2] = 12.
1. The ZIR has the form of the natural response yzi [n] = K1 ( 12 )n + K2 ( 13 )n (see Example 5.6(d)).
To find the constants, we use the given initial conditions y[1] = 0 and y[2] = 12:
0 = K1 ( 12 )1 + K2 ( 13 )1 = 2K1 3K2 12 = K1 ( 12 )2 + K2 ( 13 )2 = 4K1 + 9K2
Thus, K1 = 1.2, K2 = 0.8, and
yzi [n] = 1.2( 21 )n + 0.8( 13 )n , n0
5.4 Digital Filters Described by Dierence Equations 109

2. The ZSR has the same form as the total response. Since the forced response (found in Exam-
ple 5.6(d)) is yF [n] = 6, we have
yzs [n] = K1 ( 12 )n + K2 ( 13 )n + 6

To find the constants, we assume zero initial conditions, y[1] = 0 and y[2] = 0, to get
y[1] = 0 = 2K1 3K2 + 6 y[2] = 0 = 4K1 + 9K2 + 6

We find K1 = 2.4 and K = 0.4, and thus

yzs [n] = 2.4( 21 )n + 0.4( 31 )n + 6, n0
3. The total response is y[n] = yzi [n] + yzs [n] = 1.2( 21 )n + 1.2( 31 )n + 6, n 0.
This matches the result of Example 5.6(d).

(c) (Linearity of the ZSR and ZIR) An IIR filter is described by y[n] y[n 1] 2y[n 2] = x[n],
with x[n] = 6u[n] and initial conditions y[1] = 1, y[2] = 4.
1. Find the zero-input response, zero-state response, and total response.
2. How does the total response change if y[1] = 1, y[2] = 4 as given, but x[n] = 12u[n]?
3. How does the total response change if x[n] = 6u[n] as given, but y[1] = 2, y[2] = 8?

1. We find the characteristic equation as (1 z 1 2z 2 ) = 0 or (z 2 z 2) = 0.

The roots of the characteristic equation are z1 = 1 and z2 = 2.
The form of the natural response is yN [n] = A(1)n + B(2)n .
Since the input x[n] is constant for n 0, the form of the forced response is also constant.
So, choose yF [n] = C in the system equation and evaluate C:
yF [n] yF [n 1] 2yF [n 2] = C C 2C = 6 C = 3 yF [n] = 3

For the ZSR, we use the form of the total response and zero initial conditions:
yzs [n] = yF [n] + yN [n] = 0.5 + A(1)n + B(2)n , y[1] = y[2] = 0

We obtain yzs [1] = 0 = 3 A + 0.5B and yzs [2] = 0 = 3 + A + 0.25B

Thus, A = 1, B = 8, and yzs [n] = 3 + (1)n + 8(2)n , n 0.
For the ZIR, we use the form of the natural response and the given initial conditions:
yzi [n] = yN [n] = A(1)n + B(2)n y[1] = 1 y[2] = 4

This gives yzi [1] = 1 = A + 0.5B, and yzi [2] = 4 = A + 0.25B.

Thus, A = 3, B = 4, and yzi [n] = 3(1)n + 4(2)n , n 0.
The total response is the sum of the zero-input and zero-state response:
y[n] = yzi [n] + yzs [n] = 3 + 4(1)n + 12(2)n , n 0
2. If x[n] = 12u[n], the zero-state response doubles to yzs [n] = 6 + 2(1)n + 16(2)n .
3. If y[1] = 2 and y[2] = 8, the zero-input response doubles to yzi [n] = 6(1)n + 8(2)n .
110 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.4.4 Solution of the General Dierence Equation

The solution of the general dierence equation described by
y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (5.16)
is found by invoking linearity and superposition as follows:
1. Compute the zero-state response y0 [n] of the single-input system
y0 [n] + A1 y0 [n 1] + A2 y0 [n 2] + + AN y0 [n N ] = x[n] (5.17)
2. Use linearity and superposition to find yzs [n] as
yzs [n] = B0 y0 [n] + B1 y0 [n 1] + + BM y0 [n M ] (5.18)
3. Find the zero-input response yzi [n] using initial conditions.
4. Find the total response as y[n] = yzs [n] + yzi [n].
Note that the zero-input response is computed and included just once.

REVIEW PANEL 5.11

Solving y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ]
1. Find y0 [n] from y0 [n] + A1 y0 [n 1] + + AN y0 [n N ] = x[n], using zero initial conditions.
2. Find ZSR (using superposition) as yzs [n] = B0 y0 [n] + B1 y0 [n 1] + + BM y0 [n M ].
3. Find ZIR from yzi [n] + A1 yzi [n 1] + + AN yzi [n N ] = 0, using given initial conditions.
4. Find complete response as y[n] = yzs [n] + yzi [n].

EXAMPLE 5.8 (Response of a General System)

Consider the recursive digital filter whose realization is shown in Figure E5.8.
What is the response of this system if x[n] = 6u[n] and y[1] = 1, y[2] = 4?
x [n]
+ 2
+ y [n]
+
z1

+
+
z1
2

Figure E5.8 The digital filter for Example 5.8

Comparison with the generic realization of Figure 5.3 reveals that the system dierence equation is
y[n] y[n 1] 2y[n 2] = 2x[n] x[n 1]
From Example 5.7(c), the ZSR of y[n] y[n 1] 2y[n 2] = x[n] is y0 [n] = [3 + (1)n + 8(2)n ]u[n].
The ZSR for the input 2x[n] x[n 1] is thus
yzs [n] = 2y0 [n] y0 [n 1] = [6 + 2(1)n + 16(2)n ]u[n] [3 + (1)n1 + 8(2)n1 ]u[n 1]
From Example 5.7(c), the ZIR of y[n] y[n 1] 2y[n 2] = x[n] is yzi [n] = [3(1)n + 4(2)n ]u[n].
The total response is y[n] = yzi [n] + yzs [n]:
y[n] = [3(1)n + 4(2)n ]u[n] + [6 + 2(1)n + 16(2)n ]u[n] [3 + (1)n1 + 8(2)n1 ]u[n 1]
5.5 Impulse Response of Digital Filters 111

5.5 Impulse Response of Digital Filters

The impulse response h[n] of a relaxed LTI system is simply the response to a unit impulse input [n]. The
impulse response provides us with a powerful method for finding the zero-state response of LTI systems to
arbitrary inputs using superposition (as described in the next chapter). The impulse response and the step
response are often used to assess the time-domain performance of digital filters.

REVIEW PANEL 5.12

The Impulse Response and Step Response Is Defined Only for Relaxed LTI Systems

Impulse input [n] Relaxed LTI system Impulse response h [n]

Impulse response h[n]: The output of a relaxed LTI system if the input is a unit impulse [n]
Step response s[n]: The output of a relaxed LTI system if the input is a unit step u[n]

5.5.1 Impulse Response of Nonrecursive Filters

For a nonrecursive (FIR) filter of length M + 1 described by

y[n] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (5.19)

the impulse response h[n] (with x[n] = [n]) is an M + 1 term sequence of the input terms, which may be
written as

h[n] = B0 [n] + B1 [n 1] + + BM [n M ] or h[n] = {B0 , B1 , . . . , BM } (5.20)

The sequence h[n] represents the FIR filter coecients.

5.5.2 Impulse Response of Recursive Filters

Recursion provides a simple means of obtaining as many terms of the impulse response h[n] of a relaxed
recursive filter as we please, though we may not always be able to discern a closed form from the results.
Remember that we must use zero initial conditions.

EXAMPLE 5.9 (Impulse Response by Recursion)

Find the impulse response of the system described by y[n] y[n 1] = x[n].
We find h[n] as the solution to h[n] = h[n 1] + [n] subject to the initial condition y[1] = 0. By
recursion, we obtain
h[0] = h[1] + [0] = 1 h[2] = h[1] = 2
h[1] = h[0] = h[3] = h[2] = 3
The general form of h[n] is easy to discern as h[n] = n u[n].

5.5.3 Impulse Response for the Single-Input Case

Consider the N th-order dierence equation with a single input:

y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + A2 y[n 2] + + AN y[n N ] = x[n] (5.21)

112 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

To find its impulse response, we solve the dierence equation

h[n] + A1 h[n 1] + A2 h[n 2] + + AN h[n N ] = [n] (zero initial conditions) (5.22)

Since the input [n] is zero for n > 0, we must apparently assume a forced response that is zero and thus
solve for the natural response using initial conditions (leading to a trivial result). The trick is to use at
least one nonzero initial condition, which we must find by recursion. By recursion, we find h[0] = 1. Since
[n] = 0, n > 0, the impulse response is found as the natural response of the homogeneous equation

h[n] + A1 h[n 1] + A2 h[n 2] + + AN h[n N ] = 0, h[0] = 1 (5.23)

subject to the nonzero initial condition h[0] = 1. All the other initial conditions are assumed to be zero
(h[1] = 0 for a second-order system, h[1] = h[2] = 0 for a third-order system, and so on).

REVIEW PANEL 5.13

The Impulse Response of y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = x[n]
Find h[n] from h[n] + A1 h[n 1] + + AN h[n N ] = 0, with IC h[0] = 1 (all other ICs zero).

EXAMPLE 5.10 (Impulse Response Computation for the Single-Input Case)

(a) Consider the dierence equation y[n] 0.6y[n 1] = x[n].
Its impulse response is found by solving h[n] 0.6h[n 1] = 0, h[0] = 1.
Its natural response is h[n] = K(0.6)n .
With h[0] = 1, we find K = 1, and thus h[n] = (0.6)n u[n].

(b) Let y[n] 16 y[n 1] 16 y[n 2] = x[n].

Its impulse response is found by solving h[n] 16 h[n 1] 16 h[n 2] = 0, h[0] = 1, h[1] = 0.
Its characteristic equation is 1 16 z 1 16 z 2 = 0 or z 2 16 z 1
6 = 0.
Its roots, z1 = 1
2 and z2 = 13 , give the natural response h[n] = K1 ( 12 )n + K2 ( 13 )n .
With h[0] = 1 and h[1] = 0, we find 1 = K1 + K2 and 0 = 2K1 3K2 .
Solving for the constants, we obtain K1 = 0.6 and K2 = 0.4.
Thus, h[n] = [0.6( 21 )n + 0.4( 13 )n ]u[n].

5.5.4 Impulse Response for the General Case

To find the impulse response of the general system described by

y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + A2 y[n 2] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (5.24)

we use linearity and superposition as follows:

1. Find the impulse response h0 [n] of the single-input system

y0 [n] + A1 y0 [n 1] + A2 y0 [n 2] + + AN y0 [n N ] = x[n] (5.25)

5.5 Impulse Response of Digital Filters 113

by solving the homogeneous equation

h0 [n] + A1 h0 [n 1] + + AN h0 [n N ] = 0, y[0] = 1 (all other ICs zero) (5.26)

2. Then, invoke superposition to find the actual impulse response h[n] as

h[n] = B0 h0 [n] + B1 h0 [n 1] + + BM h0 [n M ] (5.27)

REVIEW PANEL 5.14

Impulse Response of y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ]
1. Find h0 [n] from h0 [n] + A1 h0 [n 1] + + AN h0 [n N ] = 0, IC: h0 [0] = 1 (all others zero).
2. Find h[n] (using superposition) as h[n] = B0 h0 [n] + B1 h0 [n 1] + + BM h0 [n M ].

EXAMPLE 5.11 (Impulse Response for the General Case)

(a) Find the impulse response of y[n] 0.6y[n 1] = 4x[n] and y[n] 0.6y[n 1] = 3x[n + 1] x[n].
We start with the single-input system y0 [n] 0.6y0 [n 1] = x[n].
Its impulse response h0 [n] was found in Example 5.10(a) as h0 [n] = (0.6)n u[n].
Then, for the first system, h[ n] = 4h0 [n] = 4(0.6)n u[n].
For the second system, h[n] = 3h0 [n + 1] h0 [n] = 3(0.6)n+1 u[n + 1] (0.6)n u[n].
This may also be expressed as h[n] = 3[n + 1] + 0.8(0.6)n u[n].
Comment: The general approach can be used for causal or noncausal systems.

(b) Let y[n] 16 y[n 1] 16 y[n 2] = 2x[n] 6x[n 1].

To find h[n], start with the single-input system y[n] 16 y[n 1] 16 y[n 2] = x[n].
Its impulse response h0 [n] was found in Example 5.10(b) as
h0 [n] = [0.6( 21 )n + 0.4( 13 )n ]u[n]

The impulse response of the given system is h[n] = 4h0 [n] h0 [n 1]. We find
h[n] = [1.2( 21 )n + 0.8( 13 )n ]u[n] [3.6( 21 )n1 + 2.4( 31 )n1 ]u[n 1]

Comment: This may be simplified to h[n] = [6( 12 )n + 8( 13 )n ]u[n].

5.5.5 Recursive Form for Nonrecursive Digital Filters

The terms FIR and nonrecursive are synonymous. A nonrecursive filter always has a finite impulse response.
The terms IIR and recursive are often, but not always, synonymous. Not all recursive filters have an infinite
impulse response. In fact, nonrecursive filters can often be implemented in recursive form. A recursive filter
may also be described by a nonrecursive filter of the form y[n] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ]
if we know all the past inputs. In general, this implies M .
114 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

EXAMPLE 5.12 (Recursive Form for Nonrecursive Filters)

Consider the nonrecursive filter y[n] = x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2].
Its impulse response is h[n] = [n] + [n 1] + [n 2].
To cast this filter in recursive form, we compute y[n 1] = x[n 1] + x[n 2] + x[n 3].
Upon subtraction from the original equation, we obtain the recursive form

y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] x[n 3]

Comment: Remember that the impulse response of this recursive system is of finite length.

5.5.6 The Response of Anti-Causal Systems

So far, we have focused on the response of systems described by dierence equations to causal inputs.
However, by specifying an anti-causal input and appropriate initial conditions, the same dierence equation
can be solved backward in time for n < 0 to generate an anti-causal response. For example, to find the
causal impulse response h[n], we assume that h[n] = 0, n < 0; but to find the anti-causal impulse response
hA [n] of the same system, we would assume that h[n] = 0, n > 0. This means that the same system can be
described by two dierent impulse response functions. How we distinguish between them is easily handled
using the z-transform, which we study in Chapter 17.

EXAMPLE 5.13 (Causal and Anti-Causal Impulse Response)

(a) Find the causal impulse response of the first-order system y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = x[n].
For the causal impulse response, we assume h[n] = 0, n < 0, and solve for h[n], n > 0, by recursion
from h[n] = 0.4h[n 1] + [n]. With h[0] = 0.4h[1] + [0] = 1 and [n] = 0, n = 0, we find

h[1] = 0.4h[0] = 0.4 h[2] = 0.4h[1] = (0.4)2 h[3] = 0.4h[2] = (0.4)3 etc.

The general form is easily discerned as h[n] = (0.4)n and is valid for n 0.
Comment: The causal impulse response of y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] is h[n] = n u[n].

(b) Find the anti-causal impulse response of the first-order system y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = x[n].
For the anti-causal impulse response, we assume h[n] = 0, n 0, and solve for h[n], n < 0, by recursion
from h[n 1] = 2.5(h[n] [n]). With h[1] = 2.5(h[0] [0]) = 2.5, and [n] = 0, n = 0, we find

h[2] = 2.5h[1] = (2.5)2 h[3] = 2.5h[2] = (2.5)3 h[4] = 2.5h[3] = (2.5)4 etc.

The general form is easily discerned as h[n] = (2.5)n = (0.4)n and is valid for n 1.
Comment: The anti-causal impulse response of y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] is h[n] = n u[n 1].
5.6 Stability of Discrete-Time LTI Systems 115

5.6 Stability of Discrete-Time LTI Systems

Stability is important in practical design and involves constraints on the nature of the system response.
Bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stability implies that every bounded input must result in a
bounded output. For an LTI system described by the dierence equation
y[n] + A1 y[n 1] + + AN y[n N ] = B0 x[n] + B1 x[n 1] + + BM x[n M ] (5.28)
the conditions for BIBO stability involve the roots of the characteristic equation. A necessary and sucient
condition for BIBO stability of such an LTI system is that every root of its characteristic equation must have
a magnitude less than unity. This criterion is based on the results of Tables 5.1 and 5.2. Root magnitudes
less than unity ensure that the natural (and zero-input) response always decays with time (see Table 5.1),
and the forced (and zero-state) response always remains bounded for every bounded input. Roots with
magnitudes that equal unity make the system unstable. Simple (non-repeated) roots with unit magnitude
produce a constant (or sinusoidal) natural response that is bounded; but if the input is also a constant
(or sinusoid at the same frequency), the forced response is a ramp or growing sinusoid (see Table 5.2) and
hence unbounded. Repeated roots with unit magnitude result in a natural response that is itself a growing
sinusoid or polynomial and thus unbounded. In the next chapter, we shall see that the stability condition
is equivalent to having an LTI system whose impulse response h[n] is absolutely summable. The stability of
nonlinear or time-varying systems usually must be checked by other means.
The Stability of FIR Filters: The system equation of an FIR filter describes the output as a weighted
sum of shifted inputs. If the input remains bounded, the weighted sum of the inputs is also bounded. In
other words, FIR filters are always stable.

REVIEW PANEL 5.15

Requirement for BIBO Stability of Discrete-Time LTI Systems
Every root of the characteristic equation must have magnitude (absolute value) less than unity.
Note: FIR filters are always stable.

EXAMPLE 5.14 (Concepts Based on Stability)

(a) The system y[n] 16 y[n 1] 16 y[n 2] = x[n] is stable since the roots of its characteristic equation
z 2 16 z 16 = 0 are z1 = 12 and z2 = 13 and their magnitudes are less than 1.

(b) The system y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] is unstable. The root of its characteristic equation z 1 = 0 is z = 1
gives the natural response yN = Ku[n], which is actually bounded. However, for an input x[n] = u[n],
the forced response will have the form Cnu[n], which becomes unbounded.

(c) The system y[n] 2y[n 1] + y[n 2] = x[n] is unstable. The roots of its characteristic equation
z 2 2z + 1 = 0 are equal and produce the unbounded natural response yN [n] = Au[n] + Bnu[n].

(d) The system y[n] 12 y[n 1] = nx[n] is linear, time varying and unstable. The (bounded) step input
x[n] = u[n] results in a response that includes the ramp nu[n], which becomes unbounded.

(e) The system y[n] = x[n] 2x[n 1] is stable because it describes an FIR filter.
116 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.7 Connections: System Representation in Various Forms

An LTI system may be described by a dierence equation, impulse response, or input-output data. All three
are related and, given one form, we should be able to access the others. We have already studied how to
obtain the impulse response from a dierence equation. Here we shall describe how to obtain the system
dierence equation from its impulse response or from input-output data.

5.7.1 Dierence Equations from the Impulse Response

In the time domain, the process of finding the dierence equation from its impulse response is tedious. It
is much easier implemented by other methods (such as the z-transform, which we explore in Chapter 17).
The central idea is that the terms in the impulse response are an indication of the natural response (and
the roots of the characteristic equation) from which the dierence equation may be reconstructed if we can
describe the combination of the impulse response and its delayed versions by a sum of impulses. The process
is best illustrated by some examples.

EXAMPLE 5.15 (Dierence Equations from the Impulse Response)

(a) Let h[n] = u[n]. Then h[n 1] = u[n 1], and h[n] h[n 1] = u[n] u[n 1] = [n].
The dierence equation corresponding to h[n] h[n 1] = [n] is simply y[n] y[n 1] = x[n].

(b) Let h[n] = 3(0.6)n u[n]. This suggests a dierence equation whose left-hand side is y[n] 0.6y[n 1].
We then set up h[n] 0.6h[n 1] = 3(0.6)n u[n] 1.8(0.6)n1 u[n 1]. This simplifies to
h[n] 0.6h[n 1] = 3(0.6)n u[n] 3(0.6)n u[n 1] = 3(0.6)n (u[n] u[n 1]) = 3(0.6)n [n] = 3[n]
The dierence equation corresponding to h[n] 0.6h[n 1] = 3[n] is y[n] 0.6y[n 1] = 3x[n].

(c) Let h[n] = 2(0.5)n u[n] + (0.5)n u[n]. This suggests a characteristic equation (z 0.5)(z + 0.5).
The left-hand side of the dierence equation is thus y[n] 0.25y[n 2]. We now compute
h[n] 0.25h[n 2] = 2(0.5)n u[n] + (0.5)n u[n] 0.25(2(0.5)n1 u[n 1] + (0.5)n1 u[n 1])
This simplifies to
h[n] 0.25h[n 2] = [2(0.5)n + (0.5)n ](u[n] u[n 2]) = [2(0.5)n + (0.5)n ]([n] + [n 2])
This simplifies further to h[n] 0.25h[n 2] = 3[n] 0.5[n 1].
Finally, the dierence equation is y[n] 0.25y[n 2] = 3x[n] 0.5x[n 1].

5.7.2 Dierence Equations from Input-Output Data

The dierence equation of LTI systems may also be obtained from input-output data. The response of the
system described by y[n] = 3x[n] + 2x[n 1] to x[n] = [n] is y[n] = 3[n] + 2[n 1]. Turning things around,
the input [n] and output 3[n]+2[n1] then corresponds to the dierence equation y[n] = 3x[n]+2x[n1].
Note how the coecients of the input match the output data (and vice versa).
5.8 Application-Oriented Examples 117

REVIEW PANEL 5.16

Dierence Equation of an LTI System from Input-Output Information
Example: If x[n] = {1, 2, 3} and y[n] = {3, 3}, then y[n] + 2y[n 1] + 3y[n 2] = 3x[n] + 3x[n 1].
Input Output
3 System 3 3 System Equation
1 2 n n y [n] + 2 y [n 1] + 3 y [n 2] = 3 x [n] + 3 x [n 1]
1 2 1

5.8 Application-Oriented Examples

5.8.1 Inverse Systems
Inverse systems are quite important in practical applications. For example, a measurement system (such as
a transducer) invariably aects (distorts) the signal being measured. To undo the eects of the distortion
requires a system that acts as the inverse of the measurement system. If an input x[n] to a system results
in an output y[n], then its inverse is a system that recovers the signal x[n] in response to the input y[n], as
illustrated in Figure 5.4.

x[n] y[n] x[n]

System Inverse system

Figure 5.4 A system and its inverse

Not all systems have an inverse. For a system to have an inverse, or be invertible, distinct inputs must
lead to distinct outputs. If a system produces an identical output for two dierent inputs, it does not have
an inverse. For invertible LTI systems described by dierence equations, finding the inverse system is as
easy as switching the input and output variables.

REVIEW PANEL 5.17

Finding the Inverse of an LTI System? Try Switching the Input and Output
System: y[n] + 2y[n 1] = 3x[n] + 4x[n 1] Inverse system: 3y[n] + 4y[n 1] = x[n] + 2x[n 1]
How to find the inverse from the impulse response h[n]? Find the dierence equation first.

EXAMPLE 5.16 (Inverse Systems)

(a) Refer to the interconnected system shown in Figure E5.16A(1). Find the dierence equation of the
inverse system, sketch a realization of each system, and find the output of each system.
Input
4 4 Output
y[n] = x [n] - 0.5x [n -1 ] Inverse system
n
1
Figure E5.16A(1) The interconnected system for Example 5.16(a)

The original system is described by y[n] = x[n] 0.5x[n 1]. By switching the input and output, the
inverse system is described by y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = x[n]. The realization of each system is shown in
118 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

Figure E5.16A(2). Are they related? Yes. If you flip the realization of the echo system end-on-end
and change the sign of the feedback signal, you get the inverse realization.
+
Input + Output Input Output
+
z1 z1
0.5 0.5

System Inverse system

Figure E5.16A(2) Realization of the system and its inverse for Example 5.16(a)

The response g[n] of the first system is simply

g[n] = (4[n] + 4[n 1]) (2[n 1] + 2[n 2]) = 4[n] + 2[n 1]) 2[n 2])

If we let the output of the second system be y0 [n], we have

y0 [n] = 0.5y0 [n 1] + 4[n] + 2[n 1]) 2[n 2])

Recursive solution gives

y0 [0] = 0.5y0 [1] + 4[0] = 4 y0 [1] = 0.5y0 [0] + 2[0] = 4 y0 [2] = 0.5y0 [1] 2[0] = 0

All subsequent values of y0 [n] are zero since the input terms are zero for n > 2. The output is thus

y0 [n] = {4, 4}, the same as the input to the overall system.

(b) The nonlinear system y[n] = x2 [n] does not

# have an inverse. Two inputs, diering in sign, yield the
same output. If we try to recover x[n] as y[n], we run into a sign ambiguity.

(c) The linear (but time-varying) decimating system y[n] = x[2n] does not have an inverse. Two inputs,
which dier in the samples discarded (for example, the signals {1, 2, 4, 5} and {1, 3, 4, 8} yield the same
output {1, 4}). If we try to recover the original signal by interpolation, we cannot uniquely identify
the original signal.

(d) The linear (but time-varying) interpolating system y[n] = x[n/2] does have an inverse. Its inverse is a
decimating system that discards the very samples inserted during interpolation and thus recovers the
original signal.

(e) The LTI system y[n] = x[n] + 2x[n 1] also has an inverse. Its inverse is found by switching the input
and output as y[n] + 2y[n 1] = x[n]. This example also shows that the inverse of an FIR filter results
in an IIR filter.
5.8 Application-Oriented Examples 119

5.8.2 Echo and Reverb

The digital processing of audio signals often involves digital filters to create various special eects such as
echo and reverb, which are typical of modern-day studio sounds. An echo filter has the form

y[n] = x[n] + x[n D] (an echo filter) (5.29)

This describes an FIR filter whose output y[n] equals the input x[n] and its delayed (by D samples) and
attenuated (by ) replica of x[n] (the echo term). Its realization is sketched in Figure 5.5. The D-sample
delay is implemented by a cascade of D delay elements and represented by the block marked z D . This
filter is also called a comb filter (for reasons to be explained in later chapters).

+
Input + Output Input Output
+ +
z-D z-D

An echo filter A reverb filter

Figure 5.5 Echo and reverb filters

Reverberations are due to multiple echoes (from the walls and other structures in a concert hall, for
example). For simplicity, if we assume that the signal suers the same delay D and the same attenuation
in each round-trip to the source, we may describe the action of reverb by

y[n] = x[n] + x[n D] + 2 x[n 2D] + 3 x[n 3D] + (5.30)

If we delay both sides by D units, we get

y[n D] = x[n D] + 2 x[n 2D] + 3 x[n 3D] + 4 x[n 4D] + (5.31)

Subtracting the second equation from the first, we obtain a compact form for a reverb filter:

y[n] y[n D] = x[n] (a reverb filter) (5.32)

This is an IIR filter whose realization is also sketched in Figure 5.5. Its form is reminiscent of the inverse of
the echo system y[n] + y[n D] = x[n], but with replaced by .
In concept, it should be easy to tailor the simple reverb filter to simulate realistic eects by including
more terms with dierent delays and attenuation. In practice, however, this is no easy task, and the filter
designs used by commercial vendors in their applications are often proprietary.

5.8.3 Periodic Sequences and Wave-Table Synthesis

Electronic music synthesizers typically possess tone banks of stored tone sequences that are replicated and
used in their original or delayed forms or combined to synthesize new sounds and generate various musical
eects. The periodic versions of such sequences can be generated by filters that have a recursive form
developed from a nonrecursive filter whose impulse response corresponds to one period of the periodic
signal. The dierence equation of such a recursive filter is given by

y[n] y[n N ] = x1 [n] (N -sample periodic signal generator) (5.33)

120 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

where x1 [n] corresponds to one period (N samples) of the signal x[n]. This form actually describes a reverb
system with no attenuation whose delay equals the period N . Hardware implementation often uses a circular
buer or wave-table (in which one period of the signal is stored), and cycling over it generates the periodic
signal. The same wave-table can also be used to change the frequency (or period) of the signal (to double
the frequency for example, we would cycle over alternate samples) or for storing a new signal.

EXAMPLE 5.17 (Generating Periodic Signals Using Recursive Filters)

Suppose we wish to generate the periodic signal x[n] described by
x[n] = {2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, . . .}
The impulse response sequence of a nonrecursive filter that generates this signal is simply
h[n] = {2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, . . .}
If we delay this sequence by one period (four samples), we obtain
h[n 4] = {0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, 2, 3, 1, 6, . . .}
Subtracting the delayed sequence from the original gives us h[n] h[n 4] = {2, 3, 1, 6}.
Its recursive form is y[n] y[n 4] = x1 [n], where x1 [n] = {2, 3, 1, 6} describes one period of x[n].

5.8.4 How Dierence Equations Arise

We conclude with some examples of dierence equations, which arise in many ways in various fields ranging
from mathematics and engineering to economics and biology.
1. y[n] = y[n 1] + n, y[1] = 1
This dierence equation describes the number of regions y[n] into which n lines divide a plane if no
two lines are parallel and no three lines intersect.
2. y[n + 1] = (n + 1)(y[n] + 1), y[0] = 0
This dierence equation describes the number of multiplications y[n] required to compute the deter-
minant of an n n matrix using cofactors.
3. y[n + 2] = y[n + 1] + y[n], y[0] = 0, y[1] = 1
This dierence equation generates the Fibonacci sequence {y[n] = 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . .}, where each
number is the sum of the previous two.
4. y[n + 2] 2xy[n + 1] + y[n] = 0, y[0] = 1, y[1] = x
This dierence equation generates the Chebyshev polynomials Tn (x) = y[n] of the first kind. We
find that T2 (x) = y[2] = 2x2 1, T3 (x) = y[3] = 4x3 3x, etc. Similar dierence equations called
recurrence relations form the basis for generating other polynomial sets.
5. y[n + 1] = y[n](1 y[n])
In biology, this dierence equation, called a logistic equation, is used to model the growth of populations
that reproduce at discrete intervals.
6. y[n + 1] = (1 + )y[n] + d[n]
This dierence equation describes the bank balance y[n] at the beginning of the nth-compounding
period (day, month, etc.) if the percent interest rate is per compounding period and d[n] is the
amount deposited in that period.
Chapter 5 Problems 121

CHAPTER 5 PROBLEMS
DRILL AND REINFORCEMENT

5.1 (Operators) Which of the following describe linear operators?

(a) O{ } = 4{ } (b) O{ } = 4{ } + 3 (c) O{ } = { }

5.2 (System Classification) In each of the systems below, x[n] is the input and y[n] is the output.
Check each system for linearity, shift invariance, memory, and causality.
(a) y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] (b) y[n] + y[n + 1] = nx[n]
(c) y[n] y[n + 1] = x[n + 2] (d) y[n + 2] y[n + 1] = x[n]
(e) y[n + 1] x[n]y[n] = nx[n + 2] (f ) y[n] + y[n 3] = x2 [n] + x[n + 6]
(g) y[n] 2n y[n] = x[n] (h) y[n] = x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2]

5.3 (Response by Recursion) Find the response of the following systems by recursion to n = 4 and
try to discern the general form for y[n].
(a) y[n] ay[n 1] = [n] y[1] = 0
(b) y[n] ay[n 1] = u[n] y[1] = 1
(c) y[n] ay[n 1] = nu[n] y[1] = 0
(d) y[n] + 4y[n 1] + 3y[n 2] = u[n 2] y[1] = 0 y[2] = 1

5.4 (Forced Response) Find the forced response of the following systems.
(a) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = u[n] (b) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = (0.5)n
(c) y[n] + 0.4y[n 1] = (0.5)n (d) y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = cos(n/2)

5.5 (Forced Response) Find the forced response of the following systems.
(a) y[n] 1.1y[n 1] + 0.3y[n 2] = 2u[n] (b) y[n] 0.9y[n 1] + 0.2y[n 2] = (0.5)n
(c) y[n] + 0.7y[n 1] + 0.1y[n 2] = (0.5)n (d) y[n] 0.25y[n 2] = cos(n/2)

5.6 (Zero-State Response) Find the zero-state response of the following systems.
(a) y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = 2u[n] (b) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = (0.5)n
(c) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = (0.4)n (d) y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = cos(n/2)

5.7 (Zero-State Response) Find the zero-state response of the following systems.
(a) y[n] 1.1y[n 1] + 0.3y[n 2] = 2u[n] (b) y[n] 0.9y[n 1] + 0.2y[n 2] = (0.5)n
(c) y[n] + 0.7y[n 1] + 0.1y[n 2] = (0.5)n (d) y[n] 0.25y[n 2] = cos(n/2)

5.8 (System Response) Let y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = x[n], with y[1] = 1. Find the response of this system
for the following inputs.
(a) x[n] = 2u[n] (b) x[n] = (0.25)n u[n] (c) x[n] = n(0.25)n u[n]
(d) x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] (e) x[n] = n(0.5)n (f ) x[n] = (0.5)n cos(0.5n)
122 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.9 (System Response) Find the response of the following systems.

(a) y[n] + 0.1y[n 1] 0.3y[n 2] = 2u[n] y[1] = 0 y[2] = 0
(b) y[n] 0.9y[n 1] + 0.2y[n 2] = (0.5)n y[1] = 1 y[2] = 4
(c) y[n] + 0.7y[n 1] + 0.1y[n 2] = (0.5)n y[1] = 0 y[2] = 3
(d) y[n] 0.25y[n 2] = (0.4)n y[1] = 0 y[2] = 3
(e) y[n] 0.25y[n 2] = (0.5)n y[1] = 0 y[2] = 0

5.10 (System Response) Sketch a realization for each system, assuming zero initial conditions. Then
evaluate the complete response from the information given. Check your answer by computing the first
few values by recursion.
(a) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = x[n] x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 0
(b) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = 2x[n] + x[n 1] x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 0
(c) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = 2x[n] + x[n 1] x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 5
(d) y[n] + 0.5y[n 1] = x[n] x[n 1] x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 2
(e) y[n] + 0.5y[n 1] = x[n] x[n 1] x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 0

5.11 (System Response) For each system, evaluate the natural, forced, and total response. Assume that
y[1] = 0, y[2] = 1. Check your answer for the total response by computing its first few values by
recursion.
(a) y[n] + 4y[n 1] + 3y[n 2] = u[n] (b) y[n] + 4y[n 1] + 4y[n 2] = 2n u[n]
(c) y[n] + 4y[n 1] + 8y[n 2] = cos(n)u[n] (d) {(1 + 2z 1 )2 }y[n] = n(2)n u[n]
(e) {1 + 34 z 1 + 18 z 2 }y[n] = ( 31 )n u[n] (f ) {1 + 0.5z 1 + 0.25z 2 }y[n] = cos(0.5n)u[n]
(g) {z 2 + 4z + 4}y[n] = 2n u[n] (h) {1 0.5z 1 }y[n] = (0.5)n cos(0.5n)u[n]

5.12 (System Response) For each system, set up a dierence equation and compute the zero-state,
zero-input, and total response, assuming x[n] = u[n] and y[1] = y[2] = 1.
(a) {1 z 1 2z 2 }y[n] = x[n] (b) {z 2 z 2}y[n] = x[n]
(c) {1 34 z 1 + 18 z 2 }y[n] = {z 1 }x[n] (d) {1 34 z 1 + 18 z 2 }y[n] = {1 + z 1 }x[n]
(e) {1 0.25z 2 }y[n] = x[n] (f ) {z 2 0.25}y[n] = {2z 2 + 1}x[n]

5.13 (Impulse Response by Recursion) Find the impulse response h[n] by recursion up to n = 4 for
each of the following systems.
(a) y[n] y[n 1] = 2x[n] (b) y[n] 3y[n 1] + 6y[n 2] = x[n 1]
(c) y[n] 2y[n 3] = x[n 1] (d) y[n] y[n 1] + 6y[n 2] = nx[n 1] + 2x[n 3]

5.14 (Analytical Form for Impulse Response) Classify each filter as recursive or FIR (nonrecursive),
and causal or noncausal, and find an expression for its impulse response h[n].
(a) y[n] = x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2] (b) y[n] = x[n + 1] + x[n] + x[n 1]
(c) y[n] + 2y[n 1] = x[n] (d) y[n] + 2y[n 1] = x[n 1]
(e) y[n] + 2y[n 1] = 2x[n] + 6x[n 1] (f ) y[n] + 2y[n 1] = x[n + 1] + 4x[n] + 6x[n 1]
(g) {1 + 4z 1 + 3z 2 }y[n] = {z 2 }x[n] (h) {z 2 + 4z + 4}y[n] = {z + 3}x[n]
(i) {z 2 + 4z + 8}y[n] = x[n] (j) y[n] + 4y[n 1] + 4y[n 2] = x[n] x[n + 2]

5.15 (Stability) Investigate the causality and stability of the following systems.
(a) y[n] = x[n 1] + x[n] + x[n + 1] (b) y[n] = x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2]
(c) y[n] 2y[n 1] = x[n] (d) y[n] 0.2y[n 1] = x[n] 2x[n + 2]
(e) y[n] + y[n 1] + 0.5y[n 2] = x[n] (f ) y[n] y[n 1] + y[n 2] = x[n] x[n + 1]
(g) y[n] 2y[n 1] + y[n 2] = x[n] x[n 3] (h) y[n] 3y[n 1] + 2y[n 2] = 2x[n + 3]
Chapter 5 Problems 123

REVIEW AND EXPLORATION

5.16 (System Classification) Classify the following systems in terms of their linearity, time invariance,
memory, causality, and stability.
(a) y[n] = 3n x[n] (b) y[n] = ejn x[n]
(c) y[n] = cos(0.5n)x[n] (d) y[n] = [1 + cos(0.5n)]x[n]
(e) y[n] = ex[n] (f ) y[n] = x[n] + cos[0.5(n + 1)]

5.17 (System Classification) Classify the following systems in terms of their linearity, time invariance,
memory, causality, and stability.
(a) y[n] = x[n/3] (zero interpolation)
(b) y[n] = cos(n)x[n] (modulation)
(c) y[n] = [1 + cos(n)]x[n] (modulation)
(d) y[n] = cos(nx[n]) (frequency modulation)
(e) y[n] = cos(n + x[n]) (phase modulation)
(f )y[n] = x[n] x[n 1] (dierencing operation)
(g) y[n] = 0.5x[n] + 0.5x[n 1] (averaging operation)
N
$ 1
(h) y[n] = N1 x[n k] (moving average)
k=0
(i) y[n] y[n 1] = x[n], 0 < < 1 (exponential averaging)
(j) y[n] = 0.4(y[n 1] + 2) + x[n]

5.18 (Classification) Classify each system in terms of its linearity, time invariance, memory, causality,
and stability.
(a) The folding system y[n] = x[n].
(b) The decimating system y[n] = x[2n].
(c) The zero-interpolating system y[n] = x[n/2].
(d) The sign-inversion system y[n] = sgn{x[n]}.
(e) The rectifying system y[n] = |x[n]|.

5.19 (Classification) Classify each system in terms of its linearity, time invariance, causality, and stability.
(a) y[n] = round{x[n]} (b) y[n] = median{x[n + 1], x[n], x[n 1]}
(c) y[n] = x[n] sgn(n) (d) y[n] = x[n] sgn{x[n]}

5.20 (Inverse Systems) Are the following systems invertible? If not, explain why; if invertible, find the
inverse system.
(a) y[n] = x[n] x[n 1] (dierencing operation)
(b) y[n] = 13 (x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2]) (moving average operation)
(c) y[n] = 0.5x[n] + x[n 1] + 0.5x[n 2] (weighted moving average operation)
(d) y[n] y[n 1] = (1 )x[n], 0 < < 1 (exponential averaging operation)
(e) y[n] = cos(n)x[n] (modulation)
(f ) y[n] = cos(x[n])
(g) y[n] = ex[n]
124 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.21 (An Echo System and Its Inverse) An echo system is described by y[n] = x[n] + 0.5x[n N ].
Assume that the echo arrives after 1 ms and the sampling rate is 2 kHz.
(a) What is the value of N ? Sketch a realization of this echo system.
(b) What is the impulse response and step response of this echo system?
(c) Find the dierence equation of the inverse system. Then, sketch its realization and find its
impulse response and step response.

5.22 (Reverb) A reverb filter is described by y[n] = x[n] + 0.25y[n N ]. Assume that the echoes arrive
every millisecond and the sampling rate is 2 kHz.
(a) What is the value of N ? Sketch a realization of this reverb filter.
(b) What is the impulse response and step response of this reverb filter?
(c) Find the dierence equation of the inverse system. Then, sketch its realization and find its
impulse response and step response.

5.23 (System Response) Consider the system y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = x[n]. Find its zero-state response to
the following inputs.
(a) x[n] = u[n] (b) x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] (c) x[n] = cos(0.5n)u[n]

(d) x[n] = (1)n u[n] (e) x[n] = j n u[n] (f ) x[n] = ( j)n u[n] + ( j)n u[n]

5.24 (System Response) For the system realization shown in Figure P5.24, find the response to the
following inputs and initial conditions.
(a) x[n] = u[n] y[1] = 0 (b) x[n] = u[n] y[1] = 4
(c) x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 0 (d) x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 6
(e) x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 0 (f ) x[n] = (0.5)n u[n] y[1] = 2

x [n]
+ y [n]

z1
0.5

Figure P5.24 System realization for Problem 5.24

5.25 (System Response) Find the response of the following systems.

(a) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = 2(0.5)n1 u[n 1] y[1] = 0
(b) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = (0.4)n u[n] + 2(0.5)n1 u[n 1] y[1] = 2.5
(c) y[n] 0.4y[n 1] = n(0.5)n u[n] + 2(0.5)n1 u[n 1] y[1] = 2.5

5.26 (System Response) Find the impulse response of the following filters.
(a) y[n] = x[n] x[n 1] (dierencing operation)
(b) y[n] = 0.5x[n] + 0.5x[n 1] (averaging operation)
N
$ 1
(c) y[n] = N1 x[n k], N = 3 (moving average)
k=0
N
$ 1
(d) y[n] = 2
N (N +1) (N k)x[n k], N = 3 (weighted moving average)
k=0
(e) y[n] y[n 1] = (1 )x[n], N = 3, = N 1
N +1 (exponential averaging)
Chapter 5 Problems 125

5.27 (System Response) It is known that the response of the system y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n], = 0, is
given by y[n] = [5 + 3(0.5)n ]u[n].
(a) Identify the natural response and forced response.
(b) Identify the values of and y[1].
(c) Identify the zero-input response and zero-state response.
(d) Identify the input x[n].

5.28 (System Response) It is known that the response of the system y[n] + 0.5y[n 1] = x[n] is described
by y[n] = [5(0.5)n + 3(0.5)n )]u[n].
(a) Identify the zero-input response and zero-state response.
(b) What is the zero-input response of the system y[n] + 0.5y[n 1] = x[n] if y[1] = 10?
(c) What is the response of the relaxed system y[n] + 0.5y[n 1] = x[n 2]?
(d) What is the response of the relaxed system y[n] + 0.5y[n 1] = x[n 1] + 2x[n]?

5.29 (System Response) It is known that the response of the system y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n] is described
by y[n] = (5 + 2n)(0.5)n u[n].
(a) Identify the zero-input response and zero-state response.
(b) What is the zero-input response of the system y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n] if y[1] = 10?
(c) What is the response of the relaxed system y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n 1])?
(d) What is the response of the relaxed system y[n] + y[n 1] = 2x[n 1] + x[n]?
(e) What is the complete response of the y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n] + 2x[n 1] if y[1] = 4?

5.30 (System Interconnections) Two systems are said to be in cascade if the output of the first system
acts as the input to the second. Find the response of the following cascaded systems if the input is a
unit step and the systems are described as follows. In which instances does the response dier when the
order of cascading is reversed? Can you use this result to justify that the order in which the systems
are cascaded does not matter in finding the overall response if both systems are LTI?
(a) System 1: y[n] = x[n] x[n 1] System 2: y[n] = 0.5y[n 1] + x[n]
(b) System 1: y[n] = 0.5y[n 1] + x[n] System 2: y[n] = x[n] x[n 1]
(c) System 1: y[n] = x2 [n] System 2: y[n] = 0.5y[n 1] + x[n]
(d) System 1: y[n] = 0.5y[n 1] + x[n] System 2: y[n] = x2 [n]

5.31 (Systems in Cascade and Parallel) Consider the realization of Figure P5.31.
x [n]
+ + y [n]
+
z1

z1 +
+
z1
Figure P5.31 System realization for Problem 5.31
(a) Find its impulse response if = . Is the overall system FIR or IIR?
(b) Find its dierence equation and impulse response if = . Is the overall system FIR or IIR?
(c) Find its dierence equation and impulse response if = = 1. What is the function of the
overall system?
126 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

5.32 (Dierence Equations from Impulse Response) Find the dierence equations describing the
following systems.

(a) h[n] = [n] + 2[n 1] (b) h[n] = {2, 3, 1}
(c) h[n] = (0.3)n u[n] (d) h[n] = (0.5)n u[n] (0.5)n u[n]
5.33 (Dierence Equations from Impulse Response) A system is described by the impulse response
h[n] = (1)n u[n]. Find the dierence equation of this system. Then find the dierence equation of
the inverse system. Does the inverse system describe an FIR filter or IIR filter? What function does
it perform?
5.34 (Dierence Equations from Dierential Equations) Consider an analog system described by
the dierential equation y (t) + 3y (t) + 2y(t) = 2u(t).
(a) Confirm that this describes a stable analog system.
(b) Convert this to a dierence equation using the backward Euler algorithm and check the stability
of the resulting digital filter.
(c) Convert this to a dierence equation using the forward Euler algorithm and check the stability
of the resulting digital filter.
(d) Which algorithm is better in terms of preserving stability? Can the results be generalized to any
arbitrary analog system?

5.35 (Dierence Equations) For the filter realization shown in Figure P5.35, find the dierence equation
relating y[n] and x[n] if the impulse response of the filter is given by

(a) h[n] = [n] [n 1] (b) h[n] = 0.5[n] + 0.5[n 1]

x [n]
+ Filter y [n]

z1
Figure P5.35 Filter realization for Problem 5.35

5.36 (Periodic Signal Generators) Find the dierence equation of a filter whose impulse response is a

periodic sequence with first period x[n] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8}. Sketch a realization for this filter.
5.37 (Recursive and IIR Filters) The terms recursive and IIR are not always synonymous. A recursive
filter could in fact have a finite impulse response. Use recursion to find the the impulse response h[n]
for each of the following recursive filters. Which filters (if any) describe IIR filters?
(a) y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] x[n 2]
(b) y[n] y[n 1] = x[n] x[n 1] 2x[n 2] + 2x[n 3]

5.38 (Recursive Forms of FIR Filters) An FIR filter may always be recast in recursive form by the
simple expedient of including identical factors on the left-hand and right-hand side of its dierence
equation in operational form. For example, the filter y[n] = (1 z 1 )x[n] is FIR, but the identical
filter (1 + z 1 )y[n] = (1 + z 1 )(1 z 1 )x[n] has the dierence equation y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n] x[n 2]
and can be implemented recursively. Find two dierent recursive dierence equations (with dierent
orders) for each of the following filters.

(a) y[n] = x[n] x[n 2] (b) h[n] = {1, 2, 1}
Chapter 5 Problems 127

5.39 (Nonrecursive Forms of IIR Filters) An FIR filter may always be exactly represented in recursive
form, but we can only approximately represent an IIR filter by an FIR filter by truncating its impulse
response to N terms. The larger the truncation index N , the better is the approximation. Consider the
IIR filter described by y[n] 0.8y[n 1] = x[n]. Find its impulse response h[n] and truncate it to three
terms to obtain h3 [n], the impulse response of the approximate FIR equivalent. Would you expect the
greatest mismatch in the response of the two filters to identical inputs to occur for lower or higher
values of n? Compare the step response of the two filters up to n = 6 to justify your expectations.

5.40 (Nonlinear Systems) One way to solve nonlinear dierence equations is by recursion. Consider the
nonlinear dierence equation y[n]y[n 1] 0.5y 2 [n 1] = 0.5Au[n].
(a) What makes this system nonlinear?
(b) Using y[1] = 2, recursively obtain y[0], y[1], and y[2].
(c) Use A = 2, A = 4, and A = 9 in the results of part (b) to confirm that this system finds the
square root of A.
(d) Repeat parts (b) and (c) with y[1] = 1 to check whether the choice of the initial condition
aects system operation.

5.41 (LTI Concepts and Stability) Argue that neither of the following describes an LTI system. Then,
explain how you might check for their stability and determine which of the systems are stable.

(a) y[n] + 2y[n 1] = x[n] + x2 [n] (b) y[n] 0.5y[n 1] = nx[n] + x2 [n]

5.42 (Response of Causal and Noncausal Systems) A dierence equation may describe a causal or
noncausal system depending on how the initial conditions are prescribed. Consider a first-order system
governed by y[n] + y[n 1] = x[n].
(a) With y[n] = 0, n < 0, this describes a causal system. Assume y[1] = 0 and find the first few
terms y[0], y[1], . . . of the impulse response and step response, using recursion, and establish the
general form for y[n].
(b) With y[n] = 0, n > 0, we have a noncausal system. Assume y[0] = 0 and rewrite the dierence
equation as y[n 1] = {y[n] + x[n]}/ to find the first few terms y[0], y[1], y[2], . . . of the
impulse response and step response, using recursion, and establish the general form for y[n].

COMPUTATION AND DESIGN

dtsimgui A GUI for System Response Simulation

The graphical user interface dtsimgui allows you to simulate and visualize the response of discrete-
time systems.
You can select the input signal, the system parameters, and initial conditions.
To explore this routine, type dtsimgui at the Matlab prompt.

5.43 (Numerical Integration Algorithms) Numerical integration algorithms approximate the area y[n]
from y[n 1] or y[n 2] (one or more time steps away). Consider the following integration algorithms.

(a) y[n] = y[n 1] + ts x[n] (rectangular rule)

(b) y[n] = y[n 1] + t2s (x[n] + x[n 1]) (trapezoidal rule)
128 Chapter 5 Discrete-Time Systems

(c) y[n] = y[n 1] + 12 (5x[n] + 8x[n 1] x[n 2])

ts
(Adams-Moulton rule)
(d) y[n] = y[n 2] + ts
3 (x[n] + 4x[n 1] + x[n 2]) (Simpsons rule)
(e) y[n] = y[n 3] + 8 (x[n] + 3x[n 1] + 3x[n 2] + x[n 3])
3ts
(Simpsons three-eighths rule)

Use each of the rules to approximate the area of x(t) = sinc(t), 0 t 3, with ts = 0.1 s and ts = 0.3 s,
and compare with the expected result of 0.53309323761827. How does the choice of the time step ts
aect the results? Which algorithm yields the most accurate results?

5.44 (System Response) Use the Matlab routine filter to obtain and plot the response of the filter
described by y[n] = 0.25(x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2] + x[n 3]) to the following inputs and comment on
your results.
(a) x[n] = 1, 0 n 60
(b) x[n] = 0.1n, 0 n 60
(c) x[n] = sin(0.1n), 0 n 60
(d) x[n] = 0.1n + sin(0.5n), 0 n 60
$
(e) x[n] = [n 5k], 0 n 60
k=
$
(f ) x[n] = [n 4k], 0 n 60
k=

5.45 (System Response) Use the Matlab routine filter to obtain and plot the response of the filter
described by y[n] y[n 4] = 0.25(x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2] + x[n 3]) to the following inputs and
comment on your results.
(a) x[n] = 1, 0 n 60
(b) x[n] = 0.1n, 0 n 60
(c) x[n] = sin(0.1n), 0 n 60
(d) x[n] = 0.1n + sin(0.5n), 0 n 60
$
(e) x[n] = [n 5k], 0 n 60
k=
$
(f ) x[n] = [n 4k], 0 n 60
k=

5.46 (System Response) Use Matlab to obtain and plot the response of the following systems over the
range 0 n 199.
(a) y[n] = x[n/3], x[n] = (0.9)n u[n] (assume zero interpolation)
(b) y[n] = cos(0.2n)x[n], x[n] = cos(0.04n) (modulation)
(c) y[n] = [1 + cos(0.2n)]x[n], x[n] = cos(0.04n) (modulation)

5.47 (System Response) Use Matlab to obtain and plot the response of the following filters, using direct
commands (where possible) and also using the routine filter, and compare your results. Assume that
the input is given by x[n] = 0.1n + sin(0.1n), 0 n 60. Comment on your results.
N
$ 1
(a) y[n] = 1
N x[n k], N = 4 (moving average)
k=0
Chapter 5 Problems 129

N
$ 1
(b) y[n] = 2
N (N +1) (N k)x[n k], N = 4 (weighted moving average)
k=0
(c) y[n] y[n 1] = (1 )x[n], N = 4, = N 1
N +1 (exponential average)

5.48 (System Response) Use Matlab to obtain and plot the response of the following filters, using
direct commands and using the routine filter, and compare your results. Use an input that consists
of the sum of the signal x[n] = 0.1n + sin(0.1n), 0 n 60 and uniformly distributed random noise
with a mean of 0. Comment on your results.
N$1
(a) y[n] = N1 x[n k], N = 4 (moving average)
k=0
N
$ 1
(b) y[n] = 2
N (N +1) (N k)x[n k], N = 4 (weighted moving average)
k=0
(c) y[n] y[n 1] = (1 )x[n], N = 4, = N 1
N +1 (exponential averaging)

5.49 (System Response) Use the Matlab routine filter to obtain and plot the response of the following
FIR filters. Assume that x[n] = sin(n/8), 0 n 60. Comment on your results. From the results,
can you describe the the function of these filters?
(a) y[n] = x[n] x[n 1] (first dierence)
(b) y[n] = x[n] 2x[n 1] + x[n 2] (second dierence)
(c) y[n] = 13 (x[n] + x[n 1] + x[n 2]) (moving average)
(d) y[n] = 0.5x[n] + x[n 1] + 0.5x[n 2] (weighted average)

5.50 (System Response in Symbolic Form) The ADSP routine sysresp1 returns the system response
in symbolic form. See Chapter 21 for examples of its usage. Obtain the response of the following filters
and plot the response for 0 n 30.
(a) The step response of y[n] 0.5y[n] = x[n]
(b) The impulse response of y[n] 0.5y[n] = x[n]
(c) The zero-state response of y[n] 0.5y[n] = (0.5)n u[n]
(d) The complete response of y[n] 0.5y[n] = (0.5)n u[n], y[1] = 4
(e) The complete response of y[n] + y[n 1] + 0.5y[n 2] = (0.5)n u[n], y[1] = 4, y[2] = 3

5.51 (Inverse Systems and Echo Cancellation) A signal x(t) is passed through the echo-generating
system y(t) = x(t) + 0.9x(t ) + 0.8x(t 2 ), with = 93.75 ms. The resulting echo signal y(t) is
sampled at S = 8192 Hz to obtain the sampled signal y[n].
(a) The dierence equation of a digital filter that generates the output y[n] from x[n] may be written
as y[n] = x[n] + 0.9x[n N ] + 0.8x[n 2N ]. What is the value of the index N ?
(b) What is the dierence equation of an echo-canceling filter (inverse filter) that could be used to
recover the input signal x[n]?
(c) The echo signal is supplied as echosig.mat. Load this signal into Matlab (using the command
load echosig). Listen to this signal using the Matlab command sound. Can you hear the
echoes? Can you make out what is being said?
(d) Filter the echo signal using your inverse filter and listen to the filtered signal. Have you removed
the echoes? Can you make out what is being said? Do you agree with what is being said? If so,
please thank Prof. Tim Schulz (http://www.ee.mtu.edu/faculty/schulz) for this problem.
Chapter 6

CONTINUOUS CONVOLUTION

6.0 Scope and Objectives

In the time domain, convolution may be regarded as a method of finding the zero-state response of a relaxed
LTI system. This chapter describes the convolution operation and its properties, and establishes the key
connections between time-domain and transformed-domain methods for signal and system analysis based on
convolution. Frequency-domain viewpoints of convolution will be presented in later chapters.

6.1 Introduction
The convolution method for finding the zero-state response y(t) of a system to an input x(t) applies to linear
time-invariant (LTI) systems. The system is assumed to be described by its impulse response h(t). An
informal way to establish a mathematical form for y(t) is illustrated in Figure 6.1.

Impulse input Output

Impulse response h(t)

t t t

t t
Input x(t)

t t

t t t

Superposition

Impulse approximation Total response y(t)

of input
Total input x(t)

t t
t

Figure 6.1 The process of convolution

130
6.1 Introduction 131

We divide x(t) into narrow rectangular strips of width ts at kts , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . and replace each strip
by an impulse whose strength ts x(kts ) equals the area under each strip:

!
x(t) ts x(kts )(t kts ) (sum of shifted impulses) (6.1)
k=

Since x(t) is a sum of weighted shifted impulses, the response y(t), by superposition, is a sum of the
weighted shifted impulse responses:

!
y(t) = ts x(kts )h(t kts ) (sum of shifted impulse responses) (6.2)
k=

In the limit as ts d 0, kts describes a continuous variable , and both x(t) and y(t) may be
represented by integral forms to give
" "
x(t) = x()(t ) d y(t) = x()h(t ) d (6.3)

Note that the result for x(t) is a direct consequence of the sifting property of impulses. The result
"
y(t) = x(t) h(t) = x()h(t ) d (6.4)

describes the convolution integral for finding the zero-state response of a system. In this book, we use
the shorthand notation x(t) h(t) to describe the convolution of the signals x(t) and h(t).
"
Notation: We use x(t) h(t) (or x(t) h(t) in figures) as a shorthand notation for x()h(t ) d

REVIEW PANEL 6.1

Convolution Yields the Zero-State Response of an LTI System
Input x(t) System Output y(t) = x(t) * h(t) = h(t) * x(t)
impulse response = h(t) Output = convolution of x(t) and h(t)

6.1.1 The Convolution Process

In the convolution integral, the time t determines the relative location of h(t ) with respect to x(). The
convolution will yield a nonzero result only for those values of t over which h(t ) and x() overlap. The
response y(t) for all time requires the convolution for every value of t. We must evaluate the area of the
product x()h(t ) as t varies. Varying t amounts to sliding the folded function h() past x() by the
chosen values of t, as shown in Figure 6.2.
The impulse response h(t) of many physical systems decays to zero for large t. At any instant t, the
response y(t) may be regarded as the cumulative interaction of the input x() with the folded impulse
response h(t ). Due to the folding, later values of the input are multiplied or weighted by correspondingly
earlier (and larger) values of the impulse response and summed to yield y(t). The response depends on both
the present and past values of the input and impulse response. Inputs in the more recent past are weighted
more heavily by the (folded) impulse response than less recent inputs, but future values of the input (or
impulse response) have absolutely no influence on the present or past response.
132 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

h(t)
h( )
x(t) x(t )

t t
t

h( ) x(t ) h( ) x(t ) h( ) x(t )

Increase t Increase t

t t t
Figure 6.2 Convolution as a process of sliding a folded signal past another

Apart from its physical significance, the convolution integral is just another mathematical operation. It
takes only a change of variable = t to show that
" " "
x(t) h(t) = x()h(t ) d = x(t )h() d = x(t )h() d = h(t) x(t) (6.5)

This is the commutative property, one where the order is unimportant. It says that, at least mathematically,
we can switch the roles of the input and the impulse response for any system.

REVIEW PANEL 6.2

Convolution May Be Performed in Any Order
" "
y(t) = x(t) h(t) = h(t) x(t) y(t) = x()h(t ) d = h()x(t ) d

For two causal signals x(t)u(t) and h(t)u(t), the product x()u()h(t )u(t ) is nonzero only over
the range 0 t (because u() is zero for < 0 and u(t ) is a left-sided step, which is zero for > t).
Since both u() and u(t ) are unity in this range, the convolution integral simplifies to
" t
y(t) = x()h(t ) d, x(t) and h(t) zero for t < 0 (6.6)
0

This result generalizes to the fact that the convolution of two right-sided signals is also right-sided and the
convolution of two left-sided signals is also left-sided.

REVIEW PANEL 6.3

Sketching u() and u(t ) Versus
u( ) is a step that turns on at = 0 u(t ) is a step that turns off at = t
u( ) u(t )
1
1

t
6.2 Convolution of Some Common Signals 133

6.2 Convolution of Some Common Signals

The convolution of any signal h(t) with an impulse reproduces the signal h(t). The sifting property gives

(t) h(t) = h(t) (6.7)

This is simply another way of describing h(t) as the impulse response of a system. With h(t) = (t), we have
the less obvious result (t) (t) = (t). These two results are illustrated in Figure 6.3.

(t) x(t) x(t) (t) (t) (t)

(1) (1) (1) (1)

* = * =
t t t t t t

Figure 6.3 Convolution of a signal with an impulse replicates the signal

Convolution is a linear operation and obeys superposition. It is also a time-invariant operation and
implies that shifting the input (or the impulse response) by shifts the output (the convolution) by .

REVIEW PANEL 6.4

Basic Concepts in Convolution
From time invariance: Shift x(t) or h(t) by and you shift y(t) by .
From linearity: Superposition applies. [x1 (t) + x2 (t)] h(t) = x1 (t) h(t) + x2 (t) h(t)
Convolution with an impulse replicates the signal: x(t) (t) = x(t)

EXAMPLE 6.1 (Convolution with Impulses)

Let x(t) = 4 tri(t/2) and h(t) = (t + 1) + (t 1). Sketch their convolution y(t) = x(t) h(t) and their
product p(t) = x(t)h(t) and find the area of each result.
The two signals and their convolution and product are sketched in Figure E6.1. The convolution is found by
shifting the triangular pulse 1 unit to the left and right
# and using superposition. The area of the convolution
y(t) equals 16. To sketch the product p(t), we use x(t)(t ) = x()(t ) (the product property of
impulses). The area of p(t) equals 4.
Comment: Note that convolution of a signal with an impulse replicates the signal, whereas the product of
a signal with an impulse replicates the impulse.

h(t) x(t) y(t) h(t) x(t) p(t)

4 4 4 (2) (2)
(1) (1)
* = (1) (1) =
t t t t t t
1 1 2 2 3 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 1

Figure E6.1 The signals of Example 6.1 and their convolution and product
134 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.2.1 Analytical Evaluation of Convolution

Convolution is an integral operation that may be evaluated analytically, graphically, or numerically. The
result depends on the nature of the signals being convolved. For example, we should expect to see a linear
form if both signals are piecewise constant or a quadratic form if one is linear and the other is piecewise
constant. In analytical convolution, we describe x(t) and h(t) by expressions using step functions, set up the
forms for x() and h(t ), and integrate their product.
While evaluating the integral, keep in mind that x() and h(t ) are functions of (and not t), but
t is a constant with respect to . Simplification of the integration limits due to the step functions in the
convolution kernel occurs frequently in problem solving. For piecewise signals, it is best to break up and
solve each integral separately because the limits on each integral will determine the range of of each result.

REVIEW PANEL 6.5

Concepts in Analytical Convolution: Express x(t) and h(t) Using Step Functions
The step function in x() changes the lower limit; the step in h(t ) changes the upper limit.
Example: u( 1) changes lower limit to 1 and u(t + 3) changes upper limit to t + 3.
" " t+3
Then: (.)u( 1)u(t + 3) d = (.) d = (result of integration)u(t + 2)
1
A function of t is constant with respect to and can be pulled out of the convolution integral.

EXAMPLE 6.2 (Analytical Convolution)

(a) Let x(t) = e2t u(t) and h(t) = et u(t). Then x() = e2 u() and h(t ) = e(t) u(t ). Since
u() = 0, < 0, and u(t ) = 0, > t, we may write
" " t
y(t) = x(t) h(t) = e2 (t)
e u()u(t ) d = et
e d = et (1 et ) = et e2t , t 0
0
Comment: Note how we pulled et out of the first integral because it was not a function of .

(b) Let x(t) = et u(t + 3) and h(t) = et u(t 1). Then h() = e u( + 3) and x(t ) =
e(t) u(t 1). Since u( + 3) = 0, < 3, and u(t 1) = 0, > t 1, we obtain
" " t1
y(t) = e
u( + 1)e(t)
u(t 1) d = e e(t) d
3
Since et is not a function of , we can pull it out of the integral to get
" t1
y(t) = et
d = (t + 2)et , t 1 3 or y(t) = (t + 2)et u(t + 2)
3

(c) Consider the convolution of x(t) = u(t + 1) u(t 1) with itself. Changing the arguments to x() and
x(t ) results in the convolution
"
y(t) = [u( + 1) u( 1)][u(t + 1) u(t 1)] d

Since u(t + 1) = 0, < t + 1, and u(t 1) = 0, > t 1, the integration limits for the four
integrals can be simplified and result in
" t+1 " t1 " t+1 " t1
y(t) = d d d + d
1 1 1 1
6.3 Some Properties of Convolution 135

Evaluating each integral separately, we obtain

" t+1 " t1 " t+1 " t1
d = t + 2, t 2 d = t, t 0 d = t, t 0 d = t 2, t 2
1 1 1 1

Based on each result and its range, we can express the convolution y(t) as

y(t) = (t + 2)u(t + 2) tu(t) tu(t) + (t 2)u(t 2) = r(t + 2) 2r(t) + r(t 2)

We can also express y(t) by ranges, if required.

Caution: Had we simply added the results without regard to their range, we would have obtained
y(t) = (t + 2) t t + (t 2) = 0. This result holds only for t 2 when all terms contribute to y(t).

6.3 Some Properties of Convolution

Example 6.2 reveals the following important results and properties that serve as consistency checks while
finding the convolution y(t) of any arbitrary signals x(t) and h(t).
Duration and Area The starting time of y(t) equals the sum of the starting times of x(t) and h(t). The
ending time of y(t) equals the sum of the ending times of x(t) and h(t). The duration of y(t) equals the sum
of the durations of x(t) and h(t). The area of y(t) equals the product of the areas of x(t) and h(t). A formal
proof involves interchanging the order of integration and noting that areas are shift invariant. We have
" " "
y(t) dt = x()h(t ) d dt

" $" % " "
= h(t ) dt x() d = h(t) dt x(t) dt

Properties Based on Linearity A linear operation on the input to a system results in a similar operation
on the response. Thus, the input x (t) results in the response y (t), and we have x (t) h(t) = y (t). In
fact, the derivative of any one of the convolved signals results in the derivative of the convolution. Repeated
derivatives of either x(t) or h(t) lead to the general result

x(m) (t) h(t) = x(t) h(m) (t) = y (m) (t) x(m) (t) h(n) (t) = y (m+n) (t) (6.8)

Integration of the input to a system results in integration of the response. The step response thus equals
the running integral of the impulse response. More generally, the convolution x(t) u(t) equals the running
integral of x(t) because
" " t
x(t) u(t) = x()u(t ) d = x() d (6.9)

Properties Based on Time Invariance If the input to a system is shifted by , so too is the response.
In other words, x(t ) h(t) = y(t ). In fact, shifting any one of the convolved signals by shifts the
convolution by . If both x(t) and h(t) are shifted, we can use this property in succession to obtain

x(t ) h(t ) = y(t ) (6.10)

The concepts of linearity and shift invariance lie at the heart of many other properties of convolution.
136 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

Time Scaling If both x(t) and h(t) are scaled by to x(t) and h(t), the duration property suggests
that the convolution y(t) is also scaled by . In fact, x(t) h(t) = | 1 |y(t), where the scale factor | 1 | is
required to satisfy the area property. The time-scaling property is valid only when both functions are scaled
by the same factor.
Symmetry If both signals are folded ( = 1), so is their convolution. As a consequence of this, the
convolution of an odd symmetric and an even symmetric signal is odd symmetric, whereas the convolution of
two even symmetric (or two odd symmetric) signals is even symmetric. Interestingly, the convolution of x(t)
with its folded version x(t) is also even symmetric, with a maximum at t = 0. The convolution x(t) x(t)
is called the autocorrelation of x(t) and is discussed later in this chapter.

REVIEW PANEL 6.6

Useful Properties of Convolution
Shift: x(t ) h(t) = y(t ) Derivative: x (t) h(t) = y (t) Scale: x(t) h(t) = 1
|| y(t)
" t
Convolution with impulses: x(t) (t) = x(t) and steps: x(t) u(t) = x() d
0
Convolution is generally a smoothing and stretching operation (unless the convolved signals
contain impulses or their derivatives).

6.3.1 Some Useful Convolution Results

Several useful convolution results are sketched in Figure 6.4. Here is how some of these results come about.

(t) (t) (t) (t) x(t) x(t)

(1) (1) (1) (1)
* = * =
t t t t t t

u(t) u(t) r(t)

1 1
e- t e- t = te- t
* =1 *
t t t t t t
1

u(t) rect(t) rect(t) tri(t)

1 1 1 1 1 1
e- t
* = 1 e- t * =
t t t
t t t 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1

Figure 6.4 The convolution of some useful signals

" " t
1. u(t) u(t) = u()u(t ) d = d = tu(t) = r(t)
0
" " t
2. et u(t) et u(t) = e e(t) u()u(t ) d = et d = tet u(t)
0
6.3 Some Properties of Convolution 137
" " t
3. u(t) et u(t) = u(t )e u() d = e d = (1 et )u(t)
0

4. rect(t) rect(t) = [u(t + 0.5) u(t 0.5)] [u(t + 0.5) u(t 0.5)] = r(t + 1) 2r(t) + r(t 1) = tri(t)

REVIEW PANEL 6.7

Three Useful Convolution Results
u(t) u(t) = r(t) rect(t) rect(t) = tri(t) et u(t) et u(t) = tet u(t)

EXAMPLE 6.3 (Convolution Properties)

(a) The impulse response of an RC lowpass filter is h(t) = et u(t). Find its step response.
The response s(t) to the step input u(t) is the running integral of h(t), and thus
" t
s(t) = e u() d = (1 et )u(t)

(b) Using linearity, the convolution yr (t) = r(t) et u(t) = u(t) u(t) et u(t) is the running integral of
the step response s(t) = u(t) et u(t) and equals
" t " t
yr (t) = s(t) dt = 1 et dt = r(t) (1 et )u(t)
0 0

(c) Using shifting and superposition, the response y1 (t) to the input x(t) = u(t) u(t 2) equals
y1 (t) = [1 et ]u(t) [1 e(t2) ]u(t 2)

# #
(d) Using the area property, the area of y1 (t) equals [ et dt][ x(t) dt] = 2.
Comment: Try integrating y1 (t) directly at your own risk to arrive at the same answer!

(e) Starting with et u(t) et u(t) = tet u(t), and using the scaling property and u(t) = u(t),
1
et u(t) et u(t) = (t)et u(t) = tet u(t)

(f ) Starting with u(t) et u(t) = (1 et )u(t), and using the scaling property and u(t) = u(t),
1
u(t) et u(t) = (1 et )u(t)

(g) With = 1 in the scaling property, we obtain u(t) et u(t) = (1 et )u(t).

This confirms that the convolution of left-sided signals is also left-sided.
138 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

(h) Let x(t) = u(t + 3) u(t 1) and h(t) = u(t + 1) u(t 1).
Using superposition, the convolution y(t) = x(t) x(t) may be described as
y(t) = u(t + 3) u(t + 1) u(t + 3) u(t 1) u(t 1) u(t + 1) + u(t 1) u(t 1)
Since u(t) u(t) = r(t), we invoke time invariance for each term to get
y(t) = r(t + 4) r(t + 2) r(t) + r(t + 2)
The signals and their convolution are shown in Figure E6.3H. The convolution y(t) is a trapezoid
extending from t = 4 to t = 2 whose duration is 6 units, whose starting time equals the sum of the
starting times of x(t) and h(t), and whose area equals the product of the areas of x(t) and h(t).
x(t) h(t) y(t)
2
1 * 1 =
t t t
3 1 1 1 4 2 2
Figure E6.3H The signals for Example 6.3(h) and their convolution

6.4 Convolution by Ranges (Graphical Convolution)

Analytical convolution is tedious to express and sketch range by range. It is often easier to find such range-
by-range results directly. In some cases, the results may even be obtained by graphical evaluation of areas
without solving integrals, which leads to the name graphical convolution. In this approach, we describe
h() and x(t ) by intervals. As we increase t (slide x(t ) to the right) from a position of no overlap
with x(t), the overlap region of x() and h(t ) changes, as do the expressions for their product and the
convolution (the area of their product).
The Pairwise Sum for Finding Convolution Ranges The mechanics of convolution by ranges may
be viewed as a bookkeeping operation. As we fold and slide, we must keep track of changes in the ranges,
integration limits, and so on. The choice of which function to fold and slide is arbitrary. But choosing the
one with the simpler representation leads to simpler integrals. The key, however, is to be able to establish
the correct ranges. Each range represents the largest duration over which the convolution is described by
the same expression. A new range begins each time a range end point of the folded function slides past a
range end point of the other. This is the basis for the following foolproof pairwise sum rule for obtaining
the convolution ranges.
1. Set up two sequences containing the range end points of x(t) and h(t).
2. Form their pairwise sum (by summing each value from one sequence with the other).
3. Arrange the pairwise sum in increasing order and discard duplications.
The resulting sequence yields the end points for the convolution ranges. An example follows.

EXAMPLE 6.4 (The Pairwise Sum Rule)

The pairwise sum of the sequences {0, 1, 3} and {2, 0, 2} gives {2, 0, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 3, 5}.
The ordered sequence becomes {2, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 5}.
Discarding duplications, we get {2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 5}. The ranges for nonzero convolution are then
2 t 1 1t0 0t1 1t2 2t3 3t5
6.4 Convolution by Ranges (Graphical Convolution) 139

The Recipe for Convolution by Ranges is summarized in the following review panel. To sketch x()
versus , simply relabel the axes. To sketch x(t ) versus , fold x() and delay by t. For example, if the
end points of x() are (4, 3), the end points of (the folded) x(t ) will be (t 3, t + 4).

REVIEW PANEL 6.8

Recipe for Convolution by Ranges
1. Express x(t) and h(t) by intervals and find the convolution ranges using the pairwise sum.
2. For each range, locate x(t ) relative to h(). Keep the end points of x(t ) in terms of t.
3. For each range, integrate x(t )h() over their overlap duration to find the convolution.

EXAMPLE 6.5 (Convolution by Ranges)

Find the convolution of x(t) and h(t) sketched in Figure E6.5.
h(t) h( ) x(t) x(t )
1 1 1 1
t e t
e (t )
t t
1 1 t
Figure E6.5 The signals for Example 6.5
The pairwise sum gives the end points of the convolution ranges as [0, 1, ]. For each range, we
superpose x(t ) = e(t) u(t ) and h() = to obtain the following results:

Overlapping Signals Range and Convolution y(t) End Values

h( ) x(t ) [0 < t < 1]
Range: 0 t 1 y(0) = 0
1 " t
e (t ) e(t) d = 1 + t + et
y(1) = e1
0
t 1
h( ) x(t ) [ t > 1]
Range: t 1 y(1) = e1
1 " 1 " 1

e(t)
d = et
e d = et
e (t ) y() = 0
0 0
1 t

#
We used the indefinite integral e d = ( 1)e to simplify the results. The convolution results match
at the range end points. The convolution is plotted in Figure E6.5A.
h(t) x(t) y(t)
1 1
1/e
t e t =
*
t t t
1
Figure E6.5A The convolution of the signals for Example 6.5
140 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

EXAMPLE 6.6 (Convolution by Ranges)

Find the convolution of x(t) and h(t) sketched in Figure E6.6.

x(t) x(t ) h(t) h( )

2 2
t
2 2 2 t 2
t 2 2
1 1 t 1 t +1
2 2
Figure E6.6 The signals for Example 6.6

The pairwise sum gives the end points of the convolution ranges as [3, 1, 1, 3]. For each range, we
superpose x(t ) = 2, t 1 t + 1, and h() = , 2 2 to obtain the following results:

Overlapping Signals Range and Convolution y(t) End Values

x(t ) h( ) [3 < t < 1]
2 Range: 3 t 1 y(3) = 0
" t+1
2
2 d = t2 + 2t 3
t 1 t +1 2 y(1) = 4
2
2
x(t ) h( ) [1 < t < 1]
Range: 1 t 1 y(1) = 4
2 " t+1
2
2 d = 4t
t 1 t +1 2 y(1) = 4
t1
2
x(t ) h( ) [1 < t < 3]
2 Range: 1 t 3 y(1) = 4
" 2
2
2 d = t2 + 2t + 3
t 1 2 t +1 y(3) = 0
t1
2

The convolution results match at the range end points and are plotted in Figure E6.6A.
y(t)
4
h(t)
x(t)
2
t
2 t 3 1 t
2
t * 2
= 1 3
1 1 2
4
Figure E6.6A The convolution of the signals for Example 6.6

As a consistency check, note how the convolution results match at the end points of each range. Note
that one of the convolved signals has even symmetry, the other has odd symmetry, and the convolution result
has odd symmetry.
6.4 Convolution by Ranges (Graphical Convolution) 141

EXAMPLE 6.7 (Convolution by Ranges)

Find the convolution of the signals x(t) and h(t) sketched in Figure E6.7.
x(t) x(t )
2 2
h(t) h( )
1 1
t
t t
1 3 1 3 -2 1 t -1 t+2
Figure E6.7 The signals for Example 6.7
The end points of x(t) and h(t) are {2, 1} and {0, 1, 3}. Their pairwise sum gives {2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 4}.
Discarding duplications, we get the range end points as {2, 1, 1, 2, 4}. For each range, we superpose
x(t ) = 1, t 1 t + 2, and h() = to obtain the following results:
Overlapping Signals Range and Convolution y(t) End Values
h( ) x(t ) [-2 < t < -1]
Range: 2 t 1 y(2) = 0
2 " t+2
1

2 d = (t + 2)2 y(1) = 1
0
t -1 t+2 1 3
h( ) x(t ) [-1 < t < 1]
Range: 1 t 1 y(1) = 1
2 " " t+2
1
1

2 d + 2 d = 2t + 3 y(1) = 5
0 1
t -1 1 t+2 3
h( ) x(t ) [1 < t < 2]
2
Range: 1 t 2 y(1) = 5
" 1 " 3
1
2 d + 2 d = t2 + 2t + 4 y(2) = 4
t1 1
t -1 1 3 t+2
h( ) x(t ) [2 < t < 4]
Range: 2 t 4 y(2) = 4
2
" 3
1 2 d = 2t + 8
y(4) = 0
t1
1 t -1 3 t+2

The convolution is plotted in Figure E6.7A. The convolution results match at the range end points. Since
x(t) is constant while h(t) is piecewise linear, their convolution must yield only linear or quadratic forms.
Our results also confirm this.
y(t)
5
x(t)
4
2
h(t)
1
t * = 1
t t t
1 3 -2 2 1 1 12 4
Figure E6.7A The convolution of the signals for Example 6.7
142 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

REVIEW PANEL 6.9

Consistency Checks for the Convolution y(t) = x(t) h(t)
Start: sum of start times of x(t) and h(t). Duration: sum of durations of x(t) and h(t).
End: sum of end times of x(t) and h(t). Area: product of areas of x(t) and h(t).

6.4.1 Graphical Convolution of Piecewise Constant Signals

The convolution of piecewise constant signals is linear over every range. All we then need is to find the
convolution at the end points of each range and connect the dots, so to speak. The convolution values
can easily be calculated graphically. In particular, the convolution of two rectangular pulses of heights A
and B and widths Wmin and Wmax is a trapezoid. You can mentally visualize this result by folding one of
the pulses and sliding it past the other. The convolution increases from zero to a maximum in Wmin units
(partial increasing overlap), stays constant for Wmax Wmin units (total overlap), and decreases to zero in
Wmin units (partial decreasing overlap). The maximum convolution equals ABWmin (the area of the product
during total overlap). The starting time of the convolution can be found from the sum of the starting times
of the two pulses. Note that if the pulse widths are equal, the convolution is a triangular function.

REVIEW PANEL 6.10

Sketching the Convolution y(t) of Piecewise Constant Signals?
1. Find the convolution values at the end points of each range. 2. Connect by straight lines.
Rectangular pulses: y(t) is a trapezoid for unequal pulse widths, a triangle for equal pulse widths.

EXAMPLE 6.8 (Convolution of Piecewise Constant Signals)

Consider the piecewise linear signals x(t) and h(t) and their convolution, shown in Figure E6.8.
x(t) h(t) x( ) h(t ) t = 2 x( ) h(t ) t = 1
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
t t y(t)
1 2 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
14

8
x( ) h(t ) t = 0 x( ) h(t ) t = 1 x( ) h(t ) t = 2
3 3 3 3 t
2 2 2
3 2 1 1 2 3
1 1 1

1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
Figure E6.8 The signals for Example 6.8 and their convolution
The convolution starts at t = 3. The convolution ranges cover unit intervals up to t = 3. The area of
x()h(t ) with t chosen for each end point yields the following results:

y(3) = 0 y(2) = 3 y(1) = 8 y(0) = 14 y(1) = 8 y(2) = 3 y(3) = 0

Note that h(t) = x(t). The convolution x(t) x(t) is called the autocorrelation of x(t) and is always even
symmetric, with a maximum at the origin.
6.4 Convolution by Ranges (Graphical Convolution) 143

6.4.2 Impulse Response of LTI Systems in Cascade and Parallel

Consider the ideal cascade (with no loading eects) of two LTI systems, as shown in Figure 6.5.

Two LTI systems in cascade Equivalent LTI system

x(t) h1(t) h2 (t) y(t) x(t) h1(t) * h2 (t) y(t)

Two LTI systems in parallel

Equivalent LTI system
x(t) h1(t)
+ y(t)
+
x(t) h1(t) + h2 (t) y(t)
h2 (t)

Figure 6.5 Cascaded and parallel systems and their equivalents

The response of the first system is y1 (t) = x(t) h1 (t). The response y(t) of the second system is

y(t) = y1 (t) h2 (t) = [x(t) h1 (t)] h2 (t) = x(t) [h1 (t) h2 (t)] (6.11)

If we wish to replace the cascaded system by an equivalent LTI system with impulse response h(t) such that
y(t) = x(t) h(t), it follows that h(t) = h1 (t) h2 (t). Generalizing this result, the impulse response h(t) of
N ideally cascaded LTI systems is simply the convolution of the N individual impulse responses:

h(t) = h1 (t) h2 (t) hN (t) (for a cascade combination) (6.12)

If the hk (t) are energy signals, the order of cascading is unimportant. The overall impulse response of systems
in parallel equals the sum of the individual impulse responses, as shown in Figure 6.5.

hP (t) = h1 (t) + h2 (t) + + hN (t) (for a parallel combination) (6.13)

REVIEW PANEL 6.11

The Impulse Response of N Interconnected LTI Systems
In cascade: Convolve the impulse responses: hC (t) = h1 (t) h2 (t) hN (t)
In parallel: Add the impulse responses: hP (t) = h1 (t) + h2 (t) + + hN (t)

EXAMPLE 6.9 (Interconnected Systems)

(a) Refer to the system shown in Figure E6.9A. Find the impulse response of each subsystem, the overall
impulse response, and the outputs f (t) and g(t).

2 + +
1 y(t) = x (t)
f(t) + g(t)
2e - t 1F
+
t
LTI system 1 LTI system 2
Figure E6.9A The interconnected system for Example 6.9(a)
144 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

The time constant of the RC circuit is = 1. Its impulse response is thus h(t) = et u(t). The input-
output relation for the second system has the form y0 (t) = x0 (t) + x0 (t). Its impulse response is thus
h2 (t) = (t) + (t).
The overall impulse response h(t) is given by their convolution:

h(t) = et u(t) [(t) + (t)] = et u(t) + (t) et u(t) = (t)

This means that the overall system output equals the applied input and the second system acts as the
inverse of the first.
The output g(t) is thus g(t) = 2et u(t).
The output f (t) is given by the convolution f (t) = 2et u(t) et u(t) = 2tet u(t).

(b) Refer to the cascaded system shown in Figure E6.9B. Will the outputs g(t) and w(t) be equal? Explain.

2 + +
f(t) 1 g(t)
2e - t y(t) = x 2(t)
1F

2 + +
1 v(t) w(t)
2e - t y(t) = x 2(t)
1F

Figure E6.9B The cascaded system for Example 6.9(b)

The impulse response of the RC circuit is h(t) = et u(t). For the first system, the output f (t) is
f (t) = 4e2t u(t). Using convolution, the output g(t) is given by

g(t) = et u(t) 4e2t u(t) = 4(et e2t )u(t)

For the second system, the outputs v(t) and w(t) are

v(t) = et u(t) 2et u(t) = 2tet u(t) w(t) = v 2 (t) = 4t2 e2t u(t)

Clearly, w(t) and g(t) are not equal. The reason is that the order of cascading is unimportant only for
LTI systems and the squaring block is nonlinear.

6.5 Stability and Causality

In Chapter 4 we examined the stability of LTI systems described by dierential equations. Bounded-input,
bounded-output (BIBO) stability of such systems required every root of the characteristic equation to have
negative real parts. For systems described by their impulse response, this actually translates to an equivalent
condition that involves constraints on the impulse response h(t).
6.5 Stability and Causality 145

If x(t) is bounded such that |x(t)| < M , then its folded, shifted version x(t ) is also bounded. Using
the fundamental theorem of calculus (the absolute value of any integral cannot exceed the integral of the
absolute value of its integrand), the convolution integral yields the following inequality:
" "
|y(t)| < |h( )||x(t )| d < M |h( )| d (6.14)

It follows immediately that for y(t) to be bounded, we require

"
|h( )| d < (for a stable LTI system) (6.15)

For BIBO stability, therefore, h(t) must be absolutely integrable. This is both a necessary and sucient
condition. If satisfied, we are guaranteed a stable LTI system. In particular, if h(t) is an energy signal, we
have a stable system.

6.5.1 The Impulse Response of Causal Systems

For a causal system, we require an impulse response of the form h(t)u(t), which equals zero for t < 0. This
ensures that an input x(t)u(t t0 ) that starts at t = t0 results in a response y(t) that also starts at t = t0 .
We see this by setting up the convolution integral as
" " t
y(t) = x()u( t0 )h(t )u(t ) d = x()h(t ) d (6.16)
t0

Causal systems are also called physically realizable. Causality actually imposes a powerful constraint on
h(t). The even and odd parts of a causal h(t) cannot be independent, and h(t) can in fact be found from its
even symmetric (or odd symmetric) part alone.

REVIEW PANEL 6.12

Stability and Causality of CT Systems
"
For stability: h(t) must be absolutely integrable with |h()| d < .

For causality: h(t) must be zero for negative time with h(t) = 0, t < 0.

EXAMPLE 6.10 (Stability of LTI Systems)

(a) (Stability of a Dierentiating System)
#
The system y(t) = x (t) has the impulse response h(t) = (t). It is not BIBO stable since |h(t)| dt
is not finite. The (bounded) input u(t), for example, results in the response (t), which is clearly
unbounded (at t = 0). Extending this concept, for a stable system we require the highest derivative of
the input not to exceed the highest derivative of the output. This implies a proper operational transfer
function (the degree of whose numerator cannot exceed that of the denominator).

(b) (Stability of Ideal Filters)

An ideal lowpass filter is described by an impulse response of the form h(t) = sinc(Bt). Since h(t)
is not zero for t < 0, this filter is physically unrealizable. Since the sinc function is not absolutely
integrable, an ideal filter is also unstable.
146 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.6 The Response to Periodic Inputs

Consider a system with impulse response h(t) = et u(t) excited by a harmonic input x(t) = ej0 t . The
response y(t) then equals
" " t
y(t) = e(t) u(t )ej0 d = et e(1+j0 ) d (6.17)

Upon simplification, we obtain

(t
et & (1+j0 ) ' (( et 1
y(t) = e ( = et(1+j0 ) = ej0 t = Kx(t) (6.18)
1 + j0 1 + j0 1 + j0

where K = 1/(1 + j0 ) is a (complex) constant. The response y(t) = Kx(t) is also a harmonic at the input
frequency 0 . More generally, the response of LTI systems to any periodic input is also periodic with the
same period as the input. In the parlance of convolution, the convolution of two signals, one of which is
periodic, is also periodic and has the same period as the input.

REVIEW PANEL 6.13

A Periodic Input to an LTI System Yields a Periodic Output with Identical Period

Input Relaxed Output Periodic input Relaxed Periodic output

e j 0 t LTI system Ke j 0 t Period = T LTI system Period = T

6.6.1 Periodic Extension and Wraparound

Conceptually, if we know the response to one period of the input, we can find the entire response using
superposition. It is important to realize that although the response to one period is not periodic, superposi-
tion of its infinitely many shifted versions yields a periodic signal. More formally, the sum of an absolutely
integrable signal (or energy signal) x(t) and all its replicas shifted by multiples of T yields a periodic signal
with period T called its periodic extension xpe (t). Thus,

!
xpe (t) = x(t + kT ) (6.19)
k=

The following review panel lists the periodic extensions of two useful signals. The area of one period of the
periodic extension xpe (t) equals the total area of x(t). In fact, adding y(t) and its infinitely many shifted
versions to obtain the periodic extension is equivalent to wrapping y(t) around in one-period segments and
adding them up instead. The wraparound method can thus be used to find the periodic output as the
periodic extension of the response to one period.

REVIEW PANEL 6.14

Periodic Extension with Period T of Two Signals Over (0, T )
et tet T e(t+T )
x(t) = et u(t) xpe (t) = x(t) = tet u(t) xpe (t) = +
1 eT 1 eT (1 eT )2
6.6 The Response to Periodic Inputs 147

EXAMPLE 6.11 (Periodic Extension)

(a) If x(t) is a pulse of duration T , its periodic extension xpe (t) is just x(t) with period T , as shown
in Figure E6.11A. If > T , the periodic extension xpe (t) is found by wrapping around one-period
segments of x(t) past T units and adding them to x(t).
x(t) x pe (t) T = 4 x pe (t) T =2

t t t
3 3 4 1 2
Figure E6.11A The pulse signal for Example 6.11(a) and its periodic extension

(b) The periodic extension of x(t) = et u(t) with period T may be expressed, using wraparound, as

! et
xpe (t) = et + e(t+T ) + e(t+2T ) + = et eT = (6.20)
1 eT
k=0

The signal and its periodic extension is shown in Figure E6.11B.

x(t) x pe (t)

Add shifted replicas

t t
T T
Figure E6.11B The exponential signal for Example 6.11(b) and its periodic extension

6.6.2 Finding the Response to Periodic Inputs

Rather than wrap around the response to one period, we may also find the response yp (t) to a periodic input
xp (t) by first creating the periodic extension hpe (t) of h(t) and then finding the convolution of one period
of hpe (t) and one period of xp (t). However, we must use wraparound to generate yp (t) because the regular
convolution of one period of hpe (t) and one period of xp (t) extends for two periods.

REVIEW PANEL 6.15

System Response to a Periodic Input xp (t) with Period T
1. Find the periodic extension hpe (t) of h(t) with period T .
2. Find the regular convolution y(t) of one period of xp (t) and hpe (t) (this will last 2T units).
3. Wrap around y(t), t T , using yW (t) = y(t + T ). Add yW (t) to the unwrapped portion of y(t).
148 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

The Cyclic Approach

Yet another way to find the system response is to slide the entire periodic signal xp (t ) past only one
period of the periodic extension hpe (). Since xp (t ) is periodic, as portions of xp (t ) slide out to
the right of the one period window of hpe (), identical portions come into view (are wrapped around) from
the left. This is the cyclic method with wraparound built in. After xp (t ) slides one full period, the
convolution replicates.

EXAMPLE 6.12 (The Response to Periodic Inputs)

Find the response of a lowpass filter with impulse response h0 (t) = et u(t) excited by a periodic rectangular
pulse train x(t) with unit height, unit pulse width, and period T = 2.

(a) (Periodic Extension) One period of the periodic extension of h0 (t) is given by h(t) = Aet , where
A = 1/(1 e2 ). We first find the regular convolution of one period of x(t) with h(t). The pairwise
sum gives the end points of the convolution ranges as [0, 1, 2, 3]. For each range, we superpose
x(t ) = 1, t 1 t, and h() = Ae , 0 2, to obtain the following results:

Overlapping Signals Range and Convolution y(t)

h( ) x(t ) [0 < t < 1]
A Range: 0 t 1
1 " t
Ae Ae d = A(1 et )
0
t 1 t 1 2
h( ) x(t ) [1 < t < 2]
A Range: 1 t 2
1 " t & '
Ae
Ae d = A e(t1) et
t1
t 1 1 t 2
h( ) x(t ) [2 < t < 3]
A Range: 2 t 3
1 " 2 & '
Ae
Ae d = A e(t1) e2
t1
1 t 1 2 t

We wrap around the last 1-unit range past t = 2 (replacing t by t + 2), and add to the first term, to
get one period of the periodic output yp (t) as
& '

e(t1)
A(1 et ) + A e(t+1) e2 = 1 , 0t1
yp (t) = 1+e
& ' e(t2)

A e(t1) et = , 1t2
1+e

The regular convolution and periodic convolution is plotted in Figure E6.12A.

6.6 The Response to Periodic Inputs 149

x(t) h(t) y(t)

A
1

Ae t
* =
t t t
1 1 2 1 2 3

y(t) yp(t)
Wrap around
and add

t t
1 2 3 1 2 3
Figure E6.12A The regular and periodic convolution of the signals for Example 6.12(a)

(b) (The Cyclic Method) The output for one period may be computed using the cyclic approach by
first creating x(t ) and a one-period segment of h(), as shown in Figure E6.12B.
x(t ) h( )
1 A

Ae

t 2 t 1 t t+1 1 2
Figure E6.12B The signals x(t ) and one period of h() for Example 6.12(b)

We then slide the folded signal x(t ) past h() for a one-period duration (2 units), and find the
periodic convolution as follows:

Overlapping Signals Periodic Convolution yp (t)

h( ) x(t ) [0 < t < 1]
A Range: 0 t 1
" t " 1
1 e(t1)
Ae Ae d +

Ae d = 1
0 t+1 1+e
t 1 t 1 t+1 2
h( ) x(t ) [1 < t < 2]
A Range: 1 t 2
1 " t
Ae e(t2)
Ae d =
t1 1+e

t 1 1 t 2 t+1

As x(t ) slides right over one period of h(), we see portions of two pulses in partial view for
0 t 1, and one pulse in full view for 1 t 2. As expected, both methods yield identical results.
150 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.6.3 Existence of Convolution

Signals for which the convolution does not exist are not hard to find. The convolution of u(t) and u(t)
is one such example. Unfortunately, the question of existence can be answered only in terms of sucient
conditions that do not preclude the convolution of functions for which such conditions are violated. These
conditions are related primarily to signal energy, area, or one-sidedness. The convolution of two energy
signals, two absolutely integrable signals, or two left-sided signals, or two right-sided signals always exists.
The regular convolution of two periodic signals does not exist because it is either identically zero (if the
periods are non-commensurate and one of them has a zero average value) or infinite. This is why we must
turn to averages and resort to the concept of periodic convolution.

6.7 Periodic Convolution

Convolution involves finding the area under the product of one signal and a folded shifted version of another.
Periodic signals are of infinite extent. For such signals, this product will be either infinite or zero. Clearly,
the convolution of two periodic signals does not exist in the usual sense. This is where the concept of
periodic convolution comes in. The distinction between regular and periodic convolution is rather like the
distinction between energy and power. For signals with infinite energy, a much more useful measure is the
signal power, defined as the energy averaged over all time. Similarly, for signals whose convolution is infinite,
a much more useful measure is the average convolution. This average is called periodic convolution and
denoted xp (t) hp (t).
For two periodic signals xp (t) and hp (t) with identical or common period T , the periodic convolution
yp (t) for one period T may be found by convolving one period T of each signal and wrapping around the
result past T .
"
1 T
yp (t) = xp (t) hp (t) =
x1p ()hp (t ) d, 0tT (6.21)
T 0

The process is exactly like finding the system response to periodic inputs, except that no periodic extension
is required. The periodic convolution of other power signals with non-commensurate periods must be
found from a limiting form, by averaging the convolution of one periodic signal with a finite stretch T0 of
the other, as T0 .
"
1
yp (t) = x(t)
h(t) = lim xT ()h(t ) d (for nonperiodic power signals) (6.22)
T0 T0 T0

REVIEW PANEL 6.16

Periodic Convolution of Periodic Signals with Identical Periods T
1. Find the regular convolution y(t) of one-period segments of each (this will last 2T units).
2. Wrap around y(t), t T , using yW (t) = y(t + T ). Add yW (t) to the unwrapped portion of y(t).
3. Divide the result by the period T .

EXAMPLE 6.13 (Periodic Convolution)

Consider the periodic signals x(t) and y(t), shown at the left in Figure E6.13, for three cases. To find their
periodic convolution, we first find the regular convolution of their one-period segments; create its periodic
extension with period T , using wraparound where necessary; and normalize (divide) the result by T .
6.8 Connections: Convolution and Transform Methods 151

Regular convolution Periodic convolution

x(t) Case 1 T = 2 y(t) of one-period segments z(t)
2 2 4 2
t t t t
1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2
x(t) Case 2 T = 4 y(t) z(t)
1 1 1
1/4
t t t t
1 4 2 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
Wraparound
x(t) Case 3 T = 3 y(t) 2 z(t)
1 1
1 2/3
t t t 1/3 t
2 3 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Figure E6.13 The periodic signals for Example 6.13 and their periodic convolution
The periodic convolution z(t) (shown on the far right in Figure E6.13) requires wraparound only in the third
case where the regular convolution extends beyond T = 3.

6.8 Connections: Convolution and Transform Methods

Not only is convolution an important method of system analysis in the time domain, but it also leads to
concepts that form the basis of every transform method described in this text. Its role in linking the time
domain and the transformed domain is intimately tied to the concept of eigensignals and eigenvalues.

6.8.1 Eigensignals and Eigenvalues

The analysis of linear systems using convolution is based on expressing an input x(t) as a weighted sum
of shifted impulses, finding the response to each such impulse, and using superposition to obtain the total
response. The signal x(t) can also be described by a weighted combination of other useful signals besides
impulses. Let k (t) form a class of functions that result in the response k (t). If x(t) can be expressed as a
weighted sum of these k (t), the response y(t) is a corresponding weighted sum of k (t):
! !
x(t) = k k y(t) = k k (6.23)
k k

What better choice for k (t) than one that yields a response that is just a scaled version of itself such that
k (t) = Ak k (t)? Then ! !
y(t) = k k = k Ak k (6.24)
k k
Finding the output thus reduces to finding just the scale factors k , which may be real or complex. Signals k
that are preserved in form by a system except for a scale factor k are called eigensignals, eigenfunctions,
or characteristic functions because they are intrinsic (in German, eigen) to the system. The factor k by
which the eigensignal is scaled is called the eigenvalue of the system or the system function.

REVIEW PANEL 6.17

System Response to an Eigensignal = (Eigensignal) (System Function)
152 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.8.2 Harmonics as Eigensignals of Linear Systems

Everlasting harmonic signals form the most important class of eigensignals of linear systems. The system
response to the everlasting harmonic signal ejt is another everlasting harmonic signal Kejt at the same
frequency but scaled in magnitude and phase by the (possibly complex) constant K.
More generally, everlasting complex exponentials of the form est , where s = + j = s + j2f is a
complex quantity, are also eigensignals of every linear system.

REVIEW PANEL 6.18

The Everlasting Exponential est Is an Eigensignal of Linear Systems
In this everlasting exponential est , the quantity s has the general form s = + j.
The response of a linear system to est is Cest where C is a (possibly complex) constant.

6.8.3 Transformed Domain Relations

Consider the eigensignal x(t) = est as the input to a linear system with impulse response h(t). The response
y(t) equals the convolution:
" "
y(t) = x(t) h(t) = es(t) h() d = est h()es d (6.25)

The response equals the product of the eigensignal est and the system function (which is a function only of
the variable s). If we denote this system function by H(s), we have
"
H(s) = h()es d (6.26)

This is also called the transfer function. It is actually a description of h(t) by a weighted sum of complex
exponentials and is, in general, also complex. Now, the signal x(t) also yields a similar description, called
the two-sided Laplace transform:
"
X(s) = x()es d (two-sided Laplace transform) (6.27)

For a causal signal of the form x(t)u(t), we obtain the one-sided Laplace transform:
"
X(s) = x()es d (one-sided Laplace transform) (6.28)
0

The transform of the response y(t) = x(t)H(s) may also be written as

" "
Y (s) = y(t)est
dt = H(s)x(t)est dt = H(s)X(s) (6.29)

Since y(t) also equals x(t) h(t), convolution in the time domain is equivalent to multiplication in the
transformed domain. This is one of the most fundamental results, and one that we shall use repeatedly in
subsequent chapters.

REVIEW PANEL 6.19

Convolution in One Domain Corresponds to Multiplication in the Other
6.9 Convolution Properties Based on Moments 153

With only slight modifications, we can describe several other transformed-domain relations as follows:
1. With s = j2f , we use ej2f as the eigensignals and transform h(t) to the frequency domain in terms
of its steady-state transfer function H(f ) and the signal x(t) to its Fourier transform X(f ):
"
X(f ) = x()ej2f d (Fourier transform) (6.30)

2. For a single harmonic x(t) = ej2f0 t , the impulse response h(t) transforms to a complex constant
H(f0 ) = Kej . This produces the response Kej(2f0 t+) and describes the method of phasor analysis.
3. For a periodic signal xp (t) described by a combination of harmonics ejk2f0 t at the discrete frequencies
kf0 , we use superposition to obtain a frequency-domain description of xp (t) over one period in terms
of its Fourier series coecients X[k].

REVIEW PANEL 6.20

The Type of Convolution Depends on the Transform Method
Transform Method Time-Domain Convolution Frequency-Domain Convolution
Laplace Transform x(t) h(t) (regular) X(s) H(s) (regular, complex)
Fourier Transform x(t) h(t) (regular) X(f ) H(f ) (regular, complex)
Fourier Series xp (t)h
p (t) (periodic) X[k] H[k] (regular, discrete)

6.9 Convolution Properties Based on Moments

# #
The nth moment of a signal x(t) is defined as mn = tn x(t) dt. Thus, m0 = x(t) dt is just the area under
x(t). The area property suggests the following obvious result for the zeroth moments
" $" %$" %
y(t) dt = x(t) dt h(t) dt or m0 (y) = m0 (x)m0 (h) (6.31)

# -#
The quantity Dx = mx = m m0
1
= tx(t) dt x(t) dt corresponds to the eective delay or mean for an
energy signal. The delays are also related by
m1 (y) m1 (h) m1 (x)
Dy = Dx + Dh or = + (6.32)
m0 (y) m0 (h) m0 (x)
#
Central moments
# (about the mean) are defined as n = (t mx )n x(t) dt. The variance of x(t) is defined
by 2 = (t mx )2 x(t) dt = [m2 (x)/m0 (x)] m2x = Tx2 , and is a measure of the eective duration for an
energy signal. The durations are related by
.
Ty = Tx2 + Th2 or 2 (y) = 2 (x) + 2 (h) (6.33)

6.9.1 Moments of Cascaded Systems

The impulse response of a cascade of linear, time-invariant systems with impulse responses h1 (t), h2 (t), . . .
is described by the repeated convolution
h(t) = h1 (t) h2 (t) h3 (t) (6.34)
The moment properties suggest that the overall system delay D equals the sum of delays of the individual
systems and the overall duration T equals the square root of the sum of squares of the individual durations.
154 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

EXAMPLE 6.14 (Moment Properties and Cascaded Systems)

Consider a lowpass filter with time constant = 1 and h(t) = et u(t). The moments of h(t) are
" " "
m0 (h) = h(t) dt = 1 m1 (h) = th(t) dt = 1 m2 (h) = t2 h(t) dt = 2 Dh = 1
0 0 0

(a) If x(t) = h(t), the response is y(t) = x(t) h(t) = te u(t). The moments of y(t) are
t

" "
m0 (y) = y(t) dt = 1 m1 (y) = ty(t) dt = 2 Dy = 2
0 0

We see that m0 (y) = m0 (x)m0 (h) = 1 and Dy = Dx + Dh = 2.

(b) We compute the eective filter duration Th as

"
m2 (h)
Th2 = (t mh )2 h(t) dt = m2h = 2 1 = 1
0 m0 (h)

Comment: For a cascade of N identical lowpass filters (with/ = 1), the overall eective delay De is
De = NDh = N , and the overall eective duration Te is Te = N Th2 = Th N .

6.9.2 Repeated Convolution and the Central Limit Theorem

Repeated convolution is associative as long as the intermediate convolutions exist. In particular, the repeated
convolution of energy signals is always associative, and order is unimportant. With three signals, for example,
x1 (x2 x3 ) = (x1 x2 ) x3 = (x1 x3 ) x2 = (x3 x2 ) x1 = (6.35)
For energy signals, we also observe that the convolution is smoother than any of the signals convolved, and
repeated convolution begins to take on the bell-shaped Gaussian form as the number n of functions convolved
becomes large and may be expressed as
$ %
K (t mn )2
yn (t) = x1 (t) x2 (t) xn (t) / exp (6.36)
2n2 2n2

Here, mn is the sum of the individual means (delays), n2 is the sum of the individual variances, and the
constant K equals the product of the areas under each of the convolved functions.
0n "
K= xk (t) dt (6.37)
k=1

This result is one manifestation of the central limit theorem. It allows us to assert that the response
of a complex system composed of many subsystems is Gaussian, since its response is based on repeated
convolution. The individual responses need not be Gaussian and need not even be known.
The central limit theorem fails if any function has zero area, making K = 0. Sucient conditions for
it to hold require finite values of the average, the variance, and the absolute third moment. All time-
limited functions and many others satisfy these rather weak conditions. The system function H(f ) of a
large number of cascaded systems is also a Gaussian because convolution in the time domain is equivalent to
multiplication in the frequency domain. In probability theory, the central limit theorem asserts that the sum
of n statistically independent random variables approaches a Gaussian for large n, regardless of the nature
of their distributions.
6.9 Convolution Properties Based on Moments 155

REVIEW PANEL 6.21

The Convolution of n Energy Signals Approaches a Gaussian Form for Large n
If mn = sum of the means, n2 = sum of the variances, and K = product of the areas, then
$ %
K (t m2n )2
x1 (t) x2 (t) xn (t) / exp
2n2 2n2

EXAMPLE 6.15 (The Central Limit Theorem)

(a) Consider a cascade of identical RC lowpass filters with h(t) = et u(t). The impulse response yn (t) of
the cascaded system is simply the repeated convolution of h(t) with itself. The first few convolutions
yield
y1 (t) = tet u(t) y2 (t) = 12 t2 et u(t) y3 (t) = 13 t3 et u(t)
If the convolution is repeated n times, the result generalizes to
tn t
yn (t) = et u(t) et u(t) t u(t) = e u(t) (6.38)
n!
The peak shifts to the right by 1 unit for each successive convolution. We expect to see a progression
toward the bell-shaped Gaussian form with increasing n. The result for n = 40 is illustrated in
Figure E6.15(a) along with its Gaussian approximation.

(a) Repeated convolution of etu(t) for n = 40 (b) Repeated convolution of rect(t) for n = 3
0.8
0.06 Gaussian Gaussian
approximation 0.6 approximation
Amplitude

Amplitude

drawn light drawn light

0.04
0.4
0.02 0.2

0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 2 1 0 1 2
Time t [seconds] Time t [seconds]
Figure E6.15 The repeated convolution and its Gaussian approximation for the signals of Example 6.15

To find the Gaussian form as n , we start with the mean mh , variance 2 , and area A for et u(t).
We find "
m1
A = m0 = h(t) dt = 1 mh = =1 2 = 1
0 m0
For n cascaded systems, we have mN = nmh = n, N 2
= n 2 = n, and K = An = 1. These values lead
to the Gaussian approximation for yn (t) as
$ %
1 (t n)2
yn (t) exp
2n 2n

(b) An even more striking example is provided by the convolution of even symmetric rectangular pulses,
shown in Figure E6.15(b) for n = 3. Notice how the result begins to take on a Gaussian look after
only a few repeated convolutions.
156 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.10 Correlation
Correlation is an operation similar to convolution. It involves sliding one function past the other and finding
the area under the resulting product. Unlike convolution, however, no folding is performed. The correlation
rxx (t) of two identical functions x(t) is called autocorrelation. For two dierent functions x(t) and y(t),
the correlation rxy (t) or ryx (t) is referred to as cross-correlation.
Using the symbol to denote correlation, we define the two operations as
"
rxx (t) = x(t) x(t) = x()x( t) d (6.39)

"
rxy (t) = x(t) y(t) = x()y( t) d (6.40)

"
ryx (t) = y(t) x(t) = y()x( t) d (6.41)

The variable t is often referred to as the lag. The definitions of cross-correlation are not standard, and some
authors prefer to switch the definitions of rxy (t) and ryx (t).

6.10.1 Some Properties of Correlation

Cross-correlation is a measure of similarity between dierent functions. Since the order matters in cross-
correlation, we have two cross-correlation functions given by rxy (t) and ryx (t) as
" "
rxy (t) = x()y( t) d ryx (t) = y()x( t) d (6.42)

At t = 0, we have "
rxy (0) = x()y() d = ryx (0) (6.43)

Thus, rxy (0) = ryx (0). The cross-correlation also satisfies the inequality
. /
|rxy (t)| rxx (0)ryy (0) = Ex Ey (6.44)

where Ex and Ey represent the signal energy in x(t) and y(t), respectively.

Correlation as Convolution
The absence of folding actually implies that the correlation of x(t) and y(t) is equivalent to the convolution
of x(t) with the folded version y(t), and we have rxy (t) = x(t) y(t) = x(t) y(t).

Area and Duration

Since folding does not aect the area or duration, the area and duration properties for convolution also
apply to correlation. The starting and ending time for the cross-correlation rxy (t) may be found by using
the starting and ending times of x(t) and the folded signal y(t).

Commutation
The absence of folding means that the correlation depends on which function is shifted and, in general,
x(t) y(t) = y(t) x(t). Since shifting one function to the right is actually equivalent to shifting the other
function to the left by an equal amount, the correlation rxy (t) is related to ryx (t) by rxy (t) = ryx (t).
6.10 Correlation 157

REVIEW PANEL 6.22

Correlation Is the Convolution of One Signal with a Folded Version of the Other
rxh (t) = x(t) h(t) = x(t) h(t) rhx (t) = h(t) x(t) = h(t) x(t)
Duration = sum of durations of x(t) and h(t). Area = product of areas of x(t) and h(t).

Periodic Correlation
The correlation of two periodic signals or power signals is defined in the same sense as periodic convolution:
" "
1 1
rxy (t) = x()y( t) d rxy (t) = lim x()y( t) d (6.45)
T T T0 T0 T0

The first form defines the correlation of periodic signals with identical periods T , which is also periodic with
the same period T . The second form is reserved for nonperiodic power signals or random signals.

6.10.2 Autocorrelation
The autocorrelation operation involves identical functions. It can thus be performed in any order and
represents a commutative operation.

What Autocorrelation Means

Autocorrelation may be viewed as a measure of similarity, or coherence, between a function x(t) and its shifted
version. Clearly, under no shift, the two functions match and result in a maximum for the autocorrelation.
But with increasing shift, it would be natural to expect the similarity and hence the correlation between
x(t) and its shifted version to decrease. As the shift approaches infinity, all traces of similarity vanish, and
the autocorrelation decays to zero.

Symmetry
Since rxy (t) = ryx (t), we have rxx (t) = rxx (t). This means that the autocorrelation of a real function is
even. The autocorrelation of an even function x(t) also equals the convolution of x(t) with itself, because
the folding operation leaves an even function unchanged.

Maximum Value
It turns out that the autocorrelation function is symmetric about the origin where it attains its maximum
value. It thus satisfies
rxx (t) rxx (0) (6.46)

It follows that the autocorrelation rxx (t) is finite and nonnegative for all t.

Periodic Autocorrelation
For periodic signals, we define periodic autocorrelation in much the same way as periodic convolution. If
we shift a periodic signal with period T past itself, the two line up after every period, and the periodic
autocorrelation also has period T .
158 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

Signal Energy and Power

The value of the autocorrelation (or periodic autocorrelation) at the origin is related to the signal energy
(or signal power for periodic signals) by
" " "
1
Ex = rxx (0) = x()x( 0) d = x2 () d Px = rxx (0) = x2p () d (6.47)
T T

REVIEW PANEL 6.23

The Autocorrelation Is Always Even Symmetric with a Maximum at the Origin
rxx (t) = x(t) x(t) = x(t) x(t) rxx (t) = rxx (t) rxx (t) rxx (0)

EXAMPLE 6.16 (Autocorrelation and Cross-Correlation)

(a) The autocorrelation of the rectangular pulse x(t) = rect(t 0.5) equals the convolution of x(t) and
x(t) and is illustrated in Figure E6.16A.
x(t) x(t) x(t) x( t) rxx (t)
1 1 1 1 1

t
**
t
= t
*
t
= t
1 1 1 1 1 1
Figure E6.16A The signal for Example 6.16(a) and its autocorrelation

(b) Consider the autocorrelation of x(t) = et u(t). As we shift x(t) = et u(t) past x() = e u(),
we obtain two ranges (t < 0 and t > 0) over which the autocorrelation results are described as follows:

Overlapping Signals Autocorrelation rxx (t) End Values

x( t)
t <0 Range: t < 0 y() = 0
x( ) "

e et d = 0.5et
y(0) = 0.5
0
t

x( ) Range: t > 0
x( t) y(0) = 0.5
t >0
"
e et d = 0.5et
y() = 0
t
t

The result may be expressed as rxx (t) = 0.5e|t| .

(c) The cross-correlation of the signals x(t) and h(t), shown in Figure E6.16C, may be found using the
convolution of one signal and the folded version of the other. Observe that rxh (t) = rhx (t).
6.10 Correlation 159

h(t) h( t) rhx (t)

2 2 2
x(t) x(t)
1
**
1
= 1
*
1
=
t t t t t
1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1

rhx (t) = rxh ( t)

h(t) h(t) rxh (t)

2 2
x(t) x( t)
1
** 1
= 1
* 1
=
t t t t t
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
Figure E6.16C The signals of Example 6.16(c) and their cross-correlations

6.10.3 Matched Filters

Correlation forms the basis for many methods of signal detection and delay estimation (usually in the
presence of noise). An example is target ranging by radar, illustrated in Figure 6.6, where the objective is
to estimate the target distance (or range) R.

Target
R
R Matched filter Output of matched filter
Transmitted signal Received signal y(t)
s(t) s(t t 0) h(t) = s( t)

t t t t
t0 t0

Figure 6.6 Illustrating the concept of matched filtering

A transmitter sends out an interrogating signal s(t), and the reflected and delayed signal (the echo)
s(t t0 ) is processed by a correlation receiver, or matched filter, whose impulse response is matched to
the signal to obtain the target range. In fact, its impulse response is chosen as h(t) = s(t), a folded version
of the transmitted signal, in order to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio. The response y(t) of the matched
filter is the convolution of the received echo and the folded signal h(t) = s(t) or the correlation of s(t t0 )
(the echo) and s(t) (the signal). This response attains a maximum at t = t0 , which represents the time taken
to cover the round-trip distance 2R. The target range R is then given by R = 0.5ct0 , where c is the velocity
of signal propagation.
Why not use the received signal directly to estimate the delay? The reason is that we may not be able
to detect the presence (let alone the exact onset) of the received signal because it is usually much weaker
than the transmitted signal and also contaminated by additive noise. However, if the noise is uncorrelated
with the original signal (as it usually is), their cross-correlation is very small (ideally zero), and the cross-
correlation of the original signal with the noisy echo yields a peak (at t = t0 ) that stands out and is much
easier to detect. Ideally, of course, we would like to transmit narrow pulses (approximating impulses) whose
autocorrelation attains a sharp peak.
160 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

CHAPTER 6 PROBLEMS
DRILL AND REINFORCEMENT
6.1 (Convolution Kernel) For each signal x(t), sketch x() vs. and x(t ) vs. , and identify
significant points along each axis.
(a) x(t) = r(t) (b) x(t) = u(t 2) (c) x(t) = 2tri[0.5(t 1)] (d) x(t) = e|t|
6.2 (Convolution Concepts) Using the defining relation, compute y(t) = x(t) h(t) at t = 0.
(a) x(t) = u(t 1) h(t) = u(t + 2)
(b) x(t) = u(t) h(t) = tu(t 1)
(c) x(t) = tu(t + 1) h(t) = (t + 1)u(t)
(d) x(t) = u(t) h(t) = cos(0.5t)rect(0.5t)
6.3 (Analytical Convolution) Evaluate each convolution y(t) = x(t) h(t) and sketch y(t).
(a) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = r(t)
(b) x(t) = tet u(t) h(t) = u(t)
(c) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = cos(t)u(t)
(d) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = cos(t)
(e) x(t) = 2t[u(t + 2) u(t 2)] h(t) = u(t) u(t 4)
(f ) x(t) = 2tu(t) h(t) = rect(t/2)
1
(g) x(t) = r(t) h(t) = u(t 1)
t
6.4 (Convolution with Impulses) Sketch the convolution y(t) = x(t) h(t) for each pair of signals
shown in Figure P6.4.
x(t) Convolution 1 h(t) x(t) Convolution 2 h(t)
3 3 (3)

* (2) (1)
* (2) (2)

t t t t
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Figure P6.4 The signals x(t) and h(t) for Problem 6.4

6.5 (Convolution by Ranges) For each pair of signals x(t) and h(t) shown in Figure P6.5, establish
the convolution ranges. Then sketch x()h(t ) for each range, evaluate the convolution over each
range, and sketch the convolution result y(t).
Convolution 1 Convolution 2
x(t) h(t) x(t) h(t)
4 4 4 e 2 t
2 * 1 *
t t t t
2 2 1 3 2 2 1

Convolution 3
x(t) h(t) x(t) Convolution 4 h(t)
4
* 3 2
* 2
t t t t
2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 4
Figure P6.5 The signals x(t) and h(t) for Problem 6.5
Chapter 6 Problems 161

6.6 (Convolution and Its Properties)

(a) Use the result u(t) u(t) = r(t) to find and sketch y(t) = rect(t/2) rect(t/4).
(b) Use the result rect(t)rect(t) = tri(t) to find and sketch y(t) = [rect(t+ 12 )rect(t 12 )]rect(t 12 ).

6.7 (Properties) The step response of a system is s(t) = et u(t). What is the system impulse response
h(t)? Compute the response of this system to the following inputs.

(a) x(t) = r(t) (b) x(t) = rect(t/2) (c) x(t) = tri[(t 2)/2] (d) x(t) = (t + 1) (t 1)
6.8 (Properties) The step response of each system is s(t) and the input is x(t). Compute the response
of each system.
(a) s(t) = r(t) r(t 1) x(t) = sin(2t)u(t)
(b) s(t) = et u(t) x(t) = et u(t)

6.9 (System Analysis) Consider the following system:

x(t) h(t) = 2et u(t) (t) y(t)

(a) Let x(t) = et u(t). Find the output y(t).
(b) Let x(t) = u(t). Find the output y(t).
(c) Let x(t) = cos(t). Find the output y(t).

6.10 (Cascaded Systems) Find the response y(t) of the following cascaded systems.
(a) x(t) = u(t) h1 (t) = et u(t) h2 (t) = et u(t) y(t)

(b) x(t) = et u(t) h1 (t) = et u(t) h2 (t) = et u(t) y(t)

(c) x(t) = et u(t) h1 (t) = et u(t) h2 (t) = (t) et u(t) y(t)

6.11 (Stability) Investigate the stability and causality of the following systems.
(a) h(t) = et+1 u(t 1) (b) h(t) = et u(t + 1) (c) h(t) = (t)
(d) h(t) = (1 et )u(t) (e) h(t) = (t) et u(t) (f ) h(t) = sinc(t 1)
6.12 (Causality) Argue that the impulse response h(t) of a causal system must be zero for t < 0. Based
on this result, if the input to a causal system starts at t = t0 , at what time does the response start?
6.13 (Signal-Averaging1 Filter)
2 Consider a a signal-averaging filter whose impulse response is described
by h(t) = T1 rect t0.5T
T .
(a) What is the response of this filter to the unit step input x(t) = u(t)?
(b) What is the response of this filter to a periodic sawtooth signal x(t) with peak value A, duty
ratio D, and period T ?

6.14 (Periodic Extension) For each signal shown in Figure P6.14, sketch the periodic extension with
period T = 6 and T = 4.
x(t) Signal 1 x(t) Signal 2 x(t) Signal 3 x(t) Signal 4
4
4 4 4
6 t
2
t t t 2 4 8
2 4 4 8 2 6 4
Figure P6.14 The signals for Problem 6.14
162 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.15 (Convolution and Periodic Inputs) The voltage input to a series RC circuit with time constant
= 1 is a rectangular pulse train starting at t = 0. The pulses are of unit width and unit height and
repeat every 2 seconds. The output is the capacitor voltage.
(a) Use convolution to compute the output at t = 1 s and t = 2 s.
(b) Assume that the input has been applied for a long time. What is the steady-state output?

6.16 (Periodic Convolution) Find and sketch the periodic convolution yp (t) = x(t)h(t)
of each pair
of periodic signals shown in Figure P6.16.
Convolution 1 Convolution 2
x(t) h(t) x(t) h(t)
(1) (2) 1 1
t
* t t
* t
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Convolution 3 Convolution 4
x(t) h(t) x(t) h(t)
1 1
t
* t 1 t
* 1
t
1 2 3
1
2 4 6 3 4 7 1 2 3
Figure P6.16 The periodic signals for Problem 6.16

6.17 (Inverse Systems) Given a system whose impulse response is h(t) = et u(t), we wish to find the
impulse response hI (t) of an inverse system such that h(t) hI (t) = (t). The form that we require for
the inverse system hI (t) is hI (t) = K1 (t) + K2 (t).
(a) For what values of K1 and K2 will h(t) hI (t) = (t)?
(b) Is the inverse system stable? Is it causal?
(c) What is the impulse response hI (t) of the inverse system if h(t) = 2e3t u(t).

6.18 (Correlation) Let x(t) = rect(t + 0.5) and h(t) = t rect(t 0.5).
(a) Find the autocorrelation rxx (t).
(b) Find the autocorrelation rhh (t).
(c) Find the cross-correlation rhx (t).
(d) Find the cross-correlation rxh (t).
(e) How are the results of parts (c) and (d) related?

REVIEW AND EXPLORATION

6.19 (The Convolution Concept) Let x(t) = 2[u(t) u(t 5)] and h(t) = u(t) u(t 5).
(a) Approximate x(t) by five impulses located at t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. Find the convolution of h(t) with
each impulse, and use superposition to find the approximate form of y(t) = x(t) h(t).
(b) How long does the convolution last, and what is its maximum?
(c) If x(t) were approximated by ten impulses, how long would the convolution last, and what would
be its maximum value?
(d) What would you expect the exact form of y(t) to approach?
Chapter 6 Problems 163

6.20 (Operations on the Impulse) Explain the dierence between each of the following operations on
the impulse (t 1). Use sketches to plot results if appropriate.
"
(a) [e u(t)](t 1)
t
(b) et (t 1) dt (c) et u(t) (t 1)

6.21 (Convolution) Compute and sketch the convolution of the following pairs of signals.

!
(a) x(t) = (t k) h(t) = rect(t)
k=
!
(b) x(t) = (t 3k) h(t) = tri(t)
k=
!
(c) x(t) = rect(t 2k) h(t) = rect(t)
k=

6.22 (Impulse Response and Step Response) Find the step response s(t) of each system whose impulse
response h(t) is given.
(a) h(t) = rect(t 0.5) (b) h(t) = sin(2t)u(t)
(c) h(t) = sin(2t)rect(t 0.5) (d) h(t) = e|t|

6.23 (Convolution and System Response) Consider a system described by the dierential equation
y (t) + 2y(t) = x(t).
(a) What is the impulse response h(t) of this system?
(b) Find its output if x(t) = e2t u(t) by convolution.
(c) Find its output if x(t) = e2t u(t) and y(0) = 0 by solving the dierential equation.
(d) Find its output if x(t) = e2t u(t) and y(0) = 1 by solving the dierential equation.
(e) Are any of the outputs identical? Should they be? Explain.

6.24 (System Response) Consider the two inputs and two circuits shown in Figure P6.24.
(a) Find the impulse response of each circuit.
(b) Use convolution to find the response of circuit 1 to input 1. Assume R = 1 , C =1 F.
(c) Use convolution to find the response of circuit 2 to input 1. Assume R = 1 , C =1 F.
(d) Use convolution to find the response of circuit 1 to input 2. Assume R = 1 , C =1 F.
(e) Use convolution to find the response of circuit 2 to input 2. Assume R = 1 , C =1 F.
(f ) Use convolution to find the response of circuit 1 to input 1. Assume R = 2 , C =1 F.
(g) Use convolution to find the response of circuit 1 to input 2. Assume R = 2 , C =1 F.

Input 1 Input 2 + + + +
R C
Input Output Input R Output
e t et C

t t
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
Figure P6.24 The circuits for Problem 6.24

6.25 (Impulse Response and Step Response) The step response of a system is s(t) = (t). The input
to the system is a periodic square wave described for one period by x(t) = sgn(t), 1 t 1. Sketch
the system output.
164 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.26 (Impulse Response and Step Response) The input to a system is a periodic square wave with
period T = 2 s described for one period by xp (t) = sgn(t), 1 t 1. The output is a periodic
triangular wave described by yp (t) = tri(t) 0.5, 1 t 1. What is the impulse response of the
system? What is the response of this system to the single pulse x(t) = rect(t 0.5)?
6.27 (Convolution) An RC lowpass filter has the impulse response h(t) = 1 et/ u(t), where is the time
constant. Find its response to the following inputs for = 0.5 and = 1.
(a) x(t) = e2t u(t) (b) x(t) = e2t u(t) (c) x(t) = e2|t|
6.28 (Convolution) Find the convolution of each pair of signals.
(a) x(t) = e|t| h(t) = e|t|
(b) x(t) = et u(t) et u(t) h(t) = x(t)
(c) x(t) = et u(t) et u(t) h(t) = x(t)
6.29 (Convolution by Ranges) Consider a series RC lowpass filter with = 1. Use convolution by
ranges to find the capacitor voltage, its maximum value, and time of maximum for each input x(t).
(a) x(t) = rect(t 0.5) (b) x(t) = t rect(t 0.5) (c) x(t) = (1 t)rect(t 0.5)
6.30 (Cascading) The impulse response of two cascaded systems equals the convolution of their impulse
responses. Does the step response sC (t) of two cascaded systems equal s1 (t) s2 (t), the convolution of
their step responses? If not, how is sC (t) related to s1 (t) and s2 (t)?
6.31 (Cascading) System 1 compresses a signal by a factor of 2, and system 2 is an RC lowpass filter with
= 1. Find the output of each cascaded combination. Will their output be identical? Should it be?
Explain.
(a) x(t) = 2et u(t) system 1 system 2 y(t)
(b) x(t) = 2et u(t) system 2 system 1 y(t)

6.32 (Cascading) System 1 is a squaring circuit, and system 2 is an RC lowpass filter with = 1. Find
the output of each cascaded combination. Will their output be identical? Should it be? Explain.
(a) x(t) = 2et u(t) system 1 system 2 y(t)
(b) x(t) = 2et u(t) system 2 system 1 y(t)

6.33 (Cascading) System 1 is a highpass RC circuit with h(t) = (t) et u(t), and system 2 is an
RC lowpass filter with = 1. Find the output of each cascaded combination. Will their output be
identical? Should it be? Explain.
(a) x(t) = 2et u(t) system 1 system 2 y(t)
(b) x(t) = 2et u(t) system 2 system 1 y(t)

6.34 (Cascading) System 1 is a highpass RC circuit with h(t) = (t) et u(t), and system 2 is an RC
lowpass filter with = 1.
(a) Find the impulse response hP (t) of their parallel connection.
(b) Find the impulse response h12 (t) of the cascade of system 1 and system 2.
(c) Find the impulse response h21 (t) of the cascade of system 2 and system 1.
(d) Are h12 (t) and h21 (t) identical? Should they be? Explain.
(e) Find the impulse response hI (t) of a system whose parallel connection with h12 (t) yields hP (t).
Chapter 6 Problems 165

6.35 (Cascading) System 1 is described by y(t) = x (t) + x(t), and system 2 is an RC lowpass filter with
= 1.
(a) What is the output of the cascaded system to the input x(t) = 2et u(t)?
(b) What is the output of the cascaded system to the input x(t) = (t)?
(c) How are system 1 and system 2 related? Should they be? Explain.

6.36 (Cascading) Consider the three circuits shown in Figure P6.36.

(a) Find their impulse responses h1 (t), h2 (t), and h3 (t).
(b) What is the impulse response h12 (t) of the ideal cascade of the first two circuits? Does this equal
the impulse response h3 (t)? Explain.
(c) What value of R will ensure an impulse response h3 (t) that diers from h12 (t) by no more than
1% at t = 0?

+ 1H
+ + R
+ + 1H R +
Input 1 Output Input Output Input 1 2R Output
2R

Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3
Figure P6.36 The circuits for Problem 6.36

6.37 (Stability and Causality) Check for the causality and stability of each of the following systems.
(a) h(t) = e(t+1) u(t) (b) h(t) = et1 u(t + 1)
(c) h(t) = (t) et u(t) (d) h(t) = (t) et u(1 t)

6.38 (Stability and Causality) Check for the causality and stability of the parallel connection and
cascade connection of each pair of systems.
(a) h1 (t) = et u(t) h2 (t) = (t)
(b) h1 (t) = et+3 u(t 3) h2 (t) = (t + 2)
(c) h1 (t) = et u(t) h2 (t) = et+2 u(t 1)
(d) h1 (t) = et u(t) h2 (t) = et u(t)
(e) h1 (t) = e|t| h2 (t) = e|t1|
(f ) h1 (t) = e|t| h2 (t) = e|t1|
(g) h1 (t) = e|t1| h2 (t) = e|t1|

6.39 (Stability) Investigate the stability of the following systems.

(a) y (t) = x(t) (b) y (t) + y(t) = x(t) (c) y (n) (t) = x(t) (d) y(t) = x(n) (t)

6.40 (Convolution and System Classification) The impulse response of three systems is
h1 (t) = 2(t) h2 (t) = (t) + (t 3) h3 (t) = et u(t)
(a) Find the response of each to the input x(t) = u(t) u(t 1).
(b) For system 1, the input is zero at t = 2 s, and so is the response. Does the statement zero
output if zero input apply to dynamic or instantaneous systems or both? Explain.
(c) Argue that system 1 is instantaneous. What about the other two?
(d) What must be the form of h(t) for an instantaneous system?
166 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.41 (Convolution and Smoothing) Convolution is usually a smoothing operation unless one signal is
an impulse or its derivative, but exceptions occur even for smooth signals. Evaluate and comment on
the duration and smoothing eects of the following convolutions.
(a) y(t) = rect(t) tri(t) (b) y(t) = rect(t) (t)
(c) y(t) = rect(t) (t) (d) y(t) = sinc(t) sinc(t)
2 2
(e) y(t) = et et (f ) y(t) = sin(2t) rect(t)

6.42 (Eigensignals) The input x(t) and response y(t) of two systems are given. Which of the systems are
linear, and why?
(a) x(t) = cos(t), y(t) = 0.5 sin(t 0.25)
(b) x(t) = cos(t), y(t) = cos(2t)

6.43 (Eigensignals) If the input to a system is its eigensignal, the response has the same form as the
eigensignal. Justify the following statements by computing the system response by convolution (if
the impulse response is given) or by solving the given dierential equation. You may pick convenient
numerical values for the parameters.
(a) Every signal is an eigensignal of the system described by h(t) = A(t).
(b) The signal x(t) = ejt is an eigensignal of any LTI system such as that described by the impulse
response h(t) = et u(t).
(c) The signal x(t) = cos(t) is an eigensignal of any LTI system described by a dierential equation
such as y (t) + y(t) = x(t).
(d) The signal x(t) = sinc(t) is an eigensignal of ideal filters described by h(t) = sinc(t), .

6.44 (Eigensignals) Which of the following can be the eigensignal of an LTI system?

(a) x(t) = e2t u(t) (b) x(t) = ej2t (c) x(t) = cos(2t) (d) x(t) = ejt + ej2t
6.45 (Stability) Investigate the causality and stability of the following systems.
(a) h(t) = u(t) (b) h(t) = e2t u(t) (c) h(t) = (t 1)
(d) h(t) = rect(t) (e) h(t) = sinc(t) (f ) h(t) = sinc2 (t)

6.46 (Invertibility) Determine which of the following systems are invertible and, for those that are, find
the impulse response of the inverse system.
(a) h(t) = e2t u(t) (b) h(t) = (t 1) (c) h(t) = sinc(t)
6.47 (Periodic Extension) The periodic extension x(t) with period T has the same form and area as
x(t). Use this concept to find the constants in the following assumed form for xpe (t) of each signal.
(a) Signal: x(t) = et/ u(t) Periodic extension for 0 t T : xpe (t) = Ket/
(b) Signal: x(t) = tet/ u(t) Periodic extension for 0 t T : xpe (t) = (A + Bt)et/

6.48 (The Duration Property) The convolution duration usually equals the sum of the durations of the
convolved signals. But consider the following convolutions.
y1 (t) = u(t) sin(t)[u(t) u(t 2)] y2 (t) = rect(t) cos(2t)u(t)
(a) Evaluate each convolution and find its duration. Is the duration infinite? If not, what causes it
to be finite?
(b) In the first convolution, replace the sine pulse by an arbitrary signal x(t) of zero area and finite
duration Td and argue that the convolution is nonzero only for a duration Td .
Chapter 6 Problems 167

(c) In the second convolution, replace the cosine by an arbitrary periodic signal xp (t) with zero
average value and period T = 1. Argue that the convolution is nonzero for only for 1 unit.

6.49 (Convolutions that Replicate) Signals that replicate under self-convolution include the impulse,
sinc, Gaussian, and Lorentzian. For each of the following known results, determine the constant A
using the area property of convolution.
(a) (t) (t) = A(t)
(b) sinc(t) sinc(t) = A sinc(t)
2 2 2
(c) et et = Aet /2
1 1 A
(d) =
1+t 2 1+t 2 1 + 0.25t2

6.50 (Convolution and Moments) For each of the following signal pairs, find the moments m0 , m1 , and
m2 and verify each of the convolution properties based on moments (as discussed in the text).
(a) x(t) = h(t) h(t) = rect(t)
(b) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = e2t u(t)

6.51 (Central Limit Theorem) Show that the n-fold repeated convolution of the signal h(t) = et u(t)
with itself has the form
tn et
hn (t) =
u(t).
n!
(a) Show that hn (t) has a maximum at t = n.
(b) Assume a Gaussian approximation hn (t) gn (t) = K exp[(t n)2 ]. Equating hn (t) and gn (t)
at t = n, show that K = (en nn /n!). /
(c) Use the Stirling limit to show that K = 1/(2n). The Stirling limit is defined by
$ %
nn n 1
lim n e =
n n! 2

(d) Show that = 1/(2n) by equating the areas of hn (t) and gn (t).

6.52 (Matched Filters) A folded, shifted version of a signal s(t) defines the impulse response of a matched
filter corresponding to s(t).
(a) Find and sketch the impulse response of a matched filter for the signal s(t) = u(t) u(t 1).
(b) Find the response y(t) of this matched filter to the signal x(t) = s(t D), where D = 2 s
corresponds to the signal delay.
(c) At what time tm does the response y(t) attain its maximum value, and how is tm related to the
signal delay D?

6.53 (Autocorrelation Functions) A signal x(t) can qualify as an autocorrelation function only if it
satisfies certain properties. Which of the following qualify as valid autocorrelation functions, and why?
(a) rxx (t) = et u(t) (b) rxx (t) = e|t| (c) rxx (t) = tet u(t)
1
(d) rxx (t) = |t|e|t| (e) rxx (t) = sinc2 (t) (f ) rxx (t) =
1 + t2
t 1 + t2 t2 1
(g) rxx (t) = (h) rxx (t) = (i) rxx (t) = 2
1 + t2 4 + t2 t +4
168 Chapter 6 Continuous Convolution

6.54 (Correlation) Find the cross-correlations rxh (t) and rhx (t) for each pair of signals.
(a) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = et u(t)
(b) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = et u(t)
(c) x(t) = e|t| h(t) = e|t|
(d) x(t) = e(t1) u(t 1) h(t) = et u(t)

COMPUTATION AND DESIGN

ctcongui A GUI for Visualization of the Convolution Process

The graphical user interface ctcongui allows you to visualize a movie of the convolution or
correlation of two analog signals.
You can select the signals and the operation (convolution or correlation).
The interface displays a movie of how the product function and the convolution or correlation
result changes as one function slides past the other.
Use the mouse to manually drag one function past the other and see the results change.
To explore this routine, type ctcongui at the Matlab prompt.

6.55 (Animation of Convolution) Use ctcongui to animate the convolution of each of the following
pairs of signals and determine whether it is possible to visually identify the convolution ranges.
(a) x(t) = rect(t) h(t) = rect(t)
(b) x(t) = rect(t) h(t) = et [u(t) u(t 5)]
(c) x(t) = rect(t) h(t) = tri(t)
(d) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = (1 t)[u(t) u(t 1)]
(e) x(t) = et u(t) h(t) = t[u(t) u(t 1)]

6.56 (Convolution of Sinc Functions) It is claimed that the convolution of the two identical signals
x(t) = h(t) = sinc(t) is y(t) = x(t) h(t) = sinc(t). Let both x(t) and h(t) be described over the
symmetric limits t . Use ctcongui to animate the convolution of x(t) and h(t) for = 1,
= 5, and = 10 (you may want to choose a smaller time step in ctcongui for larger values of ).
Does the convolution begin to approach the required result as increases?
Chapter 7

DISCRETE CONVOLUTION

7.0 Scope and Objectives

Convolution is a central concept in relating the time and frequency domains. In the time domain, convolution
may be regarded as a method of finding the zero-state response of a relaxed linear time-invariant system. This
chapter describes the operation and properties of discrete convolution and establishes the key connections
between time-domain and transformed-domain methods for signal and system analysis based on convolution.
Frequency-domain viewpoints of discrete convolution are presented later, both in this chapter and others.

7.1 Discrete Convolution

Discrete-time convolution is a method of finding the zero-state response of relaxed linear time-invariant
(LTI) systems. It is based on the concepts of linearity and time invariance and assumes that the system
information is known in terms of its impulse response h[n]. In other words, if the input is [n], a unit sample
at the origin n = 0, the system response is h[n]. Now, if the input is x[0][n], a scaled impulse at the origin,
the response is x[0]h[n] (by linearity). Similarly, if the input is the shifted impulse x[1][n 1] at n = 1, the
response is x[1]h[n 1] (by time invariance). The response to the shifted impulse x[k][n k] at n = k is
x[k]h[n k]. Since an arbitrary input x[n] is simply a sequence of samples, it can be described by a sum of
scaled and shifted impulses:
!
x[n] = x[k][n k] (7.1)
k=

By superposition, the response to x[n] is the sum of scaled and shifted versions of the impulse response:

!
y[n] = x[k]h[n k] = x[n] h[n] (7.2)
k=

This is the defining relation for the convolution operation, which we call linear convolution, and denote
by y[n] = x[n] h[n] (or by x[n] h[n] in the figures) in this book. The expression for computing y[n] is called
the convolution sum. As with continuous-time convolution, the order in which we perform the operation
does not matter, and we can interchange the arguments of x and h without aecting the result. Thus,

!
y[n] = x[n k]h[k] = h[n] x[n] (7.3)
k=

!
Notation: We use x[n] h[n] to denote x[k]h[n k]
k=

169
170 Chapter 7 Discrete Convolution

REVIEW PANEL 7.1

Convolution Yields the Zero-State Response of an LTI System
Input x[n] System Output y[n] = x[n] * h[n] = h[n] *x[n]
impulse response = h[n] Output = convolution of x[n] and h[n]

7.1.1 Analytical Evaluation of Discrete Convolution

The procedure for analytical convolution mimics the continuous case and may be implemented quite readily
if x[n] and h[n] are described by simple enough analytical expressions. Often, we must resort to a table
of closed-form solutions for finite or infini