Chapter 1

DEFINITIONSANDGENERALEQUIREMENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 SCOPE
The definitions providing meanings of different terms and general requirements for the structural design of
buildings, structures, and components thereof are specified in this chapter. These requirements shall apply to all
buildings and structures or their components regulated by this code. All anticipated loads required for structural
design shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 2. Design parameters required for the
structuraldesignoffoundationelementsshallconformtotheprovisionsofChapter3.Designofstructuralmembers
using various construction materials shall comply with the relevant provisions of Chapters 4 through 13. The FPS
equivalentsoftheempiricalexpressionsusedthroughoutPart6arelistedinAppendixA.

ThisCodeshallgoverninallmatterspertainingtodesign,construction,andmaterialpropertieswhereverthisCode
is in conflict with requirements contained in other standards referenced in this Code. However, in special cases
wherethedesignofastructureoritscomponentscannotbecoveredbytheprovisionsofthiscode,otherrelevant
internationallyacceptedcodesreferredinthiscodemaybeused.

1.1.2 DEFINITIONS
Thefollowingdefinitionsshallprovidethemeaningofcertaintermsusedinthischapter.

BASESHEAR:Totaldesignlateralforceorshearatthebaseofastructure.

BASIC WIND SPEED : Threesecond gust speed at 10 metres above the mean ground level in terrain ExposureB
definedinSec2.4.8andassociatedwithanannualprobabilityofoccurrenceof0.02.

BEARINGWALLSYSTEM:Astructuralsystemwithoutacompleteverticalloadcarryingspaceframe.

BRACEDFRAME:Anessentiallyverticaltrusssystemoftheconcentricoreccentrictypewhichisprovidedtoresist
lateralforces.

BUILDINGFRAMESYSTEM:Anessentiallycompletespaceframewhichprovidessupportforloads.

CONCENTRICBRACEDFRAME(CBF):AsteelbracedframedesignedinconformancewithSec10.20.13.or10.20.14.

COLLECTOR : A member or element used to transfer lateral forces from a portion of a structure to the vertical
elementsofthelateralforceresistingelements.

BUILDINGS:Structuresthatencloseaspaceandareusedforvariousoccupancies.

DEADLOAD:Theloadduetotheweightofallpermanentstructuralandnonstructuralcomponentsofabuildingor
astructure,suchaswalls,floors,roofsandfixedserviceequipment.

DIAPHRAGM : A horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting
elements.Theterm"diaphragm"includeshorizontalbracingsystems.
Part6

DUALSYSTEM:AcombinationofMomentResistingFramesandShearWallsorBracedFramestoresistlateralloads
designedinaccordancewiththecriteriaofSec1.3.2.

ECCENTRICBRACEDFRAME(EBF):AsteelbracedframedesignedinconformancewithSec10.20.15.

HORIZONTAL BRACING SYSTEM : A horizontal truss system that serves the same function as a floor or roof
diaphragm.

INTERMEDIATE MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (IMRF) : A concrete moment resisting frame designed in accordance
withSec8.3.10.

LIVELOAD:Theloadsuperimposedbytheuseandoccupancyofabuilding.

MOMENT RESISTING FRAME : A frame in which members and joints are capable of resisting forces primarily by
flexure.

ORDINARY MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (OMRF) : A moment resisting frame not meeting special detailing
requirementsforductilebehaviour.

PRIMARYFRAMINGSYSTEM:Thatpartofthestructuralsystemassignedtoresistlateralforces.

SHEARWALL:Awalldesignedtoresistlateralforcesparalleltotheplaneofthewall(sometimesreferredtoasa
verticaldiaphragmorastructuralwall).

SLENDER BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES : Buildings and structures having a height exceeding five times the least
horizontal dimension, or having a fundamental natural frequency less than 1 Hz. For those cases where the
horizontaldimensionsvarywithheight,theleasthorizontaldimensionatmidheightshallbeused.

SOFTSTOREY:Storeyinwhichthelateralstiffnessislessthan70percentofthestiffnessofthestoreyabove.

SPACEFRAME:Athreedimensionalstructuralsystemwithoutbearingwallscomposedofmembersinterconnected
soastofunctionasacompleteselfcontainedunitwithorwithouttheaidofhorizontaldiaphragmsorfloorbracing
systems.

SPECIAL MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (SMRF) : A moment resisting frame specially detailed to provide ductile
behaviourcomplyingwiththerequirementsofChapter8or10forconcreteorsteelframesrespectively.

SPECIAL STRUCTURAL SYSTEM : A structural system not listed in Table 1.3.1 and specially designed to carry the
lateralloads.SeeSec1.3.2.5.

STOREY:Thespacebetweenanytwofloorlevelsincludingtheroofofabuilding.Storeyxisthestoreybelowlevel
x.

STOREYSHEAR,Vx:Thesummationofdesignlateralforcesabovethestoreyunderconsideration.

STRENGTH:Theusablecapacityofanelementoramembertoresisttheloadasprescribedintheseprovisions.

TERRAIN:Thegroundsurfaceroughnessconditionwhenconsideringthesizeandarrangementofobstructionsto
thewind.

THREESECONDGUSTSPEED:Thehighestaveragewindspeedovera3seconddurationataheightof10m.The
threesecondgustspeedisderivedusingDurst'smodelintermsofthemeanwindspeedandturbulenceintensity.

TOWER:Atall,slimverticalstructure.

VERTICALLOADCARRYINGFRAME:Aspaceframedesignedtocarryallverticalgravityloads.

WEAKSTOREY:Storeyinwhichthelateralstrengthislessthan80percentofthatofthestoreyabove.

2
 Chapter1

1.1.3 SYMBOLSANDNOTATION
Thefollowingsymbolsandnotationshallapplytotheprovisionsofthischapter:

D =dead load on a member including self weight and weight of components, materials and
permanentequipmentssupportedbythemember

E =earthquakeload

Fi =lateralforceappliedatleveliofabuilding

h =heightofabuildingorastructureabovegroundlevelinmetres

hi,hn,hx =heightinmetresabovegroundleveltoleveli,norxrespectively

leveli =ithlevelofastructureabovethebase;i=1designatesthefirstlevelabove
thebase

leveln =uppermostlevelofastructure

levelx =xthlevelofastructureabovethebase;x=1designatesthefirstlevelabovethebase.

L =liveloadduetointendeduseoroccupancy

l =spanofamemberorcomponent.

Mx =overturningmomentatlevelx

V =thetotaldesignlateralforceorshearatthebase

Vx =thestoreyshearatstoreylevelx

R =response modification or reduction coefficient for structural system given in Table 2.5.7 for
seismicdesign.

S =Snowload

T =Fundamentalperiodofvibrationinseconds

W =Loadduetowindpressure.

W =Weightofanelementorcomponent

Z =SeismiczonecoefficientgiveninFig2.5.1orTables2.5.2or2.5.3

=Storeylateraldrift.

1.2 BASICCONSIDERATIONS
1.2.1 GENERAL
Allbuildingsandstructuresshallbedesignedandconstructedinconformancewiththeprovisionsofthissection.
Thebuildingsandportionsthereofshallsupportallloadsincludingdeadloadspecifiedinthischapterandelsewhere
inthisCode.Impact,fatigueandselfstrainingforcesshallbeconsideredwheretheseforcesoccur.

1.2.2 BUILDINGSANDSTRUCTURES
A structure shall ordinarily be described as an assemblage of framing members and components arranged to
support both gravity and lateral forces. Structures may be classified as building and nonbuilding structures.
Structuresthatencloseaspaceandareusedforvariousoccupanciesshallbecalledbuildingsorbuildingstructures.
Structuresotherthanbuildings,suchaswatertanks,bridges,communicationtowers,chimneysetc.,shallbecalled

3
Part6

nonbuildingstructures.Whenusedinconjunctionwiththewordbuilding(s),thewordstructure(s)shallmeannon
buildingstructures,e.g.'buildingsandstructures'or'buildingsorstructures'.Otherwisetheword'structures'shall
includebothbuildingsandnonbuildingstructures.

1.2.3 BUILDINGANDSTRUCTUREOCCUPANCYCATEGORIES
Buildingsandotherstructuresshallbeclassified,basedonthenatureofoccupancy,accordingtoTable1.2.1forthe
purposes of applying flood, surge, wind and earthquake provisions. The occupancy categories range from I to IV,
whereOccupancyCategoryIrepresentsbuildingsandotherstructureswithalowhazardtohumanlifeintheevent
of failure and Occupancy Category IV represents essential facilities. Each building or other structure shall be
assignedtothehighestapplicableoccupancycategoryorcategories.Assignmentofthesamestructuretomultiple
occupancycategoriesbasedonuseandthetypeofloadconditionbeingevaluated(e.g.,windorseismic)shallbe
permissible.

Whenbuildingsorotherstructureshavemultipleuses(occupancies),therelationshipbetweentheusesofvarious
partsofthebuildingorotherstructureandtheindependenceofthestructuralsystemsforthosevariouspartsshall
beexamined.Theclassificationforeachindependentstructuralsystemofamultipleusebuildingorotherstructure
shallbethatofthehighestusagegroupinanypartofthebuildingorotherstructurethatisdependentonthatbasic
structuralsystem.

1.2.4 SAFETY
Buildings, structures and components thereof, shall be designed and constructed to support all loads, including
deadloads,withoutexceedingtheallowablestressesorspecifiedstrengths(underapplicablefactoredloads)forthe
materialsofconstructioninthestructuralmembersandconnections.

1.2.5 SERVICEABILITY
Structuralframingsystemsandcomponentsshallbedesignedwithadequatestiffnesstohavedeflections,vibration,
or any other deformations within the serviceability limit of building or structure. The deflections of structural
members shall not exceed the more restrictive of the limitations provided in Chapters 2 through 13 or that
permittedbyTable1.2.2orthenotesthatfollow.Forwindandearthquakeloading,storydriftandswayshallbe
limitedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofSec1.5.6.

1.2.6 RATIONALITY
Structuralsystemsandcomponentsthereofshallbeanalyzed,designedandconstructedbasedonrationalmethods
whichshallinclude,butnotbelimitedto,theprovisionsofSec1.2.7

1.2.7 ANALYSIS
Analysis of the structural systems shall be made for determining the load effects on the resisting elements and
connections,basedonwellestablishedprinciplesofmechanicstakingequilibrium,geometriccompatibilityandboth
shortandlongtermpropertiesoftheconstructionmaterialsintoaccountandincorporatingthefollowing:

1.2.7.1 MATHEMATICALMODEL
A mathematical model of the physical structure shall represent the spatial distribution of stiffness and other
propertiesofthestructurewhichisadequatetoprovideacompleteloadpathcapableoftransferringallloadsand
forces from their points of origin to the loadresisting elements for obtaining various load effects. For dynamic
analysis,mathematicalmodelshallalsoincorporatetheappropriatelydistributedmassanddampingpropertiesof

4
 Chapter1

thestructureadequateforthedeterminationofthesignificantfeaturesofitsdynamicresponse.Allbuildingsand
structures shall be thus ananlyzed preferably using a three dimensional computerized model incorporating these
featuresofmathematicalmodel.Itisessentialtousethreedimensionalcomputermodeltorepresentastructure
havingirregularplanconfigurationsuchasthoselistedinTables1.3.2and1.3.3andhavingrigidorsemirigidfloor
and roof diaphragms. Requirements for twodimensional model and three dimensional models for earthquake
analysisaredescribedinSec.2.5.11to2.5.14.

Table1.2.1 OccupancyCategoryofBuildingsandOtherStructuresforFlood,Surge,WindandEarthquakeLoads

Occupancy
NatureofOccupancy Category
Buildingsandotherstructuresthatrepresentalowhazardtohumanlifeintheeventoffailure,including,butnotlimited I
to:
Agriculturalfacilities
Certaintemporaryfacilities
Minorstoragefacilities
AllbuildingsandotherstructuresexceptthoselistedinOccupancyCategoriesI,III,andIV II
Buildingsandotherstructuresthatrepresentasubstantialhazardtohumanlifeintheeventoffailure,including,butnot III
limitedto:
Buildingsandotherstructureswheremorethan300peoplecongregateinonearea
Buildingsandotherstructureswithdaycarefacilitieswithacapacitygreaterthan150
Buildingsandotherstructureswithelementaryschoolorsecondaryschoolfacilitieswithacapacitygreaterthan250
Buildingsandotherstructureswithacapacitygreaterthan500forcollegesoradulteducationfacilities
Healthcarefacilitieswithacapacityof50ormoreresidentpatients,butnothavingsurgeryoremergency
treatmentfacilities
Jailsanddetentionfacilities

Buildingsandotherstructures,notincludedinOccupancyCategoryIV,withpotentialtocauseasubstantialeconomic
impactand/ormassdisruptionofdaytodaycivilianlifeintheeventoffailure,including,butnotlimitedto:
Powergeneratingstationsa
Watertreatmentfacilities
Sewagetreatmentfacilities
Telecommunicationcenters

BuildingsandotherstructuresnotincludedinOccupancyCategoryIV(including,butnotlimitedto,facilitiesthat
manufacture,process,handle,store,use,ordisposeofsuchsubstancesashazardousfuels,hazardouschemicals,
hazardouswaste,orexplosives)containingsufficientquantitiesoftoxicorexplosivesubstancestobedangeroustothe
publicifreleased.

Buildingsandotherstructuresdesignatedasessentialfacilities,including,butnotlimitedto: IV
Hospitalsandotherhealthcarefacilitieshavingsurgeryoremergencytreatmentfacilities
Fire,rescue,ambulance,andpolicestationsandemergencyvehiclegarages
Designatedearthquake,hurricane,orotheremergencyshelters
Designatedemergencypreparedness,communication,andoperationcentersandotherfacilitiesrequiredfor
emergencyresponse
Powergeneratingstationsandotherpublicutilityfacilitiesrequiredinanemergency
Ancillarystructures(including,butnotlimitedto,communicationtowers,fuelstoragetanks,coolingtowers,
electricalsubstation structures,firewaterstoragetanksorotherstructureshousingorsupportingwater,orother
firesuppressionmaterialorequipment) requiredforoperationofOccupancyCategoryIVstructuresduringan
emergency
Aviationcontroltowers,airtrafficcontrolcenters,andemergencyaircrafthangars
Waterstoragefacilitiesandpumpstructuresrequiredtomaintainwaterpressureforfiresuppression
Buildingsandotherstructureshavingcriticalnationaldefensefunctions

Buildingsandotherstructures(including,butnotlimitedto,facilitiesthatmanufacture,process,handle,store,use,or
dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing highly toxic
substances where the quantity of the material exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having
jurisdiction.
aCogenerationpowerplantsthatdonotsupplypoweronthenationalgridshallbedesignatedOccupancyCategoryII.

1.2.7.2 LOADSANDFORCES
Allprescribedloadsandforcestobesupportedbythestructuralsystemsshallbedeterminedinaccordancewith
theapplicableprovisionsofthischapterandChapter2.Loadsshallbeappliedonthemathematicalmodelspecified
inSec.1.2.7.1atappropriatespatiallocationsandalongdesireddirections.

5
Part6

Table1.2.2DeflectionLimits(Exceptearthquakeload)

Intheabovetable lstandsforspanofthememberunderconsideration; Lstandsforliveload, Wstandsfor
windloadandDstandsfordeadload.

Notes:
a. For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total load deflection shall not exceed l/60. For secondary roof
structural members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection shall not exceed l/150. For secondary wall members
supporting formed metal siding, the design wind load deflection shall not exceed l/90. For roofs, this exception only applies when the
metalsheetshavenoroofcovering.

b.Interiorpartitionsnotexceeding2min heightand flexible,foldingand portablepartitionsarenot governedbytheprovisionsofthis

section.

c.Forcantilevermembers,lshallbetakenastwicethelengthofthecantilever.

d.Forwoodstructuralmembershavingamoisturecontentoflessthan16percentattimeofinstallationandusedunderdryconditions,
thedeflectionresultingfromL+0.5DispermittedtobesubstitutedforthedeflectionresultingfromL+D.

e.Theabovedeflectionsdonotensureagainstponding.Roofsthatdonothavesufficientslopeorcambertoassureadequatedrainageshall
beinvestigatedforponding.SeeSection1.6.5forrainandpondingrequirements.

f.Thewindloadispermittedtobetakenas0.7timesthecomponentandcladdingloadsforthepurposeofdeterminingdeflectionlimits
herein.

g.Forsteelstructuralmembers,thedeadloadshallbetakenaszero.

h. For aluminum structural members or aluminum panels used in skylights and sloped glazing framing, roofs or walls of sunroom
additionsorpatiocovers,notsupportingedgeofglassoraluminumsandwichpanels,thetotalloaddeflectionshallnotexceedl/60.For
continuousaluminumstructuralmemberssupportingedgeofglass,thetotalloaddeflectionshallnotexceed l/175foreachglassliteor
l/60fortheentirelengthofthemember,whicheverismorestringent.Foraluminumsandwichpanelsusedinroofsorwallsofsunroom
additionsorpatiocovers,thetotalloaddeflectionshallnotexceedl/120.

1.2.7.3 SOILSTRUCTUREINTERACTION
Soilstructure interaction effects, where required, shall be included in the analysis by appropriately including the
properlysubstantiatedpropertiesofsoilintothemathematicalmodelspecifiedinSec.1.2.7.1above.

1.2.8 DISTRIBUTIONOFHORIZONTALSHEAR
Thetotallateralforceshallbedistributedtothevariouselementsofthelateralforceresistingsysteminproportion
totheirrigiditiesconsideringtherigidityofthehorizontalbracingsystemsordiaphragms.

6
 Chapter1

1.2.9 HORIZONTALTORSIONALMOMENTS
Structural systems and components shall be designed to sustain additional forces resulting from torsion due to
eccentricity between the centre of application of the lateral forces and the centre of rigidity of the lateral force
resisting system. Forces shall not be decreased due to torsional effects. For accidental torsion effects on seismic
forces,requirementsshallconformtoSec2.5.9.6

1.2.10 STABILITYAGAINSTOVERTURNINGANDSLIDING
Everybuildingorstructureshallbedesignedtoresisttheoverturningandslidingeffectscausedbythelateralforces
specifiedinthischapter.

1.2.11 ANCHORAGE
Anchorageoftherooftowallandcolumns,andofwallsandcolumnstofoundations,shallbeprovidedtoresistthe
upliftandslidingforcesresultingfromtheapplicationoftheprescribedloads.Additionalrequirementsformasonry
orconcretewallsshallbethosegiveninSec1.7.3.6.

1.2.12 GENERALSTRUCTURALINTEGRITY
Buildingsandstructuralsystemsshallpossessgeneralstructuralintegrity,thatistheabilitytosustainlocaldamage
caused due to misuse or accidental overloading, with the structure as a whole remaining stable and not being
damagedtoanextentdisproportionatetotheoriginallocaldamage.

1.2.13 PROPORTIONINGOFSTRUCTURALELEMENTS
Structuralelements,componentsandconnectionsshallbeproportionedanddetailedbasedonthedesignmethods
provided inthe subsequent chapters for variousmaterials ofconstruction, such as reinforced concrete, masonry,
steeletc.toresistvariousloadeffectsobtainedfromarationalanalysisofthestructuralsystem.

1.2.14 WALLSANDFRAMING
Walls and structural framing shall be erected true and plumb in accordance with the design. Interior walls,
permanent partitions and temporary partitions exceeding 1.8 m of height shall be designed to resist all loads to
whichtheyaresubjected.IfnototherwisespecifiedelsewhereinthisCode,wallsshallbedesignedforaminimum
load of 0.25 kN/m2 applied perpendicular to the wall surfaces. The deflection of such walls under a load of 0.25
kN/m2shallnotexceed 1/240ofthespanforwallswithbrittlefinishesand 1/120ofthespanforwallswithflexible
finishes. However, flexible, folding or portable partitions shall not be required to meet the above load and
deflectioncriteria,butshallbeanchoredtothesupportingstructure.

1.2.15 ADDITIONSTOEXISTINGSTRUCTURES
Whenanexistingbuildingorstructureisextendedorotherwisealtered,allportionsthereofaffectedbysuchcause
shallbestrengthened,ifnecessary,tocomplywiththesafetyandserviceabilityrequirementsprovidedinSec1.2.4
and1.2.5respectively.

1.2.16 PHASEDCONSTRUCTION
Whenabuildingorstructureisplannedoranticipatedtoundergophasedconstruction,structuralmemberstherein
shallbeinvestigatedanddesignedforanyadditionalstressesarisingduetosuchconstruction.

7
Part6

1.2.17 LOADCOMBINATIONSANDSTRESSINCREASE
Every building, structure, foundation or components thereof shall be designed to sustain, within the allowable
stress or specified strength (under factored load), the most unfavourable effects resulting from various
combinationsofloadsspecifiedinsection2.7.Exceptotherwisepermittedorrestrictedbyanyothersectionofthis
Code,maximumincreaseintheallowablestressshallbe33%whenallowableorworkingstressmethodofdesignis
followed.Forsoilstressesduetofoundationloads,loadcombinationsandstressincreasespecifiedinSec2.7.4for
allowablestressdesignmethodshallbeused.

1.3 STRUCTURALSYSTEMS
1.3.1 GENERAL
EverystructureshallhaveoneofthebasicstructuralsystemsspecifiedinSec1.3.2oracombinationthereof.The
structuralconfigurationshallbeasspecifiedinSec1.3.4withthelimitationsimposedinSec2.5.7.4.

1.3.2 BASICSTRUCTURALSYSTEMS
StructuralsystemsforbuildingsandotherstructuresshallbedesignatedasoneofthetypesAtoGlistedinTable
1.3.1. Each type is again classified as shown in the table by the types of vertical elements used to resist lateral
forces.Abriefdescriptionofdifferentstructuralsystemsarepresentedinfollowingsubsections.

Table1.3.1:BasicStructuralSystems
A.BEARINGWALLSYSTEMS(noframe)
1. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
2. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls
4. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls
B.BUILDINGFRAMESYSTEMS(withbracingorshearwall)
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames, moment resisting connections at
columns away from links
2. Steel eccentrically braced frames, non-moment-resisting, connections at
columns away from links
3. Special steel concentrically braced frames
4. Ordinary steel concentrically braced frames
5. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
7. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls
8. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls
C.MOMENTRESISTINGFRAMESYSTEMS(noshearwall)
1. Special steel moment frames
2. Intermediate steel moment frames
3. Ordinary steel moment frames
4. Special reinforced concrete moment frames
5. Intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames
D.DUALSYSTEMS:SPECIALMOMENTFRAMESCAPABLEOFRESISTINGATLEAST25%OF
PRESCRIBEDSEISMICFORCES(withbracingorshearwall)
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames
2. Special steel concentrically braced frames
3. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
E.DUALSYSTEMS:INTERMEDIATEMOMENTFRAMESCAPABLEOFRESISTINGATLEAST25%
OFPRESCRIBEDSEISMICFORCES(withbracingorshearwall)
1. Special steel concentrically braced frames
2. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
F.DUALSHEARWALLFRAMESYSTEM:ORDINARYREINFORCEDCONCRETEMOMENT
FRAMESANDORDINARYREINFORCEDCONCRETESHEARWALLS
G.STEELSYSTEMSNOTSPECIFICALLYDETAILEDFORSEISMICRESISTANCE

8
 Chapter1

1.3.2.1 BEARINGWALLSYSTEM
A structural system having bearing walls or bracing systems without a complete vertical load carrying frame to
supportgravityloads.Resistancetolateralloadsisprovidedbyshearwallsorbracedframes.

1.3.2.2 BUILDINGFRAMESYSTEM
A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for gravity loads. Resistance to
lateralloadsisprovidedbyshearwallsorbracedframesseparately.

1.3.2.3 MOMENTRESISTINGFRAMESYSTEM
Astructuralsystemwithanessentiallycompletespaceframeprovidingsupportforgravityloads.Momentresisting
framesalsoprovideresistancetolateralloadprimarilybyflexuralactionofmembers,andmaybeclassifiedasone
ofthefollowingtypes:

a) SpecialMomentResistingFrames(SMRF)

b) IntermediateMomentResistingFrames(IMRF)

c) OrdinaryMomentResistingFrames(OMRF).

The framing system, IMRF and SMRF shall have special detailing to provide ductile behaviour conforming to the
provisions of Sec 8.3 and 10.20 for concrete and steel structures respectively. OMRF need not conform to these
specialductilityrequirementsofChapter8or10.

1.3.2.4 DUALSYSTEM
Astructuralsystemhavingacombinationofthefollowingframingsystems:

a) Momentresistingframes(SMRF,IMRForsteelOMRF),and

b) Shearwallsorbracedframes.

Thetwosystemsspecifiedin(a)and(b)aboveshallbedesignedtoresistthetotallateralforceinproportiontotheir
relativerigiditiesconsideringtheinteractionofthedualsystematalllevels.However,themomentresistingframes
shallbecapableofresistingatleast25%oftheapplicabletotalseismiclateralforce,evenwhenwindoranyother
lateralforcegovernsthedesign.

1.3.2.5 SPECIALSTRUCTURALSYSTEM:
AstructuralsystemnotdefinedabovenorlistedinTable1.3.1andspeciallydesignedtocarrythelateralloads,such
astubeintube,bundledtube,etc.

1.3.2.6 NONBUILDINGSTRUCTURALSYSTEM
AstructuralsystemusedforpurposesotherthaninbuildingsandconformingtoSec1.5.4.8,1.5.4.9,2.4and2.5.

1.3.3 COMBINATIONOFSTRUCTURALSYSTEMS
WhendifferentstructuralsystemsofSec1.3.2arecombinedforincorporationintothesamestructure,designof
thecombinedseismicforceresistingsystemshallconformtotheprovisionsofSec2.5.7.5.

1.3.4 STRUCTURALCONFIGURATIONS
Based on the structural configuration, each structure shall be designated as a regular or irregular structure as
definedbelow:

9
Part6

1.3.4.1 REGULARSTRUCTURES
Regularstructureshavenosignificantphysicaldiscontinuitiesorirregularitiesinplanorverticalconfigurationorin
theirlateralforceresistingsystems.TypicalfeaturescausingirregularityaredescribedinSec1.3.4.2.

1.3.4.2 IRREGULARSTRUCTURES
Irregularstructureshaveeitherverticalirregularityorplanirregularityorbothintheirstructuralconfigurationsor
lateralforceresistingsystems.

1.3.4.2.1 VerticalIrregularity
StructureshavingoneormoreoftheirregularfeatureslistedinTable1.3.2shallbedesignatedashavingavertical
irregularity.

Table1.3.2:VerticalIrregularitiesofStructures

VerticalIrregularity Reference*
Type Definition Section
I StiffnessIrregularity(SoftStorey):
Asoftstoreyisoneinwhichthelateralstiffnessislessthan70percentofthat 2.5.7to2.5.14
in the storey above or less than 80 per cent of the average stiffness of the and2.5.19
threestoreysabove.
II MassIrregularity:
Massirregularityshallbeconsideredtoexistwheretheeffectivemassofany 2.5.7to2.5.14
storeyismorethan150percentoftheeffectivemassofanadjacentstorey.A
roofwhichislighterthanthefloorbelowneednotbeconsidered.
III VerticalGeometricIrregularity:
Verticalgeometricirregularityshallbeconsideredtoexistwherehorizontal 2.5.7to2.5.14
dimensionofthelateralforceresistingsysteminanystoreyismorethan130
per cent of that in an adjacent storey, onestorey penthouses need not be
considered.
IV InPlaneDiscontinuityinVerticalLateralForceResistingElement:
An inplane offset of the lateral loadresisting elements greater than the 2.5.7to2.5.14
lengthofthoseelements.
Va DiscontinuityinCapacity(WeakStorey):
Aweakstoreyisoneinwhichthestoreystrengthislessthan 80percentof 2.5.7to2.5.14
that in the storey above. The storey strength is the total strength of all and2.5.19
seismicresisting elements sharing the storey shear for the direction under
consideration.
Vb ExtremeDiscontinuityinCapacity(VeryWeakStorey):
Averyweakstoreyisoneinwhichthestoreystrengthislessthan65percent 2.5.7to2.5.14
ofthatinthestoreyabove. and2.5.19

1.3.4.2.2 PlanIrregularity
Structures having one or more of the irregular features listed in Table 1.3.3 shall be designated as having a plan
irregularity.

Table1.3.3:PlanIrregularitiesofStructures

PlanIrregularity Reference*
Type Definition Section
I Torsional Irregularity (to be considered when diaphragms are not
flexible): 2.5.7to2.5.14
Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the maximum storey
drift,computedincludingaccidentaltorsion,atoneendofthestructureismore
than1.2timestheaverageofthestoreydriftsatthetwoendsofthestructure.

10
 Chapter1

II ReentrantCorners:
Planconfigurationsofastructureanditslateralforceresistingsystemcontain 2.5.7to2.5.14
reentrantcorners,wherebothprojectionsofthestructurebeyondareentrant
corner are greater than 15 per cent of the plan dimension of the structure in
thegivendirection.
III DiaphragmDiscontinuity:
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including 2.5.7to2.5.14
those having cutout or open areas greater than 50 per cent of the gross
enclosedareaofthediaphragm,orchangesineffectivediaphragmstiffnessof
morethan50percentfromonestoreytothenext.
IV OutofplaneOffsets: 2.5.7to2.5.14
Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as outofplane offsets of the
verticalelements.
V NonparallelSystems:
The vertical lateral loadresisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric 2.5.7to2.5.14
aboutthemajororthogonalaxesofthelateralforceresistingsystem.

1.4 DESIGNFORGRAVITYLOADS
1.4.1 GENERAL
Design of buildings and components thereof for gravity loads shall conform to the requirements of this section.
Gravity loads, such as dead load and live loads applied at the floors or roof of a building shall be determined in
accordancewiththeprovisionsofChapter2.

1.4.2 FLOORDESIGN
FloorslabsanddecksshallbedesignedforthefulldeadandliveloadsasspecifiedinSec2.2and2.3respectively.
Floor supporting elements such as beams, joists, columns etc. shall be designed for the full dead load and the
appropriately reduced live loads set forth by the provisions of Sec 2.3.13. Design of floor elements shall also
conformtothefollowingprovisions:

a) UniformlyDistributedLoads:Whereuniformfloorloadsareinvolved,considerationmaybe
limitedtofulldeadloadonallspansincombinationwithfullliveloadonadjacentspansand
on alternate spans to determine the most unfavourable effect of stresses in the member
concerned.

b) ConcentratedLoads:Provisionshallbemadeindesigningfloorsforaconcentratedloadas
set forth in Sec 2.3.5 applied at a location wherever this load acting upon an otherwise
unloaded floor would produce stresses greater than those caused by the uniform load
requiredtherefore.

c) Partition Loads : Loads due to permanent partitions shall be treated as a dead load applied
overthefloorasauniformlineloadhavinganintensityequaltotheweightpermetrerunof
thepartitionsasspecifiedinSec2.2.5.Loadsforlightmovablepartitionsshallbedetermined
inaccordancewiththeprovisionsofSec2.3.6.

d) Design of Members : Floor members, such as slabs or decks, beams, joists etc. shall be
designedtosustaintheworsteffectofthedeadplusliveloadsoranyotherloadcombinations
asspecifiedinSec2.7.Wherefloorsareusedasdiaphragmstotransmitlateralloadsbetween
various resisting elements, those loads shall be determined following the provisions of Sec
1.7.3.8. Detailed design of the floor elements shall be performed using the procedures
providedinChapters4through13forvariousconstructionmaterials.

11
Part6

1.4.3 ROOFDESIGN
Roofs and their supporting elements shall be designed to sustain, within their allowable stresses or specified
strengthlimits,alldeadloadsandliveloadsassetoutbytheprovisionsofSec2.2and2.3respectively.Designof
roofmembersshallalsoconformtothefollowingrequirements:

a) Application of Loads : When uniformly distributed loads are considered for the design of
continuousstructuralmembers,loadincludingfulldeadloadsonallspansincombinationwith
fullliveloadsonadjacentspansandonalternatespan,shallbeinvestigatedtodeterminethe
worst effects of loading. Concentrated roof live loads and special roof live loads, where
applicable,shallalsobeconsideredindesign.

b) UnbalancedLoading:Effectsduetounbalancedloadsshallbeconsideredinthedesignofroof
membersandconnectionswheresuchloadingwillresultinmorecriticalstresses.Trussesand
archesshallbedesignedtoresistthestressescausedbyuniformliveloadsononehalfofthe
span if such loading results in reverse stresses, or stresses greater in any portion than the
stressesproducedbythisunitliveloadwhenappliedupontheentirespan.

c) RainLoads:Roofs,wherepondingofrainwaterisanticipatedduetoblockageofroofdrains,
excessive deflectionor insufficient slopes, shall be designedto support suchloads.Loads on
roofs due to rain shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Sec 2.6.3. In
additiontothedeadloadoftheroof,eithertheroofliveloadortherainload,whicheverisof
higherintensity,shallbeconsideredindesign.

1.4.4 REDUCTIONOFLIVELOADS
ThedesignliveloadsspecifiedinSec2.3,maybereducedtoappropriatevaluesaspermittedbytheprovisionsof
Sec2.3.13.andSec.2.3.14.

1.4.5 POSTINGOFLIVELOADS
Ineverybuilding,ofwhichthefloorsorpartsthereofhaveadesignliveloadof3.5kN/m2ormore,andwhichare
used as library stack room, file room, parking garage, machine or plant room, or used for industrial or storage
purposes,the ownerofthe buildingshall ensurethattheliveloadsforwhichsuchspace has beendesigned,are
postedondurablemetalplatesasshowninFig1.1,securelyaffixedinaconspicuousplaceineachspacetowhich
theyrelate.Ifsuchplatesarelost,removed,ordefaced,theownershallberesponsibletohavethemreplaced.

1.4.6 RESTRICTIONSONLOADING
The building owner shall ensure that the live load for which a floor or roof is or has been designed, will not be
exceededduringitsuse.

1.4.7 SPECIALCONSIDERATIONS
Intheabsenceofactualdeadandliveloaddata,theminimumvaluesoftheseloadsshallbethosespecifiedinSec
2.2and2.3.Inaddition,specialconsiderationshallbegiventothefollowingaspectsofloadinganddueallowances
shallbemadeindesignifoccurrenceofsuchloadingisanticipatedafterconstructionofabuilding:

a) IncreaseinDeadLoad:Actualthicknessoftheconcreteslabsorothermembersmaybecome
largerthanthedesignedthicknessduetomovementsordeflectionsoftheformworkduring
construction.

12
 Chapter1

b) Future Installatio
ons: Changes iin the numbeers, types and positions of partitions and
d other
insttallationsmayincreaseactuaalloadontheffloorsofabuild
ding.

c) OcccupancyChangges:Increasein
nliveloadsdue
etochangeso
ofoccupancyin
nvolvingloadsheavier
thanthatbeingdesignedfor.

Figure1.1:SampleLiveLoadSign

1.4.8 DEFLECT
TIONANDC
CAMBER
Structural systems and members thereof shall be designed to have
h adequatee stiffness to limit
l deflections. The
deflectionssofstructural membersshallnotexceedtthemorerestrrictiveofthelimitationsofC
Chapters2thro
ough13
orthatperrmittedbyTab
ble1.2.2.orpro
ovisionsofSecc1.2.5.Incalcu
ulatingdeflectionsduetograavityloads,lon
ngterm
effects(e.gg.creep,shrinkkageorstressrrelaxation)sho
ouldalsobeco
onsidered.

1.5 DESIGNFORLAT
TERALLOA
ADS
1.5.1 GENERAL
L
Everybuild
ding,structureorportionsth
hereofshallbedesignedtoresistthelateraalloadeffects,,suchasthoseedueto
windorearthquakeforcees,incomplian
ncewiththereequirementsprrescribedinthissection.

1.5.2 SELECTIO
ONOFLATE
ERALFORC
CEFORDES
SIGN
Any of the n Chapter 2, cconsidered eitther alone or in combinatio
e lateral loadss prescribed in on with other forces,
whicheverproducesthemostcriticale
effect,shallgovvernthedesign.However,th
hestructuraldetailingrequirements
plywiththose prescribedin Sec1.7.When
shallcomp nadualstructturalsystemisusedtoresisttlateralloads,,design
shallalsocconformtoSecc1.3.2.4.

1.5.3 DESIGNF
FORWINDL
LOAD
Design of buildings and their comp
ponents to reesist wind ind
duced forces shall complyy with the fo
ollowing
requirements:

13
Part6

1.5.3.1 DIRECTIONOFWIND
Structural design for wind forces shall be based on the assumption that wind may blow from any horizontal
direction.

1.5.3.2 DESIGNCONSIDERATIONS
Designwindloadontheprimaryframingsystemsandcomponentsofabuildingorstructureshallbedeterminedon
thebasisoftheproceduresprovidedinSec2.4consideringthebasicwindspeed,shapeandsizeofthebuilding,and
theterrainexposure conditionofthesite.Forslenderbuildingsandstructures, dynamicresponse characteristics,
such as fundamental natural frequency, shall be determined for calculating the gust response coefficient. Load
effects, such as forces, moments, deflections etc. on various components of the building due to wind shall be
determinedfromastaticanalysisofthestructureasspecifiedinSec1.2.7.1.

1.5.3.3 SHIELDINGEFFECT
Reductions in wind pressure on buildings and structures due to apparent direct shielding effects of the up wind
obstructions,suchasmanmadeconstructionsornaturalterrainfeatures,shallnotbepermitted.

1.5.3.4 DYNAMICEFFECTS
Dynamic wind forces such as that from alongwind vibrations caused by the dynamic windstructure interaction
effects, as set forth by the provisions of Sec 2.4.10, shall be considered in the design of regular shaped slender
buildings.Forotherdynamiceffectssuchascrosswindortorsionalresponsesasmaybeexperiencedbybuildings
orstructureshavingunusualgeometricalshapes(i.e.verticalorplanirregularitieslistedinTables1.3.2and1.3.3),
responsecharacteristics,orsitelocations,structuraldesignshallbemadebasedontheinformationobtainedeither
from other reliable references or from windtunnel test specified in Sec 1.5.3.5 below, complying with the other
requirementsofthissection.

1.5.3.5 WINDTUNNELTEST
Properlyconductedwindtunneltestsshallberequiredforthosebuildingsorstructureshavingunusualgeometric
shapes,responsecharacteristics,orsitelocationsforwhichcrosswindresponsesuchasvortexshedding,galloping
etc. warrant special consideration, and for which no reliable literature for the determination of such effects is
available. This test is also recommended for those buildings or structures for which more accurate windloading
informationisdesiredthanthosegiveninthissectionandinSec2.4.

Testsforthedeterminationofmeanandfluctuatingcomponentsofforcesandpressuresshallbeconsideredtobe
properlyconductedonlyifthefollowingrequirementsaresatisfied:

a) Thenaturalwindhasbeenmodelledtoaccountforthevariationofwindspeedwithheight,

b) The intensity of the longitudinal components of turbulence has been taken into consideration in the
model,

c) The geometric scale of the structural model is not more than three times the geometric scale of the
longitudinalcomponentofturbulence,

d) Theresponsecharacteristicsofthewindtunnelinstrumentationareconsistentwiththemeasurements
tobemade,and

e) The Reynolds number is taken into consideration when determining forces and pressures on the
structuralelements.

14
 Chapter1

Tests for the purpose of determining the dynamic response of a structure shall be considered to be properly
conducted only if requirements (a) through (e) above are fulfilled and, in addition, the structural model is scaled
withdueconsiderationtolength,distributionofmass,stiffnessanddampingofthestructure.

1.5.3.6 WINDLOADSDURINGCONSTRUCTION
Buildings, structures and portions thereof under construction, and construction structures such as formwork,
stagingetc.shallbeprovidedwithadequatetemporarybracingsorotherlateralsupportstoresistthewindloadon
themduringtheerectionandconstructionphase.

1.5.3.7 MASONRYCONSTRUCTIONINHIGHWINDREGIONS
Designandconstructionofmasonrystructuresinhighwindregionsshallconformtotherequirementsofrelevant
sectionsofChapter7.

1.5.3.8 HEIGHTLIMITS
UnlessotherwisespecifiedelsewhereinthisCode,noheightlimitsshallbeimposed,ingeneral,onthedesignand
constructionofbuildingsorstructurestoresistwindinducedforces.

1.5.4 DESIGNFOREARTHQUAKEFORCES
Design of structures and components thereof to resist the effects of earthquake forces shall comply with the
requirementsofthissection.

1.5.4.1 BASICDESIGNCONSIDERATION
Forthepurposeofearthquakeresistantdesign,eachstructureshallbeplacedinoneoftheseismiczonesasgivenin
Sec 2.5.6.2 and assigned with a structure importance category as set forth in Sec 2.5.7.1. The seismic forces on
structuresshallbedeterminedconsideringseismiczoning,sitesoilcharacteristics,structureimportance,structural
systemsandconfigurations,heightanddynamicpropertiesofthestructureasprovidedinSec2.5.Thestructural
systemandconfigurationtypesforabuildingorastructureshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththeprovisions
ofSec2.5.7.4.Otherseismicdesignrequirementsshallbethosespecifiedinthissection.

1.5.4.2 REQUIREMENTSFORDIRECTIONALEFFECTS
Thedirectionsofapplicationofseismicforcesusedinthedesignshallbethosewhichwillproducethemostcritical
loadeffects.Earthquakeforcesactinbothprincipaldirectionsofthebuildingsimultaneously.Designprovisionsfor
consideringearthquakecomponentinorthogonaldirectionshavebeenprovidedinSec2.5.15.1.

1.5.4.3 STRUCTURALSYSTEMANDCONFIGURATIONREQUIREMENTS
Seismicdesignprovisionsimposethefollowinglimitationsontheuseofstructuralsystemsandconfigurations:

a) The structural system used shall satisfy requirements of the Seismic Design Category (defined in
Sec.2.5.7.2)andheightlimitationsgiveninSec2.5.7.4.

b) StructuresassignedtoSeismicDesignCategoryDhavingverticalirregularityTypeVbofTable1.3.2
shall not be permitted. Structures with such vertical irregularity may be permitted for Seismic
DesignCategoryBorCbutshallnotbeovertwostoriesor9minheight.

c) Structures having irregular features described in Table 1.3.2 or 1.3.3 shall be designed in
compliancewiththeadditionalrequirementsofthesectionsreferencedintheseTables.

15
Part6

d) Special Structural Systems defined in Sec 1.3.2.5 may be permitted if it can be demonstrated by
analytical and test data to be equivalent, with regard to dynamic characteristics, lateral force
resistance and energy absorption, to one of the structural systems listed in Table 2.5.7, for
obtaininganequivalentRandCdvalueforseismicdesign.

1.5.4.4 METHODSOFANALYSIS
Earthquake forces and their effects on various structural elements shall be determined by using either a static
analysismethodoradynamicanalysismethodwhicheverisapplicablebasedonthelimitationssetforthinSec2.5.7
through2.5.14andconformingtoSec1.2.7.

1.5.4.5 MINIMUMDESIGNSEISMICFORCE
The minimum design seismic forces shall be those determined in accordance with the Sec 2.5.7 through 2.5.14
whicheverisapplicable.

1.5.4.6 DISTRIBUTIONOFSEISMICFORCES
Thetotallateralseismicforcesandmomentsshallbedistributedamongvariousresistingelementsatanyleveland
alongtheverticaldirectionofabuildingorstructureinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofSec2.5.7through2.5.14
asappropriate.

1.5.4.7 VERTICALCOMPONENTSOFSEISMICFORCES
DesignprovisionsforconsideringverticalcomponentofearthquakegroundmotionisgiveninSec2.5.15.2

1.5.4.8 HEIGHTLIMITS
HeightlimitationsfordifferentstructuralsystemsaregiveninTable2.5.7ofSec2.5.7.4ofPart6ofthiscodeasa
functionofseismicdesigncategory.

1.5.4.9 NONBUILDINGSTRUCTURES
SeismiclateralforceonnonbuildingstructuresshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofChapter15
ofASCE705.However,provisionsofChapter15ofASCE705maybesimplified,consistentwiththeprovisionsof
Section2.5ofPart6ofthiscode.Otherdesignrequirementsshallbethoseprovidedinthischapter.

1.5.5 OVERTURNINGREQUIREMENTS
Everystructureshallbedesignedtoresisttheoverturningeffectscausedbywindorearthquakeforcesspecifiedin
Sec2.4and2.5respectivelyaswellotherlateralforceslikeearthpressure,tidalsurgeetc.Theoverturningmoment
Mxatanystoreylevelxofabuildingshallbedeterminedas:

1.5.1

where,

hi,hx,hn = Heightinmetresatleveli,xornrespectively.

Fi = Lateralforceappliedatleveli,i=1ton.

16
 Chapter1

Atanylevel,theincrementofoverturningmomentshallbedistributedtothevariousresistingelementsinthesame
mannerasthedistributionofhorizontalshearprescribedinSec2.5.9.5.Overturningeffectsoneveryelementshall
becarrieddowntothefoundationlevel.

1.5.6 DRIFTANDBUILDINGSEPARATION

1.5.6.1 STOREYDRIFTLIMITATION
Storeydriftisthehorizontaldisplacementofonelevelofabuildingorstructurerelativetothelevelaboveorbelow
duetothedesigngravity(deadandliveloads)orlateralforces(e.g.windandearthquakeloads).Exceptotherwise
permitted in Sec 1.3.4.2.1 calculated storey drift shall include both translational and torsional deflections and
conformtothefollowingrequirements:

1. Storeydrift,,forloadsotherthanearthquakeloads,shallbelimitedasfollows:

0.005h forT<0.7second.

0.004h forT0.7second.

0.0025h forunreinforcedmasonrystructures.

where,h=heightofthebuildingorstructure.

TheperiodTusedinthiscalculationshallbethesameasthatusedfordeterminingthebaseshear
inSec2.5.9.2.

2. Thedriftlimitssetoutin(1)abovemaybeexceededwhereitcanbedemonstratedthatgreater
driftcanbetoleratedbybothstructuralandnonstructuralelementswithoutaffectinglifesafety.

3. Forearthquakeloads,thestorydrift,,shallbelimitedinaccordancewiththelimitssetforthin
Sec2.5.16.1

1.5.6.2 SWAYLIMITATION
The overall sway (horizontal deflection) at the top level of the building or structure due to wind loading shall be
1
limitedto /500timesofthetotalheightofthebuildingabovebase.

1.5.7 BUILDINGSEPARATION
Allcomponentsofastructureshallbedesignedandconstructedtoactasanintegralunitunlesstheyareseparated
structurallybyadistancesufficienttoavoidcontactunderthemostunfavourableconditionofdeflectionsdueto
lateralloads.Forseismicloads,designguidelinesaregiveninSec2.5.16.3.

1.5.8 PDELTAEFFECTS
TheresultingmemberforcesandmomentsandthestoreydriftsinducedbyPDeltaeffectsneednotbeconsidered
whenthestabilitycoefficient()remainswithin0.10.Thiscoefficient(describedinSec2.5.9.9)maybeevaluated
foranystoreyastheproductofthetotalverticaldeadandliveloadsabovethestoreyandthelateraldriftinthat
storeydividedbytheproductofthestoreyshearinthatstoreyandtheheightofthatstorey.

1.5.9 UPLIFTEFFECTS
Uplifteffectscausedduetolateralloadsshallbeconsideredindesign.Whenallowable(working)stressmethodis
usedfordesign,deadloadsusedtoreduceupliftshallbemultipliedbyafactorof0.85.

17
Part6

1.6 DESIGNFORMISCELLANEOUSLOADS
1.6.1 GENERAL
Buildings, structuresand components thereof, whensubject toloads other than dead,live, wind and earthquake
loads,shallbedesignedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthissection.Miscellaneousloads,suchasthosedueto
temperature,rain,floodandsurgeetc.onbuildingsorstructures,shallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSec2.6.
Structuralmemberssubjecttomiscellaneousloads,notspecifiedinSec2.6shallbedesignedusingwellestablished
methodsgiveninanyreliablereferences,andcomplyingwiththeotherrequirementsofthisCode.

1.6.2 SELFSTRAININGFORCES
Selfstraining forces such as those arising due to assumed differential settlements of foundations and from
restraineddimensionalchangesduetotemperature,moisture,shrinkage,creep,andsimilareffects,shallbetaken
intoconsiderationinthedesignofstructuralmembers.

1.6.3 STRESSREVERSALANDFATIGUE
Structural members and joints shall be investigated and designed against possible stress reversals caused due to
various construction loads. Where required, allowance shall be made in the design to account for the effects of
fatigue.Theallowablestressmaybeappropriatelyreducedtoaccountforsucheffectsinthestructuralmembers.

1.6.4 FLOOD,TIDAL/STORMSURGEANDTSUNAMI
Buildings, structures and components thereof shall be designed, constructed and anchored to resist flotation,
collapseoranypermanentmovementduetoloadsincludingflood,tidal/Stormsurgeandtsunami,whenapplicable.
Structuralmembersshallbedesignedtoresistbothhydrostaticandsignificanthydrodynamicloadsandeffectsof
buoyancyresultingfromfloodorsurge.Floodandsurgeloadsonbuildingsandstructuresshallbedeterminedin
accordance with Sec 2.6.4. Load combination including flood and surge loads shall conform to Sec 2.7. Design of
foundationstosustaintheseloadeffectsshallconformtotheprovisionsofSec1.8.

Stability against overturning and sliding caused due to wind and flood or surge loads simultaneously shall be
investigated,andsucheffectsshallberesistedwithaminimumfactorofsafetyof1.5,consideringdeadloadonly.

1.6.5 RAINLOADS
Roofsofthebuildingsandstructuresaswellastheirothercomponentswhichmayhavethecapabilityofretaining
rainwatershallbedesignedforadequategravityloadinducedbyponding.Roofsandsuchothercomponentsshall
beanalysedanddesignedforloadduetopondingcausedbyaccidentalblockageofdrainagesystemcomplyingwith
Sec.2.6.3.

1.6.6 OTHERLOADS
Buildingsandstructuresandtheircomponentsshallbeanalyzedanddesignedforstressescausedbythefollowing
effects

a. TemparatureEffects(Sec2.6.5).

b. SoilandHydrostaticPressure(Sec2.6.6).

c. ImpactsandCollisions

d. Explosions(Sec2.6.7).

18
 Chapter1

e. Fire

f. VerticalForcesonAirRaidShelters(Sec2.6.8).

g. LoadsonHelicopterLandingAreas(Sec2.6.9).

h. ErectionandConstructionLoads(Sec2.6.10).

i. MovingLoadsforCraneMovements

j. CreepandShrinkage

k. DynamicLoadsduetoVibrations

l. ConstructionLoads

Designofbuildingsandstructuresshallincludeloadingandstressescausedbytheaboveeffectsinaccordancewith
theprovisionssetforthinChapter2.

1.7 DETAILEDDESIGNREQUIREMENTS
1.7.1 GENERAL
All structural framing systems shall comply with the requirements of this section. Only the elements of the
designated lateral force resisting systems can be used to resist design lateral forces specified in Chapter 2. The
individualcomponentsshallbedesignedtoresisttheprescribedforcesactingonthem.Designofcomponentsshall
alsocomplywiththespecificrequirementsforthematerialscontainedinChapters4through13.Inaddition,such
framingsystemsandcomponentsshallcomplywiththedesignrequirementsprovidedinthissection.

1.7.2 STRUCTURALFRAMINGSYSTEMS
ThebasicstructuralsystemsaredefinedinSec1.3.2andshowninTable1.3.1,andeachtypeissubdividedbythe
typesofframingelementsusedtoresistthelateralforces.Thestructuralsystemusedshallsatisfyrequirementsof
seismicdesigncategoryandheightlimitationsindicatedinTable2.5.7.Specialframingrequirementsaregivenin
thefollowingsectionsinadditiontothoseprovidedinChapters4through13.

1.7.3 DETAILINGREQUIREMENTSFORCOMBINATIONSOFSTRUCTURAL
SYSTEMS:
Forcomponentscommontodifferentstructuralsystems,amorerestrictivedetailingshallbeprovided.

1.7.3.1 CONNECTIONSTORESISTSEISMICFORCES
Connections which resist prescribed seismic forces shall be designed in accordance with the seismic design
requirements provided in Chapters 4 through 13. Detailed sketches for these connections shall be given in the
structuraldrawings.

1.7.3.2 DEFORMATIONCOMPATIBILITY
Allframingelementsnotrequiredbydesigntobepartofthelateralforceresistingsystem,shallbeinvestigatedand
showntobeadequateforverticalloadcarryingcapacitywhensubjectedtolateraldisplacementsresultingfromthe
seismic lateral forces. For designs using working stress methods, this capacity may be determined using an
allowablestressincreaseof30percent.PDeltaeffectsonsuchelementsshallbeaccountedfor.

19
Part6

a. AdjoiningRigidElements:Momentresistingframesmaybeenclosed oradjoinedbymorerigid
elementswhichwouldtendtopreventaspaceframefromresistinglateralforceswhereitcanbe
shownthattheactionorfailureofthemorerigidelementswillnotimpairtheverticalandlateral
loadresistingabilityofthespaceframe.

b. ExteriorElements:Exteriornonbearing,nonshearwallpanelsorelementswhichareattachedto
orenclosetheexteriorofastructure,shallbedesignedtoresisttheforcesaccordingtoSec.2.5.17
of Chapter 2, if seismic forces are present, and shall accommodate movements of the structure
resulting from lateral forces or temperature changes. Such elements shall be supported by
structural members or by mechanical connections and fasteners joining them to structural
membersinaccordancewiththefollowingprovisions:

i. Connectionsandpaneljointsshallallowforarelativemovementbetweenstoreysofnotless
than two times the storey drift caused by wind forces or design seismic forces, or 12 mm,
whicheverisgreater.

ii. Connections to permit movement in the plane of the panel for storey drift shall be either
slidingconnectionsusingslottedoroversizedholes,connectionswhichpermitmovementby
bendingofsteel,orotherconnectionsprovidingequivalentslidingandductilitycapacity.

iii. Bodies of connections shall have sufficient ductility and rotation capability to preclude any
fractureoftheanchoringelementsorbrittlefailuresatornearweldings.

iv. Bodies of the connection shall be designed for 1.33 times the seismic force determined by
Sec.2.5.17ofChapter2,orequivalent.

v. All fasteners in the connection system, such as bolts, inserts, welds, dowels etc. shall be
designedfor4timestheforcesdeterminedbySec.2.5.17ofChapter2orequivalent.

vi. Fastenersembeddedinconcreteshallbeattachedto,orhookedaroundreinforcingsteel,or
otherwiseterminatedsoastotransferforcestothereinforcingsteeleffectively.

1.7.3.3 TIESANDCONTINUITY
Allpartsofastructureshallbeinterconnected.Theseconnectionsshallbecapableoftransmittingtheprescribed
lateralforcetothelateralforceresistingsystem.Individualmembers,includingthosenotpartoftheseismicforce
resisting system, shall be provided with adequate strength to resist the shears, axial forces, and moments
determined in accordance with this standard. Connections shall develop the strength of the connected members
andshallbecapableoftransmittingtheseismicforce(Fp)inducedbythepartsbeingconnected.

1.7.3.4 COLLECTORELEMENTS
Collector elements shall be provided which are capable of transferring the lateral forces originating in other
portionsofthestructuretotheelementprovidingtheresistancetothoseforces.

1.7.3.5 CONCRETEFRAMES
Whenconcreteframesareprovidedbydesigntobepartofthelateralforceresistingsystem,theyshallconformto
thefollowingprovisions:

a) InSeismicZones3and4theseframesshallbedesignedasspecialmomentresistingframes(SMRF).

b) InSeismicZone2theyshall,asaminimum,beintermediatemomentresistingframes(IMRF).

20
 Chapter1

1.7.3.6 ANCHORAGEOFCONCRETEANDMASONRYSTRUCTURALWALLS
The concrete and masonry structural walls shall be anchored to supporting construction. The anchorage shall
provide a positive direct connection between the wall and floor or roof and shall be capable of resisting the
horizontal forces specified in Secs 2.4.13 and 2.5.17, or a minimum force of 4.09 kN/m of wall. Walls shall be
designedtoresistbendingbetweenanchorswheretheanchorspacingexceeds1.2m.Inmasonrywallsofhollow
units or cavity walls, anchors shall be embedded in a reinforced grouted structural element of the wall.
Deformations of the floor and roof diaphragms shall be considered in the design of the supported walls and the
anchorageforcesinthediaphragmsshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSec1.7.3.9below.

1.7.3.7 BOUNDARYMEMBERS
Specially detailed boundary members shall be considered for shearwalls and shearwall elements whenever their
designisgovernedbyflexure.

1.7.3.8 FLOORANDROOFDIAPHRAGMS
Deflection in the plane of the diaphragm shall not exceed the permissible deflection of the attached elements.
Permissible deflection shall be that deflection which will permit the attached element to maintain its structural
integrityundertheindividualloadingandcontinuetosupporttheprescribedloads.Designofdiaphragmsshallalso
complywiththefollowingrequirements.

a) DiaphragmForces:DiaphragmsshallbedesignedtoresisttheseismicforcesgiveninSec2.5or
forsimilarnonseismiclateralforces,whicheverisgreater.

b) DiaphragmTies:Diaphragmssupportingconcreteormasonrywallsshallhavecontinuousties,or
struts between the diaphragm chords to distribute the anchorage forces specified in Sec 1.7.3.6
above.Addedchordsmaybeprovidedtoformsubdiaphragmstotransmittheanchorageforcesto
themaincrossties.

c) Wood Diaphragms : Where wood diaphragms are used to laterally support concrete or masonry
walls,theanchorageshallconformtoSec1.7.3.6above.InseismicZones2,3and4thefollowing
requirementsshallalsoapply:

i. Anchorageshallnotbeaccomplishedbyuseoftoenailsornailssubjecttowithdrawal,
norshallwoodledgersorframingbeusedincrossgrainbendingorcrossgraintension.

ii. The continuous ties required by paragraph (b) above, shall be in addition to the
diaphragmsheathing.
d) Structureshavingirregularities

i) ForstructuresassignedtoSeismicDesignCategoryDandhavingaplanirregularityofType
I,II,III,orIVinTable1.3.3oraverticalstructuralirregularityofTypeIVinTable1.3.2,the
designforcesdeterminedfromSection2.5.9shallbeincreased25percentforconnections
of diaphragms to vertical elements and to collectors and for connections of collectors to
the vertical elements. Collectors and their connections also shall be designed for these
increased forces unless they are designed for the load combinations with overstrength
factor.

ii) For structures having a plan irregularity of Type II in Table 1.3.3, diaphragm chords and
collectorsshallbedesignedconsideringindependentmovementofanyprojectingwingsof

21
Part6

thestructure.Eachofthesediaphragmelementsshallbedesignedforthemoresevereof
thefollowingcases:

1. Motionoftheprojectingwingsinthesamedirection.

2. Motionoftheprojectingwingsinopposingdirections.
Exception:

ThisrequirementmaybedeemedtobesatisfiediftheproceduresofSec2.5.10whenseismicforcesarepresent,in
conjunctionwithathreedimensionalmodel,havebeenusedtodeterminethelateralseismicforcesfordesign.

1.7.3.9 FRAMINGBELOWTHEBASE
Whenstructuralframingscontinuebelowthebase,thefollowingrequirementsshallbesatisfied.

a. FramingbetweentheBaseandtheFoundation:Thestrengthandstiffnessoftheframingbetween
thebaseandthefoundationshallnotbelessthanthatofthesuperstructure.Thespecialdetailing
requirements of Sec 8.3 or 10.20, as appropriate for reinforced concrete or steel, shall apply to
columns supporting discontinuous lateral force resisting elements and to SMRF, IMRF, and EBF
system elements below the base which are required to transmit the forcesresulting fromlateral
loadstothefoundation.

b. Foundations: The foundation shall be capable of transmitting the design base shear and the
overturning forces from the superstructure into the supporting soil, but the short term dynamic
nature of the loads may be taken into account in establishing the soil properties. Sec 1.8 below
prescribestheadditionalrequirementsforspecifictypesoffoundationconstruction.

1.8 FOUNDATIONDESIGNREQUIREMENTS
1.8.1 GENERAL
The design andconstruction of foundation, foundation components and connection between thefoundation and
superstructureshallconformtotherequirementsofthissectionandapplicableprovisionsofChapter3andother
portionsofthisCode.

1.8.2 SOILCAPACITIES
Thebearingcapacityofthesoil,orthecapacityofthesoilfoundationsystemincludingfooting,pile,pierorcaisson
andthesoil,shallbesufficienttosupportthestructurewithallprescribedloads,consideringthesettlementofthe
structure. For piles, this refers to pile capacity as determined by pilesoil friction and bearing which may be
determinedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofChapter3.Fortheloadcombinationincludingearthquake,thesoil
capacity shall be sufficient to resist loads at acceptable strains considering both the short time loading and the
dynamicpropertiesofthesoil.Thestressandsettlementofsoilunderappliedloadsshallbedeterminedbasedon
establishedmethodsofSoilMechanics.

1.8.3 SUPERSTRUCTURETOFOUNDATIONCONNECTION
Theconnectionofsuperstructureelementstothefoundationshallbeadequatetotransmittothefoundationthe
forcesforwhichtheelementsarerequiredtobedesigned.

22
 Chapter1

1.8.4 FOUNDATIONSOILINTERFACE
For regular buildings the base overturning moments for the entire structure or for any one of its lateral force
resisting elements, shall not exceed twothirds of the dead load resisting moment. The weight of the earth
superimposedoverfootingsmaybeusedtocalculatethedeadloadresistingmoment.

1.8.5 SPECIALREQUIREMENTSFORFOOTINGS,PILESANDCAISSONSINSEISMIC
ZONES2,3AND4

1.8.5.1 PILESANDCAISSONS
Piles and caissons shall be designed for flexure whenever the top of such members is anticipated to be laterally
displacedbyearthquakemotions.ThecriteriaanddetailingrequirementsofSec8.3forconcreteandSec10.20for
steelshallapplyforalengthofsuchmembersequalto120percentoftheflexurallength.

1.8.5.2 FOOTINGINTERCONNECTION
a. Footingsandpilecapsshallbecompletelyinterconnectedbystruttiesorotherequivalentmeans
torestraintheirlateralmovementsinanyorthogonaldirection.

b. Thestruttiesorotherequivalentmeansasspecifiedin(a)above,shallbecapableofresistingin
tensionorcompressionaforcenotlessthan10%ofthelargerfootingorcolumnloadunlessitcan
bedemonstratedthatequivalentrestraintcanbeprovidedbyfrictionalandpassivesoilresistance
orbyotherestablishedmeans.

1.8.6 RETAININGWALLDESIGN
Retainingwallsshallbedesignedtoresistthelateralpressureoftheretainedmaterial,underdrainedorundrained
conditions and including surcharge, in accordance with established engineering practice. For such walls, the
minimumfactorofsafetyagainstbaseoverturningandslidingduetoappliedearthpressureshallbe1.5.

1.9 DESIGNANDCONSTRUCTIONREVIEW
Everybuildingorstructuredesignedshallhaveitsdesigndocumentspreparedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsof
Sec1.9.1.Theminimumrequirementsfordesignreviewandconstructionobservationshallbethosesetforthunder
Sec1.9.2and1.9.3respectively.

1.9.1 DESIGNDOCUMENT
The design documents shall be prepared and signed by the engineer responsible for the structural design of any
building or structure intended for construction. The design documents shall include a design report, material
specificationsandasetofstructuraldrawings,whichshallbepreparedincompliancewithSec1.9.2and1.9.3below
forsubmittaltotheconcernedauthority.Forthepurposeofthisprovision,theconcernedauthorityshallbeeither
personsfromthegovernmentapprovalagencyfortheconstruction,ortheownerofthebuildingorthestructure,or
oneofhisrepresentatives.

1.9.2 DESIGNREPORT
Thedesignreportshallcontainthedescriptionofthestructuraldesignwithbasic designinformationasprovided
below,sothatanyotherstructuraldesignengineerwillbeabletoindependentlyverifythedesignparametersand
themembersizesusingthesebasicinformation.Thedesignreportshallinclude,butnotbelimitedto,thefollowing
:

23
Part6

a) Name and governing edition of this Code and other referenced standards, and the specific
portions, stating chapter, section, clause etc. of these Code and standards including any
specialistreportusedforthestructuraldesign.

b) Methodsusedforthecalculationofallappliedloadsalongwithbasicloadcoefficientsand
other basic information including any assumption or judgment made under special
circumstances.

c) A drawing of the complete mathematical model prepared in accordance with Sec 1.2.7.1 to
represent the structure and showing on it the values, locations and directions of all applied
loads,andlocationofthelateralloadresistingsystemssuchasshearwalls,bracedframesetc.

d) Methodsofstructuralanalysis,andresultsoftheanalysissuchasshear,moment,axialforce
etc., used for proportioning various structural members and joints including foundation
members.

e) Methods of structural design including types and strength of the materials of construction
usedforproportioningthestructuralmembers.

f) Reference of the soil report or any other documents used in the design of the structure,
foundationorcomponentsthereof.

g) Statementsupportingthevalidityoftheabovedesigndocumentswithdateandsignatureof
theengineerresponsibleforthestructuraldesign.

h) When computer programs are used, to any extent, to aid in the analysis or design of the
structure,thefollowingitems,inadditiontoitems(a)through(g)above,shallberequiredto
beincludedinthedesignreport:

i. Asketchofthemathematicalmodelusedtorepresentthestructureinthecomputer
generatedanalysis.

ii. The computer output containing the date of processing, program identification,
identification of structures being analysed, all input data, units and final results. The
computer input data shall be clearly distinguished from those computed in the
program.

iii. A program description containing the information necessary to verify the input data
and interpret the results to determine the nature and extent of the analysis and to
checkwhetherthecomputationscomplywiththeprovisionsofthisCode.

iv. Thefirstsheetofeachcomputerrunshallbesignedbytheengineerresponsibleforthe
structuraldesign.

1.9.3 STRUCTURALDRAWINGSANDMATERIALSPECIFICATIONS
Thestructuraldrawingsshallinclude,butnotbelimitedto,thefollowing:

a) Thefirstsheetshallcontain:(1)identificationoftheprojecttowhichthebuildingorthestructure,
orportionthereofbelongs,(2)referencetothedesignreportspecifiedinSec1.9.2above,(3)date
ofcompletionofdesign,and(4)identificationandsignaturewithdateoftheengineerresponsible
forthestructuraldesign.

24
 Chapter1

b) The second sheet shall contain detail material specifications showing : (1) Specified compressive
strength of concrete at stated ages or stages of construction for which each part of structure is
designed (2) Specified strength or grade of reinforcement (3) Specified strength of prestressing
tendonsorwires(4)Specifiedstrengthorgradeofsteel(5)Specifiedstrengthsforbolts,weldsetc.
(6) Specified strength of masonry, timber, bamboo, ferrocement (7) Minimum concrete
compressivestrengthattimeofposttensioning(8)Stressingsequenceforposttensioningtendons
(9) General notes indicating clear cover, development lengths of reinforcements, or any other
design parameter relevant to the member or connection details provided in drawings to be
followed,asapplicable,and(10)identificationandsignaturewithdateoftheengineerresponsible
forthestructuraldesign.

c) Drawing sheets, other than the first two, shall include structural details of the elements of the
structure clearly showing all sizes, crosssections and relative locations, connections,
reinforcements, laps, stiffeners, welding types, lengths and locations etc. whichever is applicable
for a particular construction. Floor levels, column centres and offset etc., shall be dimensioned.
Camber of trusses and beams, if required, shall be shown on drawings. For bolt connected
members,connectiontypessuchasslip,critical,tensionorbearingtype,shallbeindicatedonthe
drawing.

d) Drawingsshallbepreparedtoascalelargeenoughtoshowtheinformationclearlyandthescales
shallbemarkedonthedrawingsheets.Ifanyvariationfromthedesignspecificationsprovidedin
sheettwooccurs,thedrawingsheetshallbeprovidedadditionallywiththedesignspecifications
includingmaterialtypesandstrength,clearcoveranddevelopmentlengthsofreinforcements,or
anyotherdesignparameterrelevanttothememberorconnectiondetailsprovidedinthatdrawing
sheet.Eachdrawingsheetshallalsocontainthesignaturewithdateoftheengineerresponsiblefor
thestructuraldesign.

1.9.4 DESIGNREVIEW
ThedesigndocumentsspecifiedinSec1.9.1shallbeavailableforreviewwhenrequiredbytheconcernedauthority.
Review shall be accomplished by an independent structural engineer qualified for this task and appointed by the
concernedauthority.Designreviewshallbeperformedthroughindependentcalculations,basedontheinformation
provided in the design documents prepared and signed by the original structural design engineer, to verify the
designparametersincludingappliedloads,methodsofanalysisanddesign,andfinaldesigndimensionsandother
detailsof the structural elements. The reviewing engineer shall also check thesufficiency andappropriateness of
thesuppliedstructuraldrawingsforconstruction.

1.9.5 CONSTRUCTIONOBSERVATION
Construction observation shall be performed by a responsible person who will be a competent professional
appointedbytheownerofthebuildingorthestructure.Constructionobservationshallinclude,butnotbelimited
to,thefollowing:

a. Specificationofanappropriatetestingandinspectionschedulepreparedandsignedwithdateby
theresponsibleperson;

b. Reviewoftestingandinspectionreports;and

c. Regular site visit to verify the general compliance of the construction work with the structural
drawingsandspecificationsprovidedinSec1.9.3above.

25
 Chapter 2

LOADSONBUILDINGSANDSTRUCTURES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 SCOPE
This chapter specifies the minimum design forces including dead load, live load, wind and earthquake loads,
miscellaneousloadsandtheirvariouscombinations.Theseloadsshallbeapplicableforthedesignofbuildings
andstructuresinconformancewiththegeneraldesignrequirementsprovidedinChapter1.

2.1.2 LIMITATIONS
Provisionsofthischaptershallgenerallybeappliedtomajorityofbuildingsandotherstructurescoveredinthis
code subject to normally expected loading conditions. For those buildings and structures having unusual
geometricalshapes,responsecharacteristicsorsitelocations,orforthosesubjecttospecialloadingincluding
tornadoes, special dynamic or hydrodynamic loads etc., sitespecific or casespecific data or analysis may be
required to determine the design loads on them. In such cases, and all other cases for which loads are not
specifiedinthischapter,loadinginformationmaybeobtainedfromreliablereferencesorspecialistadvicemay
besought.However,suchloadsshallbeappliedincompliancewiththeprovisionsofotherpartsorsectionsof
thisCode.

2.2 DEADLOADS
2.2.1 GENERAL
Theminimumdesigndeadloadforbuildingsandportionsthereofshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththe
provisionsofthissection.Inaddition,designoftheoverallstructureanditsprimaryloadresistingsystemsshall
conformtothegeneraldesignprovisionsgiveninChapter1.

2.2.2 DEFINITION
DeadLoadistheverticalloadduetotheweightofpermanentstructuralandnonstructuralcomponentsand
attachmentsofabuildingsuchaswalls,floors,ceilings,permanentpartitionsandfixedserviceequipmentetc.

2.2.3 ASSESSMENTOFDEADLOAD
Deadloadforastructuralmembershallbeassessedbasedontheforcesdueto:

weightofthememberitself,

weightofallmaterialsofconstructionincorporatedintothebuildingtobesupportedpermanentlyby
themember,

weightofpermanentpartitions,

weightoffixedserviceequipment,and

neteffectofprestressing.

Part6

2.2.4 WEIGHTOFMATERIALSANDCONSTRUCTIONS
Inestimatingdeadloads,theactualweightsofmaterialsandconstructionsshallbeused,providedthatinthe
absenceofdefiniteinformation,theweightsgiveninTables2.2.1and2.2.2shallbeassumedforthepurposes
ofdesign.

Table2.2.1:UnitWeightofBasicMaterials

Unitweight Unit
Material (kN/m3) Material Weight
(kN/m3)
Aluminium 27.0 Granite,Basalt 26.4
Asphalt 21.2 Ironcast 70.7
Brass 83.6 wrought 75.4
Bronze 87.7 Lead 111.0
Brick 18.9 Limestone 24.5
Cement 14.7 Marble 26.4
Coal,loose 8.8 Sand,dry 15.7
Concretestoneaggregate(unreinforced) 22.8* Sandstone 22.6
brickaggregate(unreinforced) 20.4* Slate 28.3
Copper 86.4 Steel 77.0
Cork,normal 1.7 StainlessSteel 78.75
Cork,compressed 3.7 Timber 5.911.0
Glass,window(sodalime) 25.5 Zinc 70.0
*forreinforcedconcrete,add0.63kN/m3foreach1%byvolumeofmainreinforcement

2.2.5 WEIGHTOFPERMANENTPARTITIONS
When partition walls are indicated on the plans, their weight shall be considered as dead load acting as
concentratedlineloadsintheiractualpositionsonthefloor.Theloadsduetoanticipatedpartitionwalls,which
arenotindicatedontheplans,shallbetreatedasliveloadsanddeterminedinaccordancewithSec2.3.2.4.

2.2.6 WEIGHTOFFIXEDSERVICEEQUIPMENT
Weights of fixed service equipment and other permanent machinery, such as electrical feeders and other
machinery,heating,ventilatingandairconditioningsystems,liftsandescalators,plumbingstacksandrisersetc.
shallbeincludedasdeadloadwheneversuchequipmentaresupportedbystructuralmembers.

2.2.7 ADDITIONALLOADS
In evaluating the final dead loads on a structural member for design purposes,allowances shall be made for
additional loads resulting from the (i) difference between the prescribed and the actual weights of the
membersandconstructionmaterials;(ii)inclusionoffutureinstallations;(iii)changesinoccupancyoruseof
buildings;and(iv)inclusionofstructuralandnonstructuralmembersnotcoveredinSec2.2.2and2.2.3.

2.3 LIVELOADS
2.3.1 GENERAL
Theliveloadsusedforthestructuraldesignoffloors,roofandthesupportingmembersshallbethegreatest
appliedloadsarisingfromtheintendeduseoroccupancyofthebuilding,orfromthestackingofmaterialsand
the use of equipment and propping during construction, but shall not be less than the minimum design live
loads set out by the provisions of this section. For the design of structural members for forces including live
loads,requirementsoftherelevantsectionsofChapter1shallalsobefulfilled.

2
 Chapter2

Table2.2.2DeadLoad
Weightper Weight
Material/Component/Member UnitArea Material per
(kN/m2) UnitArea
(kN/m2)
Floor WallsandPartitions
Asphalt,25mmthick 0.526 Acrylic resin sheet, flat, per mm 0.012
Claytiling,13mmthick 0.268 thickness
Concreteslab(stoneaggregate)* Asbestoscementsheeting 0.072
solid,100mmthick 2.360 4.5mmthick 0.106
solid,150mmthick 3.540 6.0mmthick
Galvanizedsteelfloordeck(excl.topping) 0.1470.383 Brickmasonrywork,excl.plaster 1.910
Magnesiumoxychloride burnt clay, per 100 mm 1.980
normal(sawdustfiller),25mmthick 0.345 thickness
heavyduty(mineralfiller),25mmthick 0.527 sandlime, per 100 mm 2.360
Terrazzopaving16mmthick 0.431 thickness 3.540
Concrete(stoneaggregate)* 5.900
Roof 100mmthick 0.034
Acrylicresinsheet,corrugated 150mmthick 0.092
3mmthick,standardcorrugations 0.043 250mmthick 0.269
3mmthick,deepcorrugations 0.062 Fibre insulation board, per 10 mm 0.961
Asbestoscement,corrugatedsheeting thickness 0.075
(incl.lapandfastenings) Fibrous plaster board, per 10 mm 0.092
6mmthick(standardcorrugations) 0.134 thickness 0.061
6mmthick(deepcorrugations) 0.158 Glass,per10mmthickness
Aluminium,corrugatedsheeting Hardboard,per10mmthickness
(incl.lapandfastenings) Particle or flake board, per 10 mm 0.081
1.2mmthick 0.048 thickness 0.287
0.8mmthick 0.028 Plasterboard,per10mmthickness 0.480
0.6mmthick 0.024 Plywood,per10mmthickness
Aluminiumsheet(plain)
1.2mmthick 0.033 Ceiling
1.0mmthick 0.024 Fibrousplaster,10mmthick 0.019
0.8mmthick 0.019 Cementplaster,13mmthick
Bituminousfelt(5ply)andgravel 0.431 Suspendedmetallathandplaster 0.230
Slates (twofacedincl.studding) 0.191
4.7mmthick 0.335 0.153
9.5mmthick 0.671 Miscellaneous 0.151
Steelsheet,flatgalvanized Felt(insulating),per10mmthickness
1.00mmthick 0.082 Plaster 0.671
0.80mmthick 0.067 cement,per10mmthickness 0.995
0.60mmthick 0.053 lime,per10mmthickness 1.388
Steel,galvanizedstd.corrugatedsheeting PVCsheet,per10mmthickness
(incl.lapandfastenings) Rubberpaving,per10mmthickness
1.0mmthick 0.120 TerracottaHollowBlockMasonry
0.8mmthick 0.096 75mmthick
0.6mmthick 0.077 100mmthick
Tiles 150mmthick
terracotta(Frenchpattern) 0.575
concrete,25mmthick 0.527
claytiles 0.60.9
*forbrickaggregate,90%ofthelistedvaluesmaybeused.

2.3.2 DEFINITION
Live load is the load superimposed by the use or occupancy of the building not including the environmental
loadssuchaswindload,rainload,earthquakeloadordeadload.

2.3.3 MINIMUMFLOORLIVELOADS
The minimum floor live loads shall be the greatest actual imposed loads resulting from the intended use or
occupancyofthefloor,andshallnotbelessthantheuniformlydistributedloadpatternsspecifiedinSec2.3.4
ortheconcentratedloadsspecifiedinSec2.3.5whicheverproducesthemostcriticaleffect.Theliveloadsshall
beassumedtoactverticallyupontheareaprojectedonahorizontalplane.

3
Part6
Table2.3.1 MinimumUniformlyDistributedLiveLoads,AndMinimumConcentratedLiveLoads
OccupancyorUse Uniform Conc.
kN/m2 kN
Apartments(seeResidential)
Accessfloorsystems
Officeuse 2.4 8.9
Computeruse 4.79 8.9
Armoriesanddrillrooms 7.18
Assemblyareasandtheaters
Fixedseats(fastenedtofloor) 2.87
Lobbies 4.79
Movableseats 4.79
Platforms(assembly) 4.79
Stagefloors 7.18
Balconies(exterior) 4.79
Ononeandtwofamilyresidencesonly,andnotexceeding19.3m2 2.87
Bowlingalleys,poolrooms,andsimilarrecreationalareas 3.59
Catwalksformaintenanceaccess 1.92 1.33
Corridors
Firstfloor 4.79
Otherfloors,sameasoccupancyservedexceptasindicated
Dancehallsandballrooms 4.79
Decks(patioandroof)
Sameasareaserved,orforthetypeofoccupancyaccommodated
Diningroomsandrestaurants 4.79
Dwellings(seeResidential)
Elevatormachineroomgrating(onareaof2,580mm2) 1.33

Finishlightfloorplateconstruction (onareaof645mm2) 0.89

Fireescapes 4.79
Onsinglefamilydwellingsonly 1.92
Fixedladders SeeSection2.3.11
Garages(passengervehiclesonly)Trucksandbuses 1.92a,b
Grandstands(seeStadiumsandarenas,Bleachers)
Gymnasiumsmainfloorsandbalconies 4.79
Handrails,guardrails,andgrabbars SeeSection2.3.11
Hospitals
Operatingrooms,laboratories 2.87 4.45
Patientrooms 1.92 4.45
Corridorsabovefirstfloor 3.83 4.45
Hotels(seeResidential)
Libraries
Readingrooms 2.87 4.45
Stackrooms 7.18c 4.45
Corridorsabovefirstfloor 3.83 4.45
Manufacturing
Light 6.00 8.90
Heavy 11.97 13.40
Marquees 3.59
OfficeBuildings
Fileandcomputerroomsshallbedesignedforheavierloads basedonanticipated
occupancy

Lobbiesandfirstfloorcorridors 4.79 8.90

Offices 2.40 8.90
Corridorsabovefirstfloor 3.83 8.90

4
 Chapter2

Table2.3.1 MinimumUniformlyDistributedLiveLoads,AndMinimumConcentratedLiveLoads(Contd.)
PenalInstitutions
Cellblocks 1.92
Corridors 4.79
Residential
Dwellings(oneandtwofamily)
Uninhabitableatticswithoutstorage 0.48
Uninhabitableatticswithstorage 0.96
Habitableatticsandsleepingareas 1.44
Allotherareasexceptstairsandbalconies 1.92

Hotelsandmultifamilyhouses
Privateroomsandcorridorsservingthem 1.92
Publicroomsandcorridorsservingthem 4.79

Reviewingstands,grandstands,andbleachers 4.79d
Roofs
Ordinaryflat,pitched,andcurvedroofs 0.96h
Roofsusedforpromenadepurposes 2.87
Roofsusedforroofgardensorassemblypurposes 4.79
Roofsusedforotherspecialpurposes i i
Awningsandcanopies
Fabricconstructionsupportedbyalightweightrigidskeletonstructure 0.24(nonreduceable)
Allotherconstruction 0.96
Primaryroofmembers,exposedtoaworkfloor
Singlepanelpointoflowerchordofrooftrussesoranypointalongprimary 8.9
structuralmemberssupportingroofsovermanufacturing,storage
warehouses,andrepairgarages
Allotheroccupancies 1.33
Allroofsurfacessubjecttomaintenance workers 1.33
Schools
Classrooms 1.92 4.45
Corridorsabovefirstfloor 3.83 4.45
Firstfloorcorridors 4.79 4.45
Scuttles,skylightribs,andaccessibleceilings 0.89
Sidewalks,vehiculardriveways,andyardssubjecttotrucking 11.97e 35.60f
Stadiumsandarenas
Bleachers 4.79d
Fixedseats(fastenedtofloor)
2.87d
Stairsandexitways 4.79 g
Oneandtwofamilyresidencesonly 1.92
Storageareasaboveceilings 0.96
Storagewarehouses(shallbedesignedforheavierloadsifrequiredfor
anticipatedstorage)
Light 6.00
Heavy 11.97
Stores
Retail
Firstfloor 4.79 4.45
Upper loors 3.59 4.45
Wholesale,allfloors 6.00 4.45
Vehiclebarriers SeeSection2.3.11
Walkwaysandelevatedplatforms(otherthanexitways) 2.87
Yardsandterraces,pedestrian 4.79
aFloorsingaragesorportionsofabuildingusedforthestorageofmotorvehiclesshallbedesignedfortheuniformly
distributedliveloadsofTable2.3.1orthefollowingconcentratedload:(1)forgaragesrestrictedtopassengervehicles
accommodatingnotmorethanninepassengers,13.35kNactingonanareaof114mmby114mmfootprintofajack;
and(2)formechanicalparkingstructureswithoutslabordeckthatareusedforstoringpassengercaronly,10kNper
wheel.

5
Part6
bGaragesaccommodatingtrucksandbusesshallbedesignedinaccordancewithanapprovedmethod,whichcontains
provisionsfortruckandbusloadings.
cTheloadingappliestostackroomfloorsthatsupportnonmobile,doublefacedlibrarybookstackssubjecttothe
followinglimitations:(1)Thenominalbook stackunitheightshallnotexceed2290mm;(2)thenominalshelfdepth
shallnotexceed305mmforeachface;and(3)parallelrowsof doublefacedbookstacksshallbeseparatedbyaisles
notlessthan914mmwide.
dInadditiontotheverticalliveloads,thedesignshallincludehorizontalswayingforcesappliedtoeachrowofthe
seatsasfollows:0.350kNperlinearmeterofseatappliedinadirectionparalleltoeachrowofseatsand0.15kNper
linearmeterofseatappliedinadirectionperpendiculartoeachrowofseats.Theparallelandperpendicular
horizontalswayingforcesneednotbeappliedsimultaneously.
eOtheruniformloadsinaccordancewithanapprovedmethod,whichcontainsprovisionsfortruckloadings,shallalso
beconsideredwhereappropriate.
fTheconcentratedwheelloadshallbeappliedonanareaof114mmby114mmfootprintofajack.
gMinimumconcentratedloadonstairtreads(onareaof2,580mm2)is1.33kN.
hWhereuniformroofliveloadsarereducedtolessthan1.0kN/m2inaccordancewithSection2.3.14.1andare
appliedtothedesignofstructural membersarrangedsoastocreatecontinuity,thereducedroofliveloadshallbe
appliedtoadjacentspansortoalternatespans,whicheverproducesthegreatest unfavorableeffect.
iRoofsusedforotherspecialpurposesshallbedesignedforappropriateloadsasapprovedbytheauthorityhaving
jurisdiction.

2.3.4 UNIFORMLYDISTRIBUTEDLOADS
The uniformly distributed live load shall not be less than the values listed in Table 2.3.1, reduced as may be
specifiedinSec2.3.13,applieduniformlyovertheentireareaofthefloor,oranyportionthereoftoproduce
themostadverseeffectsinthememberconcerned.

2.3.5 CONCENTRATEDLOADS
The concentrated loadto beappliednonconcurrently with the uniformly distributed load givenin Sec 2.3.4,
shall not be less than that listed in Table 2.3.1. Unless otherwise specified in Table 2.3.1 or in the following
paragraph,theconcentratedloadshallbeappliedoveranareaof300mmx300mmandshallbelocatedsoas
toproducethemaximumstressconditionsinthestructuralmembers.

Inareaswherevehiclesareusedorstored,suchascarparkinggarages,ramps,repairshopsetc.,provisionshall
bemadeforconcentratedloadsconsistingoftwoormoreloadsspacednominally1.5moncentresinabsence
oftheuniformliveloads.Eachloadshallbe40percentofthegrossweightofthemaximumsizevehicletobe
accommodated and applied over an area of 750 mm x 750 mm. For the storage of private or pleasuretype
vehicles without repair or fuelling, floors shall be investigated in the absence of the uniform live load, for a
minimumconcentratedwheelloadof9kNspaced1.5moncentres,appliedoveranareaof750mmx750
mm. The uniform live loads for these cases are provided in Table 2.3.1 The condition of concentrated or
uniformliveloadproducingthegreaterstressesshallgovern.

2.3.6 PROVISIONFORPARTITIONWALLS
Whenpartitions,not indicatedonthe plans,areanticipatedtobeplacedonthefloors,theirweightshallbe
included as an additional live load acting as concentrated line loads in an arrangement producing the most
severeeffectonthefloor,unlessitcanbeshownthatamorefavourablearrangementofthepartitionsshall
prevailduringthefutureuseofthefloor.

Inthecaseoflightpartitions,whereinthetotalweightpermetrerunisnotgreaterthan5.5kN,auniformly
distributedliveloadmaybeappliedonthefloorinlieuoftheconcentratedlineloadsspecifiedabove.Such
uniformliveloadpersquaremetreshallbeatleast33%oftheweightpermetrerunofthepartitions,subject
toaminimumof1.2kN/m2.

6
 Chapter2

2.3.7 MORETHANONEOCCUPANCY
Whereanareaofafloorisintendedfortwoormoreoccupanciesatdifferenttimes,thevaluetobeusedfrom
Table2.3.1shallbethegreatestvalueforanyoftheoccupanciesconcerned.

2.3.8 MINIMUMROOFLIVELOADS
Roofliveloadsshallbeassumedtoactverticallyovertheareaprojectedbytherooforanyportionofitupona
horizontalplane,andshallbedeterminedasspecifiedinthefollowingsections:

2.3.8.1 REGULARPURPOSEFLAT,PITCHEDANDCURVEDROOFS
Liveloadsonregularpurposeroofsshallbethegreatestappliedloadsproducedduringusebymovableobjects
suchasplantersandpeople,andthoseinducedduringmaintenancebyworkers,equipmentandmaterialsbut
shallnotbelessthanthosegiveninTable2.3.2.

2.3.8.2 SPECIALPURPOSEROOFS
Forspecialpurposeroofs,liveloadsshallbeestimatedbasedontheactualweightdependingonthetypeof
use,butshallnotbelessthanthefollowingvalues:

a)roofsusedforpromenadepurposes 3.0kN/m2

b)roofsusedforassemblypurposes 5.0kN/m2

c)roofsusedforgardens 5.0kN/m2

d)roofsusedforotherspecialpurposestobedeterminedasperSec2.3.9

2.3.8.3 ACCESSIBLEROOFSUPPORTINGMEMBERS
Rooftrussesoranyotherprimaryroofsupportingmemberbeneathwhichafullceilingisnotprovided,shallbe
capableofsupportingsafely,inadditiontootherroofloads,aconcentratedloadatthelocationsasspecified
below:
a) Industrial, Storage and Garage Buildings Any single panel point of the 9.0kN
lowerchordofarooftruss,oranypointofotherprimaryroofsupporting
member

b) BuildingwithOtherOccupanciesAnysinglepanelpointofthelowerchord 1.3kN
ofarooftruss,oranypointofotherprimaryroofsupportingmember

2.3.9 LOADSNOTSPECIFIED
Liveloads,notspecifiedforusesoroccupanciesinSec2.3.3,2.3.4and2.3.5,shallbedeterminedfromloads
resultingfrom:
a) weightoftheprobableassemblyofpersons;
b) weightoftheprobableaccumulationofequipmentandfurniture,and
c) weightoftheprobablestorageofmaterials.

2.3.10 PARTIALLOADINGANDOTHERLOADINGARRANGEMENTS
The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live load applied only to a portion of the length or area of a
structure or member shall be considered, if it produces a more unfavourable effect than the same intensity
appliedoverthefulllengthorareaofthestructureormember.
Where uniformly distributed live loads are used in the design of continuous members and their supports,
considerationshallbegiventofulldeadloadonallspansincombinationwithfullliveloadsonadjacentspans
andonalternatespanswhicheverproducesamoreunfavourableeffect.

7
Part6

Table2.3.2:MinimumRoofLiveLoads(1)
TypeandSlopeofRoof Distributed Concentrated
Load,kN/m2 Load,kN
I Flatroof(slope=0) 1.5 1.8

II 1.Pitchedorslopedroof(0<slope<1/3) 1.0 0.9
2Archedroofordome(rise<1/8span)

III 1.Pitchedorslopedroof(1/3slope<1.0) 0.8 0.9
2.Archedroofordome(1/8rise<3/8span)

IV 1.Pitchedorslopedroof(slope1.0) 0.6 0.9
2.Archedroofordome(rise3/8span)

V Greenhouse,andagriculturebuildings 0.5 0.9

VI Canopiesandawnings,exceptthosewith sameasgiveninIthroughIV
clothcovers abovebasedonthetypeand
slope.
Note:(1) GreaterofthisloadandrainloadasspecifiedinSec2.6.3shallbetakenasthedesignliveload
forroof.Thedistributedloadshallbeappliedovertheareaoftheroofprojecteduponahorizontalplane
and shall not be applied simultaneously with the concentrated load. The concentrated load shall be
assumedtoactupona300mmx300mmareaandneednotbeconsideredforroofscapableoflaterally
distributingtheload,e.g.reinforcedconcreteslabs.

2.3.11 OTHERLIVELOADS
Liveloadsonmiscellaneousstructuresandcomponents,suchashandrailsandsupportingmembers,parapets
and balustrades, ceilings, skylights and supports, and the like, shall be determined from the analysis of the
actualloadsonthem,butshallnotbelessthanthosegiveninTable2.3.3.

2.3.12 IMPACTANDDYNAMICLOADS
The live loads specifiedin Sec 2.3.3shall be assumed to include allowances for impacts arising from normal
usesonly.However,forcesimposedbyunusualvibrationsandimpactsresultingfromtheoperationofinstalled
machineryandequipmentshallbedeterminedseparatelyandtreatedasadditionalliveloads.Liveloadsdueto
vibrationorimpactshallbedeterminedbydynamicanalysisofthesupportingmemberorstructureincluding
foundations, or from the recommended values supplied by the manufacture of the particular equipment or
machinery.Inabsenceofadefiniteinformation,valueslistedinTable2.3.4forsomecommonequipment,shall
beusedfordesignpurposes.

2.3.13 REDUCTIONOFLIVELOADS
Exceptforroofuniformliveloads,allotherminimumuniformlydistributedliveloads,LoinTable2.3.1,maybe
reducedaccordingtothefollowingprovisions.

2.3.13.1 GENERAL
SubjecttothelimitationsofSections2.3.13.2through2.3.13.5,membersforwhichavalueofKLLATis37.16m2
ormorearepermittedtobedesignedforareducedliveloadinaccordancewiththefollowingformula:
.
0.25 (2.3.1)
2
where,L=reduceddesignliveloadperm ofareasupportedbythemember;L0=unreduceddesignliveload
perm2ofareasupportedbythemember(seeTable2.3.1);KLL=liveloadelementfactor(seeTable2.3.5);AT=
tributaryareainm2.Lshallnotbelessthan0.50L0formemberssupportingonefloorandLshallnotbelessthan
0.40L0formemberssupportingtwoormorefloors.

8
 Chapter2

Table2.3.3:MiscellaneousLiveLoads
StructuralMemberorComponent LiveLoad(1)
(kN/m)
1. Handrails,parapetsandsupports:
a)Lightaccessstairs,gangwaysetc.
i) width0.6m 0.25
ii) width>0.6m 0.35

b)Staircasesotherthanin(a)above,ramps,balconies:
i) Singledwellingandprivate 0.35
ii) Staircasesinresidentialbuildings 0.35
iii) Balconiesorportionthereof,standsetc.having 1.5
fixedseatswithin0.55mofthebarrier
vi) Publicassemblybuildingsincludingtheatres, 3.0
cinemas,assemblyhalls,stadiums,mosques,
churches,schoolsetc.
vi) Buildingsandoccupanciesotherthan(i)through(iv)above 0.75

2. Vehiclebarriersforcarparksandramps:
a) Forvehicleshavinggrossmass2500kg 100(2)
b) Forvehicleshavinggrossmass>2500kg
c) Forrampsofcarparksetc. 165(2)
seenote(3)
Note: (1) Theseloadsshallbeappliednonconcurrentlyalonghorizontalandverticaldirections,
exceptasspecifiedinnote(2)below.
(2) Theseloadsshallbeappliedonlyinthehorizontaldirection,uniformlydistributedover
anylengthof1.5mofabarrierandshallbeconsideredtoactatbumperheight.Forcase
2(a)bumperheightmaybetakenas375mmabovefloorlevel.
(3) Barrierstoaccessrampsofcarparksshallbedesignedforhorizontalforcesequalto
50%ofthosegivenin2(a)and2(b)appliedatalevelof610mmabovetheramp.
Barrierstostraightexitrampsexceeding20minlengthshallbedesignedfor
horizontalforcesequaltotwicethevaluesgivenin2(a)and2(b).

Table2.3.4:MinimumLiveLoadsonSupportsandConnectionsofEquipmentduetoImpact(1)
EquipmentorMachinery Additionalloadduetoimpactaspercentage
ofstaticloadincludingselfweight
Vertical Horizontal
1. Lifts,hoistsandrelatedoperating 100%
machinery
2. Lightmachinery(shaftormotordriven) 20%
3. Reciprocatingmachinery,orpowerdriven 50%
units.
4. Hangerssupportingfloorsandbalconies 33%
5. Cranes:
a)Electricoverheadcranes 25%of i)Transversetotherail:
maximum 20%oftheweightoftrolley
wheelload andliftedloadonly,applied
onehalfatthetopofeachrail

ii)Alongtherail:
10%ofmaximumwheelload
appliedatthetopofeachrail

b)Manuallyoperatedcranes 50%ofthe 50%ofthe
valuesin(a) valuesin(a)above
above

c)Caboperatedtravellingcranes 25%

Notapplicable

Note:(1) Alltheseloadsshallbeincreasedifsorecommendedbythemanufacturer.For
machineryandequipmentnotlisted,impactloadsshallbethoserecommendedby
themanufacturers,ordeterminedbydynamicanalysis.

9
Part6

2.3.13.2 HEAVYLIVELOADS.

2
Liveloadsthatexceed4.79kN/m shallnotbereduced.

EXCEPTION:Liveloadsformemberssupportingtwoormorefloorsmaybereducedby20percent.

2.3.13.3 PASSENGERCARGARAGES.

Theliveloadsshallnotbereducedinpassengercargarages.

EXCEPTION:Liveloadsformemberssupportingtwoormorefloorsmaybereducedby20percent.

2.3.13.4 SPECIALOCCUPANCIES.

Liveloadsof4.79kN/m2orlessshallnotbereducedinpublicassemblyoccupancies.
Thereshallbenoreductionofliveloadsforcycloneshelters.

2.3.13.5 LIMITATIONSONONEWAYSLABS.

Thetributaryarea,AT,foronewayslabsshallnotexceedanareadefinedbytheslabspantimesawidthnormal
tothespanof1.5timestheslabspan.

2.3.14 REDUCTIONINROOFLIVELOADS
Theminimumuniformlydistributedroofliveloads,LoinTable2.3.1,arepermittedtobereducedaccordingto
thefollowingprovisions.

2.3.14.1 FLAT,PITCHED,ANDCURVEDROOFS.
Ordinaryflat,pitched,andcurvedroofsarepermittedtobedesignedforareducedroofliveload,asspecified
inEq.2.3.2 orothercontrolling combinationsof loads, as discussed laterin this chapter, whichever produces
the greater load. In structures such as greenhouses, where special scaffolding is used as a work surface for
workmenandmaterialsduringmaintenanceandrepairoperations,alowerroofloadthanspecifiedinEq.2.3.2
shallnotbeusedunlessapprovedbytheauthorityhavingjurisdiction.Onsuchstructures,theminimumroof
liveloadshallbe0.58kN/m2.

Lr=LoR1R2where0.58Lr0.96 (2.3.2)

where

Lr=reducedroofliveloadperm2ofhorizontalprojectioninkN/m2

ThereductionfactorsR1andR2shallbedeterminedasfollows:

R1=1forAt18.58m2

=1.20.011Atfor18.58m2<At<55.74m2

=0.6forAt55.74m2

whereAt=tributaryareainm2supportedbyanystructuralmemberand

R2=1forF4

=1.20.05Ffor4<F<12

=0.6forF12

10
 Chapter2

where,forapitchedroof,F=0.12slope,withslopeexpressedinpercentagepointsand,foranarchordome,
F=risetospanratiomultipliedby32.

2.3.14.2 SPECIALPURPOSEROOFS.
Roofsthathaveanoccupancyfunction,suchasroofgardens,assemblypurposes,orotherspecialpurposesare
permittedtohavetheiruniformlydistributedliveloadreducedinaccordancewiththerequirementsofSection
2.3.13.

Table2.3.5LiveLoadElementFactor,KLL

Element KLL
Interiorcolumns 4
Exteriorcolumnswithoutcantileverslabs 4
Edgecolumnswithcantileverslabs 3
Cornercolumnswithcantileverslabs 2
Edgebeamswithoutcantileverslabs 2
Interiorbeams 2
Allothermembersnotidentifiedincluding: 1
Edgebeamswithcantileverslabs
Cantileverbeams
Onewayslabs
Twowayslabs
Memberswithoutprovisionsforcontinuous
sheartransfernormaltotheirspan
aInlieuoftheprecedingvalues,KL L ispermittedtobecalculated.

2.4 WINDLOADS

2.4.1 GENERAL
Scope: Buildings and other structures, including the Main WindForce Resisting System (MWFRS) and all
componentsandcladdingthereof,shallbedesignedandconstructedtoresistwindloadsasspecifiedherein.

Allowed Procedures: The design wind loads for buildings and other structures, including the MWFRS and
componentandcladdingelementsthereof,shallbedeterminedusingoneofthefollowingprocedures:

(1) Method1Simplified Procedure as specified in Section 2.4.4 for buildings and structures meeting the
requirementsspecifiedtherein;

(2) Method 2Analytical Procedure as specified in Section 2.4.5 for buildings and structures meeting the
requirementsspecifiedtherein;

(3)Method3WindTunnelProcedureasspecifiedinSection2.4.18.

WindPressures:Actingonoppositefacesofeachbuildingsurface.Inthecalculationofdesignwindloadsfor
the MWFRS and for components and cladding for buildings, the algebraic sum of the pressures acting on
oppositefacesofeachbuildingsurfaceshallbetakenintoaccount.

2.4.1.1 MINIMUMDESIGNWINDLOADING
Thedesignwindload,determinedbyanyoneoftheproceduresspecifiedinSection2.4.1,shallbenotlessthan
specifiedinthissection.

MainWindForceResistingSystem:ThewindloadtobeusedinthedesignoftheMWFRSforanenclosedor
partially enclosed building or other structure shall not be less than 0.5kN/m2 multiplied by the area of the

11
Part6

building or structure projected onto a vertical plane normalto the assumed wind direction. Thedesign wind
forceforopenbuildingsandotherstructuresshallbenotlessthan0.5kN/m2)multipliedbytheareaAf.

ComponentsandCladding:Thedesignwindpressureforcomponentsandcladdingofbuildingsshallnotbeless
thananetpressureof0.5kN/m2actingineitherdirectionnormaltothesurface.

2.4.2 DEFINITIONS
ThefollowingdefinitionsapplyonlytotheprovisionsofSection2.4:

APPROVED:Acceptabletotheauthorityhavingjurisdiction.

BASICWINDSPEED,V:Threesecondgustspeedat10mabovethegroundinExposureB(seeSection2.4.8.3)
havingareturnperiodof50years.

BUILDING, ENCLOSED: A building that does not comply with the requirements for open or partially enclosed
buildings.

BUILDING ENVELOPE: Cladding, roofing, exterior walls, glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies, skylight
assemblies,andothercomponentsenclosingthebuilding.

BUILDINGANDOTHERSTRUCTURE,FLEXIBLE:Slenderbuildingsandotherstructuresthathaveafundamental
naturalfrequencylessthan1Hz.

BUILDING,LOWRISE:Enclosedorpartiallyenclosedbuildingsthatcomplywiththefollowingconditions:

1.Meanroofheighthlessthanorequalto18.3m.

2.Meanroofheighthdoesnotexceedleasthorizontaldimension.

BUILDING,OPEN:Abuildinghavingeachwallatleast80percentopen.Thisconditionisexpressedforeachwall
bytheequationAo0.8Agwhere

Ao=totalareaofopeningsinawallthatreceivespositiveexternalpressure(m2).

Ag=thegrossareaofthatwallinwhichAoisidentified(m2).

BUILDING,PARTIALLYENCLOSED:Abuildingthatcomplieswithbothofthefollowingconditions:

1.Thetotalareaofopeningsinawallthatreceivespositiveexternalpressureexceedsthesumoftheareasof
openingsinthebalanceofthebuildingenvelope(wallsandroof)bymorethan10percent.

2.Thetotalareaofopeningsinawallthatreceivespositiveexternalpressureexceeds0.37m2or1percentof
the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the balance of the building
envelopedoesnotexceed20percent.

Theseconditionsareexpressedbythefollowingequations:

1.Ao>1.10Aoi

2.Ao>0.37m2or>0.01Ag,whicheverissmaller,

andAoi/Agi0.20

where

Ao,AgareasdefinedforOpenBuilding

Aoi=thesumoftheareasofopeningsinthebuildingenvelope(wallsandroof)notincludingAo,inm2.

Agi=thesumofthegrosssurfaceareasofthebuildingenvelope(wallsandroof)notincludingAg,inm2.

12
 Chapter2

BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURE, REGULAR SHAPED: A building or other structure having no unusual
geometricalirregularityinspatialform.

BUILDING OR OTHER STRUCTURES, RIGID: A building or other structure whose fundamental frequency is
greaterthanorequalto1Hz.

BUILDING, SIMPLE DIAPHRAGM: A building in which both windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted
throughfloorandroofdiaphragmstothesameverticalMWFRS(e.g.,nostructuralseparations).

COMPONENTSANDCLADDING:ElementsofthebuildingenvelopethatdonotqualifyaspartoftheMWFRS.

DESIGNFORCE,F:Equivalentstaticforcetobeusedinthedeterminationofwindloadsforopenbuildingsand
otherstructures.

DESIGNPRESSURE,p:Equivalentstaticpressuretobeusedinthedeterminationofwindloadsforbuildings.

EAVE HEIGHT, h: The distance from the ground surface adjacent to the building to the roof eave line at a
particularwall.Iftheheightoftheeavevariesalongthewall,theaverageheightshallbeused.

EFFECTIVE WIND AREA, A: The area used to determine GCp. For component and cladding elements, the
effectivewindareainFigs.2.4.11through2.4.17and2.4.19isthespanlengthmultipliedbyaneffectivewidth
thatneednotbelessthanonethirdthespanlength.Forcladdingfasteners,theeffectivewindareashallnotbe
greaterthantheareathatistributarytoanindividualfastener.

ESCARPMENT:Alsoknownasscarp,withrespecttotopographiceffectsinSection2.4.9,aclifforsteepslope
generallyseparatingtwolevelsorgentlyslopingareas(seeFig.2.4.4).

FREEROOF:Roof(monoslope,pitched,ortroughed)inanopenbuildingwithnoenclosingwallsunderneaththe
roofsurface.

GLAZING:Glassortransparentortranslucentplasticsheetusedinwindows,doors,skylights,orcurtainwalls.

GLAZING, IMPACT RESISTANT: Glazing that has been shown by testing in accordance with ASTM E1886 and
ASTM E1996 or other approved test methods to withstand the impact of windborne missiles likely to be
generatedinwindbornedebrisregionsduringdesignwinds.

HILL:WithrespecttotopographiceffectsinSection2.4.9,alandsurfacecharacterizedbystrongreliefinany
horizontaldirection(seeFig.2.4.4).

HURRICANE PRONE REGIONS: Areas vulnerable to hurricanes; in Bangladesh these areas include the
Sundarbans,southernpartsofBarisalandPatuakhali,Hatia,Bhola,easternpartsofChittagongandCoxsBazar

IMPACT RESISTANT COVERING: A covering designed to protect glazing, which has been shown by testing in
accordance with ASTM E1886 and ASTM E1996 or other approved test methods to withstand the impact of
windbornedebrismissileslikelytobegeneratedinwindbornedebrisregionsduringdesignwinds.

IMPORTANCEFACTOR,I:Afactorthataccountsforthedegreeofhazardtohumanlifeanddamagetoproperty.

MAIN WINDFORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (MWFRS): An assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide
supportandstabilityfortheoverallstructure.Thesystemgenerallyreceiveswindloadingfrommorethanone
surface.

MEANROOFHEIGHT,h:Theaverageoftheroofeaveheightandtheheighttothehighestpointontheroof
surface,exceptthat,forroofanglesoflessthanorequalto10o,themeanroofheightshallbetheroofheave
height.

OPENINGS:Aperturesorholesinthebuildingenvelopethatallowairtoflowthroughthebuildingenvelopeand
thataredesignedasopenduringdesignwindsasdefinedbytheseprovisions.

RECOGNIZEDLITERATURE:Publishedresearchfindingsandtechnicalpapersthatareapproved.
13
Part6

RIDGE:WithrespecttotopographiceffectsinSection2.4.9,anelongatedcrestofahillcharacterizedbystrong
reliefintwodirections(seeFig.2.4.4).

WINDBORNEDEBRISREGIONS:Areaswithinhurricaneproneregionslocated:

1.Within1.6kmofthecoastalmeanhighwaterlinewherethebasicwindspeedisequaltoorgreaterthan180
km/hor

2.Inareaswherethebasicwindspeedisequaltoorgreaterthan200km/h.

2.4.3 SYMBOLSANDNOTATION
ThefollowingsymbolsandnotationapplyonlytotheprovisionsofSection2.4:

A=effectivewindarea,inm2

Af=areaofopen buildings andotherstructureseither normaltothe winddirectionorprojected ona plane

normaltothewinddirection,inm2.

Ag=thegrossareaofthatwallinwhichAoisidentified,inm2.

Agi=thesumofthegrosssurfaceareasofthebuildingenvelope(wallsandroof)notincludingAg,inm2

Ao=totalareaofopeningsinawallthatreceivespositiveexternalpressure,inm2.

Aoi=thesumoftheareasofopeningsinthebuildingenvelope(wallsandroof)notincludingAo,inm2

Aog=totalareaofopeningsinthebuildingenvelopeinm2

As=grossareaofthesolidfreestandingwallorsolidsign,inm2

a=widthofpressurecoefficientzone,inm.

B=horizontaldimensionofbuildingmeasurednormaltowinddirection,inm.

b=meanhourlywindspeedfactorinEq.2.4.14fromTable2.4.3

=3sgustspeedfactorfromTable2.4.3

Cf=forcecoefficienttobeusedindeterminationofwindloadsforotherstructures

CN=netpressurecoefficienttobeusedindeterminationofwindloadsforopenbuildings

Cp=externalpressurecoefficienttobeusedindeterminationofwindloadsforbuildings

c=turbulenceintensityfactorinEq.2.4.5fromTable2.4.3

D=diameterofacircularstructureormemberinm.

D=depthofprotrudingelementssuchasribsandspoilersinm.

F=designwindforceforotherstructures,inN.

G=gusteffectfactor

Gf=gusteffectfactorforMWFRSsofflexiblebuildingsandotherstructures

GCpn=combinednetpressurecoefficientforaparapet

GCp=productofexternalpressurecoefficientandgusteffectfactortobeusedindeterminationofwindloads
forbuildings

GCpf=productoftheequivalentexternalpressurecoefficientandgusteffectfactortobeusedindetermination
ofwindloadsforMWFRSoflowrisebuildings

14
 Chapter2

GCpi=productofinternalpressurecoefficientandgusteffectfactortobeusedindeterminationofwindloads
forbuildings

gQ=peakfactorforbackgroundresponseinEqs.2.4.4and2.4.8

gR=peakfactorforresonantresponseinEq.2.4.8

gv=peakfactorforwindresponseinEqs.2.4.4and2.4.8

H=heightofhillorescarpmentinFig.2.4.4,inm.

h=meanroofheightofabuildingorheightofotherstructure,exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedforroof
o
angleoflessthanorequalto10 ,inm.

he=roofeaveheightataparticularwall,ortheaverageheightiftheeavevariesalongthewall

I=importancefactor

Iz=intensityofturbulencefromEq.2.4.5

K1,K2,K3=multipliersinFig.2.4.4toobtainKzt

Kd=winddirectionalityfactorinTable2.4.5

Kh=velocitypressureexposurecoefficientevaluatedatheightz=h

Kz=velocitypressureexposurecoefficientevaluatedatheightz

Kzt=topographicfactorasdefinedinSection2.4.9

L=horizontaldimensionofabuildingmeasuredparalleltothewinddirection,inm.

Lh=distanceupwindofcrestofhillorescarpmentinFig.2.4.4towherethedifferenceingroundelevationis
halftheheightofhillorescarpment,inm.

L=integrallengthscaleofturbulence,inm.

Lr=horizontaldimensionofreturncornerforasolidfreestandingwallorsolidsignfromFig.2.4.20,inm.

l=integrallengthscalefactorfromTable2.4.3inm.

N1=reducedfrequencyfromEq.2.4.12

n1=buildingnaturalfrequency,Hz

p=designpressuretobeusedindeterminationofwindloadsforbuildings,inN/m2

pL=windpressureactingonleewardfaceinFig.2.4.9,inN/m2

Pnet=netdesignwindpressurefromEq.2.4.2,inN/m2

Pnet30=netdesignwindpressureforExposureAath=9.1mandI=1.0fromFig.2.4.3,inN/m2.

Pp=combinednetpressureonaparapetfromEq.2.4.20,inN/m2.

Ps=netdesignwindpressurefromEq.2.4.1,inN/m2.

Ps30=simplifieddesignwindpressureforExposureAath=9.1mandI=1.0fromFig.2.4.2,inN/m2.

PW=windpressureactingonwindwardfaceinFig.2.4.9,inN/m2.

Q=backgroundresponsefactorfromEq.2.4.6

q=velocitypressure,inN/m2.

qh=velocitypressureevaluatedatheightz=h,inN/m2

15
Part6

qi=velocitypressureforinternalpressuredetermination,inN/m2.

qp=velocitypressureattopofparapet,inN/m2.

qz=velocitypressureevaluatedatheightzaboveground,inN/m2.

R=resonantresponsefactorfromEq.2.4.10

RB,Rh,RL=valuesfromEq.2.4.13

Ri=reductionfactorfromEq.2.4.16

Rn=valuefromEq.2.4.11

s=verticaldimensionofthesolidfreestandingwallorsolidsignfromFig.2.4.20,inm.

r=risetospanratioforarchedroofs.

V= basicwindspeedobtainedfromFig.2.4.1orTable2.4.1,inm/s.Thebasicwindspeedcorrespondstoa3s
gustspeedat10mabovegroundinExposureCategoryBhavinganannualprobabilityofoccurrenceof
0.02.

Vi=unpartitionedinternalvolumem3

V Z =meanhourlywindspeedatheight ,m/s.

W=widthofbuildinginFigs.2.4.12and2.4.14AandBandwidthofspaninFigs.2.4.13and2.4.15,inm.

X=distancetocenterofpressurefromwindwardedgeinFig.2.4.18,inm.

x=distanceupwindordownwindofcrestinFig.2.4.4,inm.

z=heightabovegroundlevel,inm.

z=equivalentheightofstructure,inm.

zg=nominalheightoftheatmosphericboundarylayerusedinthisstandard.ValuesappearinTable2.4.3

zmin=exposureconstantfromTable2.4.3

=3sgustspeedpowerlawexponentfromTable2.4.3

=reciprocaloffromTable2.4.3

=meanhourlywindspeedpowerlawexponentinEq.2.4.14fromTable2.4.3

=dampingratio,percentcriticalforbuildingsorotherstructures

=ratioofsolidareatogrossareaforsolidfreestandingwall,solidsign,opensign,faceofatrussedtower,or
latticestructure

=adjustmentfactorforbuildingheightandexposurefromFigs.2.4.2and2.4.3

=integrallengthscalepowerlawexponentinEq.2.4.7fromTable2.4.3

=valueusedinEq.2.4.13(seeSection2.4.10.2)

=angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees

v=heighttowidthratioforsolidsign

16
 Chapter2

2.4.4 METHOD1SIMPLIFIEDPROCEDURE

2.4.4.1 SCOPE
Abuildingwhosedesignwindloadsaredeterminedinaccordancewiththissectionshallmeetalltheconditions
of Sections 2.4.4.2 or 2.4.4.3. If a building qualifies only under 2.4.4.2 for design of its components and
cladding,thenitsMWFRSshallbedesignedbyMethod2orMethod3.

Limitations on Wind Speeds: Variation of basic wind speeds with direction shall not be permitted unless
substantiatedbyanyestablishedanalyticalmethodorwindtunneltesting.

2.4.4.2 MAINWINDFORCERESISTINGSYSTEMS
ForthedesignofMWFRSsthebuildingmustmeetallofthefollowingconditions:

1.ThebuildingisasimplediaphragmbuildingasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

2.ThebuildingisalowrisebuildingasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

3. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 2.4.2 and conforms to the windborne debris provisions of
Section2.4.11.3.

4.ThebuildingisaregularshapedbuildingorstructureasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

5.ThebuildingisnotclassifiedasaflexiblebuildingasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

6. The building does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind loading, vortex
shedding,instabilityduetogallopingorflutter;anddoesnothaveasitelocationforwhichchannelingeffectsor
buffetinginthewakeofupwindobstructionswarrantspecialconsideration.

7. The building has an approximately symmetrical crosssection in each direction with either a flat roof or a
gableorhiproofwith45.

8.ThebuildingisexemptedfromtorsionalloadcasesasindicatedinNote5ofFig.2.4.10,orthetorsionalload
casesdefinedinNote5donotcontrolthedesignofanyoftheMWFRSsofthebuilding.

2.4.4.3 COMPONENTSANDCLADDING
Forthedesignofcomponentsandcladdingthebuildingmustmeetallthefollowingconditions:

1.Themeanroofheighthmustbelessthanorequalto18.3m(h18.3m).

2. The building is enclosed as defined in Section 2.4.2 and conforms to the windborne debris provisions of
Section2.4.11.3.

3.ThebuildingisaregularshapedbuildingorstructureasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

4. The building does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind loading, vortex
shedding,instabilityduetogallopingorflutter;anddoesnothaveasitelocationforwhichchannelingeffectsor
buffetinginthewakeofupwindobstructionswarrantspecialconsideration.

5.Thebuildinghaseitheraflatroof,agableroofwith45o,orahiproofwith27o.

2.4.4.4 DESIGNPROCEDURE
1.ThebasicwindspeedVshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.6.Thewindshallbeassumedto
comefromanyhorizontaldirection.

2.AnimportancefactorIshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.7.

3.AnexposurecategoryshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.8.3.

17
Part6

4.Aheightandexposureadjustmentcoefficient,,shallbedeterminedfromFig.2.4.2.

2.4.4.4.1 MainWindForceResistingSystem.
Simplifieddesignwindpressures,ps,fortheMWFRSsoflowrisesimplediaphragmbuildingsrepresentthenet
pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied to the horizontal and vertical projections of building
surfaces as shown in Fig. 2.4.2. For the horizontal pressures (zones A, B, C, D), ps is the combination of the
windwardandleewardnetpressures.psshallbedeterminedbythefollowingequation:

ps=KztIpS30 (2.4.1)

where

=adjustmentfactorforbuildingheightandexposurefromFig.2.4.2

Kzt=topographicfactorasdefinedinSection2.4.9evaluatedatmeanroofheight,h

I=importancefactorasdefinedinSection2.4.7

pS30=simplifieddesignwindpressureforExposureA,ath=9.1m,andforI=1.0,fromFig.2.4.2

MinimumPressures:Theloadeffectsofthedesignwindpressuresfromthissectionshallnotbelessthanthe
minimumloadcasefromSection2.4.4.1assumingthepressures,ps,forzonesA,B,C,andDallequalto+0.5
kN/m2,whileassumingzonesE,F,G,andHallequaltozerokN/m2.

2.4.4.4.2 ComponentsandCladding
Net design wind pressures, Pnet, for the components and cladding of buildings designed using Method 1
represent the net pressures (sum of internal and external) to be applied normal to each building surface as
showninFig.2.4.3.

pnetshallbedeterminedbythefollowingequation:

pnet=KztIPnet30 (2.4.2)

where

=adjustmentfactorforbuildingheightandexposurefromFig.2.4.3

Kzt=topographicfactorasdefinedinSection2.4.9evaluatedatmeanroofheight,h

I=importancefactorasdefinedinSection2.4.7

pnet30=netdesignwindpressureforExposureA,ath=9.1m,andforI=1.0,fromFig.2.4.3

Minimum Pressures : The positive design wind pressures, pnet, from this section shall not be less than +0.5
kN/m2,andthenegativedesignwindpressures,pnet,fromthissectionshallnotbelessthan0.5kN/m2.

2.4.4.4.3 AirPermeableCladding
DesignwindloadsdeterminedfromFig.2.4.3shallbeusedforallairpermeablecladdingunlessapprovedtest
data or the recognized literature demonstrate lower loads for the type of air permeable cladding being
considered.

2.4.5 METHOD2ANALYTICALPROCEDURE

2.4.5.1 SCOPESANDLIMITATIONS
A building or other structure whose design wind loads are determined in accordance with this section shall
meetallofthefollowingconditions:

1.ThebuildingorotherstructureisaregularshapedbuildingorstructureasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

18
 Chapter2

2. The building or other structure does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind
loading, vortex shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; or does not have a site location for which
channelingeffectsorbuffetinginthewakeofupwindobstructionswarrantspecialconsideration.

Theprovisionsofthissectiontakeintoconsiderationtheloadmagnificationeffectcausedbygustsinresonance
withalongwindvibrationsofflexiblebuildingsorotherstructures.Buildingsorotherstructures notmeeting
therequirementsofSection2.4.4,orhavingunusualshapesorresponsecharacteristicsshallbedesignedusing
recognizedliteraturedocumentingsuchwindloadeffectsorshallusethewindtunnelprocedurespecifiedin
Section0.

2.4.5.2 SHIELDING.
There shall be no reductions in velocity pressure due to apparent shielding afforded by buildings and other
structuresorterrainfeatures.

2.4.5.3 AIRPERMEABLECLADDING
DesignwindloadsdeterminedfromSection2.4.5shallbeusedforairpermeablecladdingunlessapprovedtest
dataorrecognizedliteraturedemonstratelowerloadsforthetypeofairpermeablecladdingbeingconsidered.

2.4.5.4 DESIGNPROCEDURE
1. The basic wind speed V and wind directionality factor Kd shall be determined in accordance with Section
2.4.6.

2.AnimportancefactorIshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.7.

3. An exposure category or exposure categories and velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz or Kh, as
applicable,shallbedeterminedforeachwinddirectioninaccordancewithSection2.4.8.

4.AtopographicfactorKztshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.9.

5.AgusteffectfactorGorGf,asapplicable,shallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.10.

6.AnenclosureclassificationshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.11.

7.InternalpressurecoefficientGCpishallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.12.1.

8. External pressure coefficients Cp or GCpf, or force coefficients Cf, as applicable, shall be determined in
accordancewithSection2.4.12.2or2.4.12.3,respectively.

9.Velocitypressureqzorqh,asapplicable,shallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.4.11.5.

10.DesignwindloadporFshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSections2.4.13.

2.4.6 BASICWINDSPEED
Thebasicwindspeed,V,usedinthedeterminationofdesignwindloadsonbuildingsandotherstructuresshall
be as given in Fig.2.4.1 except as provided in Section 2.4.6.1. The wind shall be assumed to come from any
horizontaldirection.

2.4.6.1 SPECIALWINDREGIONS
Thebasicwindspeedshallbeincreasedwhererecordsorexperienceindicatethatthewindspeedsarehigher
than those reflected in Fig. 2.4.1. Mountainous terrain, gorges, and special regions shall be examined for
unusualwindconditions.Theauthorityhavingjurisdictionshall,ifnecessary,adjustthevaluesgiveninFig.2.4.1
to account for higher local wind speeds. Such adjustment shall be based on adequate meteorological
informationandothernecessarydata.

19
Part6

2.4.6.2 LIMITATION
Tornadoeshavenotbeenconsideredindevelopingthebasicwindspeeddistributions.

2.4.6.3 WINDDIRECTIONALITYFACTOR
Thewinddirectionalityfactor,Kd,shallbedeterminedfromTable2.4.5.Thisfactorshallonlybeappliedwhen
usedinconjunctionwithloadcombinationsspecifiedinChapter2ofPart6ofthiscode.

2.4.7 IMPORTANCEFACTOR
An importance factor, I, for the building or other structure shall be determined from Table 2.4.2 based on
buildingandstructurecategorieslistedinSection1.2.4.

2.4.8 EXPOSURE
Foreachwinddirectionconsidered,theupwindexposurecategoryshallbebasedongroundsurfaceroughness
thatisdeterminedfromnaturaltopography,vegetation,andconstructedfacilities.

2.4.8.1 WINDDIRECTIONSANDSECTORS
Foreachselectedwinddirectionatwhichthewindloadsaretobeevaluated,theexposureofthebuildingor
o
structure shall be determined for the two upwind sectors extending 45 either side of the selected wind
direction.

TheexposuresinthesetwosectorsshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSections2.4.8.2and2.4.8.3andthe
exposureresultinginthehighestwindloadsshallbeusedtorepresentthewindsfromthatdirection.

2.4.8.2 SURFACEROUGHNESSCATEGORIES
A ground surface roughness within each 45o sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site as
defined in Section 2.4.8.3 from the categories defined in the following text, for the purpose of assigning an
exposurecategoryasdefinedinSection2.4.8.3.

SurfaceRoughnessA:Urbanandsuburbanareas,woodedareas,orotherterrainwithnumerouscloselyspaced
obstructionshavingthesizeofsinglefamilydwellingsorlarger.

SurfaceRoughnessB:Openterrainwithscatteredobstructionshavingheightsgenerallylessthan9.1m.This
categoryincludesflatopencountry,grasslands,andallwatersurfacesinhurricaneproneregions.

Surface Roughness C: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside hurricane prone regions. This
categoryincludessmoothmudflatsandsaltflats.

2.4.8.3 EXPOSURECATEGORIES
Exposure A: Exposure A shall apply where the ground surface roughness condition, as defined by Surface
Roughness A, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 792 m or 20times the height of the
building,whicheverisgreater.

EXCEPTION:Forbuildingswhosemeanroofheightislessthanorequalto9.1m,theupwinddistancemaybe
reducedto457m.

ExposureB:ExposureBshallapplyforallcaseswhereExposuresAorCdonotapply.

ExposureC:ExposureCshallapplywherethegroundsurfaceroughness,asdefinedbySurfaceRoughnessC,
prevailsintheupwinddirectionforadistancegreaterthan1,524mor20timesthebuildingheight,whichever
isgreater.ExposureCshallextendintodownwindareasofSurfaceRoughnessAorBforadistanceof200mor
20timestheheightofthebuilding,whicheverisgreater.

20
 Chapter2

Forasitelocatedinthetransitionzonebetweenexposurecategories,thecategoryresultinginthelargestwind
forcesshallbeused.

EXCEPTION: An intermediate exposure between the preceding categories is permitted in a transition zone
providedthatitisdeterminedbyarationalanalysismethoddefinedintherecognizedliterature.

2.4.8.4 EXPOSURECATEGORYFORMAINWINDFORCERESISTINGSYSTEM.
BuildingsandOtherStructures:Foreachwinddirectionconsidered,windloadsforthedesignoftheMWFRS
determinedfromFig.2.4.6shallbebasedontheexposurecategoriesdefinedinSection2.4.8.3.

LowRiseBuildings:WindloadsforthedesignoftheMWFRSsforlowrisebuildingsshallbedeterminedusinga
velocitypressureqhbasedontheexposureresultinginthehighestwindloadsforanywinddirectionatthesite
whereexternalpressurecoefficientsGCpfgiveninFig.2.4.10areused.

2.4.8.5 EXPOSURECATEGORYFORCOMPONENTSANDCLADDING
Componentsandcladdingdesignpressuresforallbuildingsandotherstructuresshallbebasedontheexposure
resultinginthehighestwindloadsforanydirectionatthesite.

2.4.8.6 VELOCITYPRESSUREEXPOSURECOEFFICIENT
BasedontheexposurecategorydeterminedinSection2.4.8.3,avelocitypressureexposurecoefficientKzorKh,
asapplicable,shallbedeterminedfromTable2.4.4.Forasitelocatedinatransitionzonebetweenexposure
categories, that is, near to a change in ground surface roughness, intermediate values of Kz or Kh, between
those shown in Table 2.4.4, are permitted, provided that they are determined by a rational analysis method
definedintherecognizedliterature.

2.4.9 TOPOGRAPHICEFFECTS

2.4.9.1 WINDSPEEDUPOVERHILLS,RIDGES,ANDESCARPMENTS
Wind speedup effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments constituting abrupt changes in the general
topography, located in any exposure category, shall be included in the design when buildings and other site
conditionsandlocationsofstructuresmeetallofthefollowingconditions:

i. Thehill,ridge,orescarpmentisisolatedandunobstructedupwindbyothersimilartopographic
featuresofcomparableheightfor100timestheheightofthetopographicfeature(100H)or
3.22km,whicheverisless.Thisdistanceshallbemeasuredhorizontallyfromthepointat
whichtheheightHofthehill,ridge,orescarpmentisdetermined.
ii. Thehill,ridge,orescarpmentprotrudesabovetheheightofupwindterrainfeatureswithina
3.22kmradiusinanyquadrantbyafactoroftwoormore.
iii. ThestructureislocatedasshowninFig.2.4.4intheupperonehalfofahillorridgeornearthe
crestofanescarpment.
iv. H/Lh0.2.
v. Hisgreaterthanorequalto4.5mforExposuresBandCand18.3mforExposureA.

2.4.9.2 TOPOGRAPHICFACTOR
Thewindspeedupeffectshallbeincludedinthecalculationofdesignwindloadsbyusingthe
factorKzt:

Kzt 1 K1K2K3 2 2.4.3

whereK1,K2,andK3aregiveninFig.2.4.4.

21
Part6

IfsiteconditionsandlocationsofstructuresdonotmeetalltheconditionsspecifiedinSection2.4.9.1thenKzt=
1.0.

2.4.10 GUSTEFFECTFACTOR

2.4.10.1 RIGIDSTRUCTURES
ForrigidstructuresasdefinedinSection2.4.2,thegusteffectfactorshallbetakenas0.85orcalculatedbythe
formula:

1 1.7 (2.4.4)
0.925
1 1.7

10 (2.4.5)

where theintensityofturbulenceatheight where theequivalentheightofthestructuredefined

as 0.6h, but not less than zmin for all building heights h. zmin and c are listed for each exposure in Table
2.4.3;gQandgvshallbetakenas3.4.ThebackgroundresponseQisgivenby

1 2.4.6
.
1 0.63

whereB,haredefinedinSection2.4.3;and =theintegrallengthscaleofturbulenceattheequivalentheight
givenby

(2.4.7)

10
inwhichland areconstantslistedinTable2.4.3.

2.4.10.2 FLEXIBLEORDYNAMICALLYSENSITIVESTRUCTURES
ForflexibleordynamicallysensitivestructuresasdefinedinSection2.4.2 naturalperiodgreaterthan1.0
second ,thegusteffectfactorshallbecalculatedby

2.4.8
1 1.7
0.925
1 1.7

gQandgvshallbetakenas3.4andgRisgivenby
0.577 2.4.9
2 ln 3600
2 ln 3600

R,theresonantresponsefactor,isgivenby

1
0.53 0.47 (2.4.10)

7.47 (2.4.11)

1 10.3

22
 Chapter2

(2.4.12)

1 1 (2.4.13a)
1 for 0
2

1for 0 2.4.13b

wherethesubscriptinEq.2.4.13shallbetakenash,B,andL,respectively,whereh,B,andLaredefinedin
Section2.4.3.

n1=buildingnaturalfrequency

R=Rhsetting=4.6 /

R=RBsetting=4.6 /

R=RLsetting=15.4 /

=dampingratio,percentofcritical

=meanhourlywindspeedatheight determinedfromEq.2.4.14.

(2.4.14)

10

where and areconstantslistedinTable2.4.3andV isthebasicwindspeedinkm/h.

2.4.10.3 RATIONALANALYSIS
InlieuoftheproceduredefinedinSections2.4.10.1and2.4.10.2,determinationofthegusteffectfactorbyany
rationalanalysisdefinedintherecognizedliteratureispermitted.

2.4.10.4 LIMITATIONS
Where combined gusteffect factors and pressure coefficients (GCp, GCpi, and GCpf ) are given in figures and
tables,thegusteffectfactorshallnotbedeterminedseparately.

2.4.11 ENCLOSURECLASSIFICATIONS.

2.4.11.1 GENERAL
For the purpose of determining internal pressure coefficients, all buildings shall be classified as enclosed,
partiallyenclosed,oropenasdefinedinSection2.4.2.

2.4.11.2 OPENINGS
Adeterminationshallbemadeoftheamountofopeningsinthebuildingenvelopetodeterminetheenclosure
classificationasdefinedinSection2.4.11.3.

2.4.11.3 WINDBORNEDEBRIS
Glazinginbuildingslocatedinwindbornedebrisregionsshallbeprotectedwithanimpactresistantcoveringor
beimpactresistantglazingaccordingtotherequirementsspecifiedinASTME1886andASTME1996orother
approvedtestmethodsandperformancecriteria.ThelevelsofimpactresistanceshallbeafunctionofMissile
LevelsandWindZonesspecifiedinASTME1886andASTME1996.

EXCEPTIONS:

23
Part6

i. GlazinginCategoryII,III,orIVbuildingslocatedover18.3mabovethegroundandover9.2m
aboveaggregatesurfaceroofslocatedwithin458mofthebuildingshallbepermittedtobe
unprotected.
ii. GlazinginCategoryIbuildingsshallbepermittedtobeunprotected.

2.4.11.4 MULTIPLECLASSIFICATIONS
If a building by definition complies with both the open and partially enclosed definitions, it shall be
classifiedasanopenbuilding.Abuildingthatdoesnotcomplywitheithertheopenorpartiallyenclosed
definitionsshallbeclassifiedasanenclosedbuilding.

2.4.11.5 VELOCITYPRESSURE
Velocitypressure,qz,evaluatedatheightzshallbecalculatedbythefollowingequation:

0.000613 ;(kN/m2),Vinm/s (2.4.15)

where Kd is the wind directionality factor, Kz is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient defined in Section
2.4.8.6,KztisthetopographicfactordefinedinSection2.4.9.2,andqh isthevelocitypressurecalculatedusing
Eq. 2.4.15 at mean roof height h. The numerical coefficient 0.000613 shall be used except where sufficient
climaticdataareavailabletojustifytheselectionofadifferentvalueofthisfactorforadesignapplication.

2.4.12 PRESSUREANDFORCECOEFFICIENTS.

2.4.12.1 INTERNALPRESSURECOEFFICIENTS
InternalPressureCoefficient.Internalpressurecoefficients,GCpi,shallbedeterminedfromFig.2.4.5basedon
buildingenclosureclassificationsdeterminedfromSection2.4.11.

Reduction Factor for Large Volume Buildings, Ri: For a partially enclosed building containing a single,
unpartitioned large volume, the internal pressure coefficient, GCpi, shall be multiplied by the following
reductionfactor,Ri:

1.0or

1
0.5 1 1.0 (2.4.16)
1
6951

where

Aog=totalareaofopeningsinthebuildingenvelope(wallsandroof,inm2)

Vi=unpartitionedinternalvolume,inm3

2.4.12.2 EXTERNALPRESSURECOEFFICIENTS.
Main WindForce Resisting Systems: External pressure coefficients for MWFRSs Cp are given in Figs. 2.4.6,
2.4.7,and2.4.8.Combinedgusteffectfactorandexternalpressurecoefficients,GCpf,aregiveninFig.2.4.10for
lowrisebuildings.ThepressurecoefficientvaluesandgusteffectfactorinFig.2.4.10shallnotbeseparated.

24
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladding:Combinedgusteffectfactorandexternalpressurecoefficientsforcomponentsand
claddingGCparegiveninFigs.2.4.11through2.4.17.Thepressurecoefficientvaluesandgusteffectfactorshall
notbeseparated.

2.4.12.3 FORCECOEFFICIENTS
ForcecoefficientsCfaregiveninFigs.2.4.20through2.4.23.

2.4.12.4 ROOFOVERHANGS
Main WindForce Resisting System: Roof overhangs shall be designed for a positive pressure on the bottom
surfaceofwindwardroofoverhangscorrespondingtoCp=0.8incombinationwiththepressuresdetermined
fromusingFigs.2.4.6and2.4.10.

ComponentsandCladding:Forallbuildings,roofoverhangsshallbedesignedforpressuresdeterminedfrom
pressurecoefficientsgiveninFigs.2.4.11B,C,D.

2.4.12.5 PARAPETS
MainWindForceResistingSystem:ThepressurecoefficientsfortheeffectofparapetsontheMWFRSloads
aregiveninSection2.4.14.2

Components and Cladding: The pressure coefficients for the design of parapet component and cladding
elementsaretakenfromthewallandroofpressurecoefficientsasspecifiedinSection2.4.14.3.

2.4.13 DESIGNWINDLOADSONENCLOSEDANDPARTIALLYENCLOSED
BUILDINGS.

2.4.13.1 GENERAL
SignConvention:Positivepressureactstowardthesurfaceandnegativepressureactsawayfromthesurface.

CriticalLoadCondition:Valuesofexternalandinternalpressuresshallbecombinedalgebraicallytodetermine
themostcriticalload.

TributaryAreasGreaterthan65m2:Componentandcladdingelementswithtributaryareasgreaterthan65m2
shallbepermittedtobedesignedusingtheprovisionsforMWFRSs.

2.4.13.2 MAINWINDFORCERESISTINGSYSTEMS
Rigid Buildings of All Heights: Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of buildings of all heights shall be
determinedbythefollowingequation:

k Nm (2.4.17)

where

q= qzforwindwardwallsevaluatedatheightzabovetheground

q= qhforleewardwalls,sidewalls,androofs,evaluatedatheighth

qi = qh forwindwardwalls,sidewalls,leewardwalls,androofsofenclosedbuildingsandfornegativeinternal
pressureevaluationinpartiallyenclosedbuildings

qi = qz forpositiveinternalpressureevaluationinpartiallyenclosedbuildingswhereheightzisdefinedasthe
levelofthehighestopeninginthebuildingthatcouldaffectthepositiveinternalpressure.Forbuildingssitedin
windbornedebrisregions,glazingthatisnotimpactresistantorprotectedwithanimpactresistantcovering,

25
Part6

shallbetreatedasanopeninginaccordancewithSection2.4.11.3.Forpositiveinternalpressureevaluation, qi
mayconservativelybeevaluatedatheighth(qi=qh)

G= gusteffectfactorfromSection2.4.10

Cp=externalpressurecoefficientfromFig.2.4.6or2.4.8

(GCpi)=internalpressurecoefficientfromFig.2.4.5

qandqishallbeevaluatedusingexposuredefinedinSection2.4.8.3.Pressureshallbeappliedsimultaneously
onwindwardandleewardwallsandonroofsurfacesasdefinedinFigs.2.4.6and2.4.8.

LowRise Building: Alternatively, design wind pressures for the MWFRS of lowrise buildings shall be
determinedbythefollowingequation:

kNm (2.4.18)

where

qh=velocitypressureevaluatedatmeanroofheighthusingexposuredefinedinSection2.4.8.3

(GCpf)=externalpressurecoefficientfromFig.2.4.10

(GCpi)=internalpressurecoefficientfromFig.2.4.5

Flexible Buildings: Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of flexible buildings shall be determined from the
followingequation:

k Nm (2.4.19)

whereq,qi,Cp,and(GCpi)areasdefinedinSection2.4.13.2andGf=gusteffectfactorisdefinedasinSection
2.4.10.

Parapets:ThedesignwindpressurefortheeffectofparapetsonMWFRSsofrigid,lowrise,orflexiblebuildings
withflat,gable,orhiproofsshallbedeterminedbythefollowingequation:

kNm (2.4.20)

where

pp = combinednet pressure on the parapet due tothe combination ofthe net pressuresfromthe frontand
back parapet surfaces. Plus (and minus) signs signify net pressure acting toward (and away from) the front
(exterior)sideoftheparapet

qp= velocitypressureevaluatedatthetopoftheparapet

GCpn= combinednetpressurecoefficient

= +1.5forwindwardparapet

= 1.0forleewardparapet

2.4.13.3 DESIGNWINDLOADCASES
The MWFRS of buildings of all heights, whose wind loads have been determined under the provisions of
Sections2.4.13.2,shallbedesignedforthewindloadcasesasdefinedinFig.2.4.9.Theeccentricitye forrigid
structuresshallbemeasuredfromthegeometriccenterofthebuildingfaceandshallbeconsideredforeach
principalaxis(eX,eY ).Theeccentricitye forflexiblestructuresshallbedeterminedfromthefollowingequation
andshallbeconsideredforeachprincipalaxis(eX,eY ):

26
 Chapter2

1.7
(2.4.21)
1 1.7

where

eQ= eccentricityeasdeterminedforrigidstructuresinFig.2.4.9

eR= distancebetweentheelasticshearcenterandcenterofmassofeachfloor

, gQ,Q,gR,R shallbeasdefinedinSection2.4.3

Thesignoftheeccentricitye shallbeplusorminus,whichevercausesthemoresevereloadeffect.

EXCEPTION:Onestorybuildingswithhlessthanorequalto9.1m,buildingstwostoriesorlessframedwith
lightframe construction, and buildings two stories or less designed with flexible diaphragms need only be
designedforLoadCase1andLoadCase3inFig.2.4.9.

2.4.13.4 COMPONENTSANDCLADDING.
LowRise Buildings and Buildings with h 18.3 m: Design wind pressures on component and cladding
elementsoflowrisebuildingsandbuildingswithh 18.3mshallbedeterminedfromthefollowingequation:

k Nm (2.4.22)

where

qh= velocitypressureevaluatedatmeanroofheighthusingexposuredefinedinSection2.4.8.5

(GCp)= externalpressurecoefficientsgiveninFigs.2.4.11through2.4.16

(GCpi )= internalpressurecoefficientgiveninFig.2.4.5

Buildingswithh>18.3m:Designwindpressuresoncomponentsandcladdingforallbuildingswithh > 18.3m

shallbedeterminedfromthefollowingequation:

kN/m (2.4.23)

where

q=qzforwindwardwallscalculatedatheightzabovetheground

q=qhforleewardwalls,sidewalls,androofs,evaluatedatheighth

qi =qh forwindwardwalls,sidewalls,leewardwalls,androofsofenclosedbuildingsandfornegativeinternal
pressureevaluationinpartiallyenclosedbuildings

qi =qz forpositiveinternalpressureevaluationinpartiallyenclosedbuildingswhereheightzisdefinedasthe
levelofthehighestopeninginthebuildingthatcouldaffectthepositiveinternalpressure.Forbuildingssitedin
windbornedebrisregions,glazingthatisnotimpactresistantorprotectedwithanimpactresistantcovering,
shallbetreatedasanopeninginaccordancewith Section2.4.11.3.Forpositiveinternalpressureevaluation,qi
mayconservativelybeevaluatedatheighth(qi=qh)

(GCp)=externalpressurecoefficientfromFig.2.4.17.

(GCpi )=internalpressurecoefficientgiveninFig.2.4.5.qandqi shallbeevaluatedusingexposuredefinedin

Section2.4.8.3.

27
Part6

2.4.13.5 ALTERNATIVEDESIGNWINDPRESSURESFORCOMPONENTSAND
CLADDINGINBUILDINGSWITH18.3M< h < 27.4M
AlternativetotherequirementsofSection2.4.13.2,thedesignofcomponentsandcladdingforbuildingswitha
meanroofheightgreaterthan18.3mandlessthan27.4mvaluesfromFigs.2.4.11through2.4.17shallbeused
onlyiftheheighttowidthratioisoneorless(exceptaspermittedbyNote6ofFig.2.4.17)andEq.2.4.22is
used.

Parapets:Thedesignwindpressureonthecomponentsandcladdingelementsofparapetsshallbedesignedby
thefollowingequation:

(2.4.24)

where

qp=velocitypressureevaluatedatthetopoftheparapet

GCp=externalpressurecoefficientfromFigs.2.4.11through2.4.17

GCpi=internalpressurecoefficientfromFig.2.4.5,basedontheporosityoftheparapetenvelope.

Twoloadcasesshallbeconsidered.LoadCaseAshallconsistofapplyingtheapplicablepositivewallpressure
fromFig.2.4.11Aor2.4.17tothefrontsurfaceoftheparapetwhileapplyingtheapplicablenegativeedgeor
corner zone roof pressure from Figs.2.4.11 through 2.4.17 to the back surface. Load Case B shall consist of
applying theapplicable positivewall pressure from Fig.2.4.11A or2.4.17 tothe back ofthe parapet surface,
andapplyingtheapplicablenegativewallpressurefromFig.2.4.11Aor2.4.17tothefrontsurface.Edgeand
cornerzonesshallbearrangedasshowninFigs.2.4.11through2.4.17.GCp shallbedeterminedforappropriate
roof angle and effective wind area from Figs.2.4.11 through 2.4.17. If internal pressure is present, both load
casesshouldbeevaluatedunderpositiveandnegativeinternalpressure.

2.4.14 DESIGNWINDLOADSONOPENBUILDINGSWITHMONOSLOPE,
PITCHED,ORTROUGHEDROOFS.

2.4.14.1 GENERAL
Sign Convention: Plus and minus signs signify pressure acting toward and away from the top surface of the
roof,respectively.

CriticalLoadCondition:Net pressurecoefficientsCN includecontributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces.All

loadcasesshownforeachroofangleshallbeinvestigated.

2.4.14.2 MAINWINDFORCERESISTINGSYSTEMS
ThenetdesignpressurefortheMWFRSsofmonoslope,pitched,ortroughedroofsshallbedeterminedbythe
followingequation:

(2.4.25)

where

qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using the exposure as defined in Section 2.4.8.3 that
resultsinthehighestwindloadsforanywinddirectionatthesite

G= gusteffectfactorfromSection2.4.10

CN= netpressurecoefficientdeterminedfromFigs.2.4.18Athrough2.4.18D.

28
 Chapter2

Forfreeroofswithanangle ofplaneofrooffromhorizontal lessthanorequalto 5o andcontainingfascia

panels,thefasciapanelshallbeconsideredaninvertedparapet.Thecontributionofloadsonthefasciatothe
MWFRSloadsshallbedeterminedusingSection2.4.13.5withqp equaltoqh .

2.4.14.3 COMPONENTANDCLADDINGELEMENTS
Thenetdesignwindpressureforcomponentandcladdingelementsofmonoslope,pitched,andtroughedroofs
shallbedeterminedbythefollowingequation:

(2.4.26)

where

qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height h using the exposure as defined in Section 2.4.8.3 that
resultsinthehighestwindloadsforanywinddirectionatthesite

G= gusteffectfactorfromSection2.4.10

CN= netpressurecoefficientdeterminedfromFigs.2.4.19Athrough2.4.19C.

2.4.15 DESIGNWINDLOADSONSOLIDFREESTANDINGWALLSANDSOLID
SIGNS
Thedesignwindforceforsolidfreestandingwallsandsolidsignsshallbedeterminedbythefollowingformula:

kN (2.4.27)

where

qh= thevelocitypressureevaluatedatheighth(definedinFig.2.4.20)usingexposuredefinedinSection2.4.8.3

G= gusteffectfactorfromSection2.4.10

Cf= netforcecoefficientfromFig.2.4.20

AS= thegrossareaofthesolidfreestandingwallorsolidsign,inm2

2.4.16 DESIGNWINDLOADSONOTHERSTRUCTURES
Thedesignwindforceforotherstructuresshallbedeterminedbythefollowing

equation:

kN (2.4.28)

where

qz= velocitypressureevaluatedatheightzofthecentroidofareaAfusingexposuredefinedinSection2.4.8.3

G= gusteffectfactorfromSection2.4.10

Cf= forcecoefficientsfromFigs.2.4.21through2.4.23.

Af= projectedareanormaltothewindexceptwhereCfisspecifiedfortheactualsurfacearea,m
2

29
Part6

2.4.17 ROOFTOPSTRUCTURESANDEQUIPMENTFORBUILDINGSWITHH
18.3M
TheforceonrooftopstructuresandequipmentwithAflessthan(0.1Bh)locatedonbuildingswithh18.3m
shallbedeterminedfromEq.2.4.28,increasedbyafactorof1.9.Thefactorshallbepermittedtobereduced
linearlyfrom1.9to1.0asthevalueofAfisincreasedfrom(0.1Bh)to(Bh).

2.4.18 METHOD3WINDTUNNELPROCEDURE

2.4.18.1 SCOPE
Windtunneltestsshallbe usedwhererequiredbySection2.4.5.1.Windtunneltestingshall bepermittedin
lieuofMethods1and2foranybuildingorstructure.

2.4.18.2 TESTCONDITIONS
Windtunneltests,orsimilartestsemployingfluidsotherthanair,usedforthedeterminationofdesignwind
loads for any building or other structure, shall be conducted in accordance with this section. Tests for the
determinationofmeanandfluctuatingforcesandpressuresshallmeetallofthefollowingconditions:

i. Thenaturalatmosphericboundarylayerhasbeenmodeledtoaccountforthevariationof
windspeedwithheight.
ii. Therelevantmacro(integral)lengthandmicrolengthscalesofthelongitudinalcomponent
ofatmosphericturbulencearemodeledtoapproximatelythesamescaleasthatusedtomodel
thebuildingorstructure.
iii. Themodeledbuildingorotherstructureandsurroundingstructuresandtopographyare
geometricallysimilartotheirfullscalecounterparts,exceptthat,forlowrisebuildings
meetingtherequirementsofSection2.4.5.1,testsshallbepermittedforthemodeledbuilding
inasingleexposuresiteasdefinedinSection2.4.8
iv. Theprojectedareaofthemodeledbuildingorotherstructureandsurroundingsislessthan8
percentofthetestsectioncrosssectionalareaunlesscorrectionismadeforblockage.
v. Thelongitudinalpressuregradientinthewindtunneltestsectionisaccountedfor.
vi. Reynoldsnumbereffectsonpressuresandforcesareminimized.
vii. Responsecharacteristicsofthewindtunnelinstrumentationareconsistentwiththerequired
measurements.

2.4.19 DYNAMICRESPONSE
Tests for the purpose of determining the dynamic response of a building or other structure shall be in
accordance with Section 2.4.18.2. The structural model and associated analysis shall account for mass
distribution,stiffness,anddamping.

30
 Chapterr2

Fig. 22.4.1 Basic wind speed (Vb) map of B

Bangladesh

31
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method1 h 18.3 m

Figure2.4.2 DesignWindPressures Walls&Roofs
EnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1.Pressuresshownareappliedtothehorizontalandverticalprojections,forexposureA,ath=9.1m,I=1.0,andKzt=
1.0.AdjusttootherconditionsusingEquation2.4.1.
2.Theloadpatternsshownshallbeappliedtoeachcornerofthebuildinginturnasthereferencecorner.(SeeFigure
2.4.10)
3.ForthedesignofthelongitudinalMWFRSuse=0,andlocatethezoneE/F,G/Hboundaryatthemidlengthofthe
building.
4.Loadcases1and2mustbecheckedfor25<45.Loadcase2at25isprovidedonlyforinterpolationbetween
25to30.
5.Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromtheprojectedsurfaces,respectively.
6.Forroofslopesotherthanthoseshown,linearinterpolationispermitted.
7.Thetotalhorizontalloadshallnotbelessthanthatdeterminedbyassumingps=0inzonesB&D.
8.Thezonepressuresrepresentthefollowing:
HorizontalpressurezonesSumofthewindwardandleewardnet(sumofinternalandexternal)pressureson
verticalprojectionof:
AEndzoneofwall CInteriorzoneofwall
BEndzoneofroof DInteriorzoneofroof
VerticalpressurezonesNet(sumofinternalandexternal)pressuresonhorizontalprojectionof:
EEndzoneofwindwardroofGInteriorzoneofwindwardroof
FEndzoneofleewardroof HInteriorzoneofleewardroof
9. WherezoneEorGfallsonaroofoverhangonthewindwardsideofthebuilding,useEOHandGOHforthepressure
onthehorizontalprojectionoftheoverhang.Overhangsontheleewardandsideedgesshallhavethebasiczone
pressureapplied.
10.Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthaneither4%ofleast
horizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,infeet(meters),exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedforroofangles<10.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

32
 Chapter2

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method1 h 18.3m

Figure2.4.2(contd) DesignWindpressures Walls&Roofs
EnclosedBuildings

AdjustmentFactor

forBuildingHeightandExposure,
Mean roof height Exposure
(m)
A B C
4.6 1.00 1.21 1.47

6 1.00 1.29 1.55

7.6 1.00 1.35 1.61

9.1 1.00 1.40 1.66

10.7 1.05 1.45 1.70

12.2 1.09 1.49 1.74

13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78

15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81

16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84

18.3 1.22 1.62 1.87

33
Part6

ComponentsandCladdingMethod1 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.3 DesignWindPressures Walls&Roofs
EnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1.Pressuresshownareappliednormaltothesurface,forexposureA,ath=9.1m,I=1.0,andKzt=1.0.Adjustto
otherconditionsusingEquation2.4.2.
2.Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
3.Forhiproofswith25,Zone3shallbetreatedasZone2.
4.Foreffectivewindareasbetweenthosegiven,valuemaybeinterpolated,otherwiseusethevalueassociated
withthelowereffectivewindarea.
5.Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthaneither4%ofleast
horizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,infeet(meters),exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedforroofangles<10.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

34
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod1 h18.3m
Figure2.4.3(cont'd) NetDesignWindPressures Walls&Roofs

EnclosedBuildings

RoofOverhangNetDesignWindPressure,Pnet30(kN/m2)
(ExposureAath=9.1mwithl=1.0)
Zone Effective BasicWindSpeedV(m/s)
Wind 40.23 44.7 49.17 53.64 58.11 62.58 67.05 75.99
Area
(m2)
2 0.930 1.005 1.239 1.502 1.785 2.096 2.431 2.790 3.584
Roof0to7degrees

2 1.860 0.986 1.220 1.473 1.756 2.058 2.388 2.742 3.522

2 4.648 0.962 1.191 1.440 1.713 2.010 2.330 2.675 3.436
2 9.296 0.947 1.168 1.412 1.680 1.971 2.287 2.627 3.373
3 0.930 1.656 2.043 2.470 2.943 3.450 4.005 4.594 5.905
3 1.860 1.297 1.603 1.938 2.311 2.708 3.144 3.609 4.632
3 4.648 0.828 1.024 1.240 1.474 1.727 2.005 2.302 2.957
3 9.296 0.479 0.584 0.708 0.842 0.986 1.144 1.311 1.684
2 0.930 1.302 1.603 1.943 2.311 2.713 3.144 3.613 4.637
2 1.860 1.302 1.603 1.943 2.311 2.713 3.144 3.613 4.637
2 4.648 1.302 1.603 1.943 2.311 2.713 3.144 3.613 4.637
Roof>7to27

2 9.296 1.302 1.603 1.943 2.311 2.713 3.144 3.613 4.637

3 0.930 2.187 2.699 3.268 3.885 4.560 5.292 6.072 7.800
degrees

3 1.860 1.971 2.436 2.948 3.507 4.115 4.775 5.479 7.039

3 4.648 1.689 2.086 2.526 3.005 3.526 4.091 4.694 6.034
3 9.296 1.479 1.823 2.206 2.627 3.082 3.574 4.106 5.268
2 0.930 1.182 1.460 1.766 2.101 2.464 2.861 3.282 4.216
2 1.860 1.148 1.416 1.713 2.038 2.393 2.775 3.182 4.091
2 4.648 1.101 1.359 1.641 1.952 2.292 2.660 3.052 3.924
Roof>27to45

2 9.296 1.062 1.311 1.587 1.890 2.220 2.574 2.952 3.795

3 0.930 1.182 1.460 1.766 2.101 2.464 2.861 3.283 4.216
degrees

3 1.860 1.148 1.416 1.713 2.038 2.393 2.775 3.182 4.091

3 4.648 1.101 1.359 1.641 1.952 2.292 2.660 3.053 3.923
3 9.296 1.062 1.311 1.589 1.890 2.220 2.574 2.952 3.795
AdjustmentFactor
forBuildingHeightandExposure,
Mean roof Exposure
height(m) A B C
4.6 1.00 1.21 1.47
6.1 1.00 1.29 1.55
7.6 1.00 1.35 1.61
9.15 1.00 1.40 1.66
10.7 1.05 1.45 1.70
12.2 1.09 1.49 1.74
13.7 1.12 1.53 1.78
15.2 1.16 1.56 1.81
16.8 1.19 1.59 1.84
18.3 1.22 1.62 1.87

UnitConversion1.0ft=0.3048m;1.0psf=0.0929m2;1.0psf=0.0479KN/m

35
Part6

TopographicFactor,KztMethod2

Figure2.4.4

Topographic Multipliers for Exposure B

H/Lh K1 Multiplier x/Lh 2-DK2 Multiplier z/Lh K3 Multiplier
2-D 2-D 3-D All 2-D 2-D 3-D
Ridge Escarp. Axisym. Escarp. Other Ridge Escarp. Axisym.
Hill Cases Hill
0.20 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
1.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Notes:
1.ForvaluesofH/Lh,x/Lhandz/Lhotherthanthoseshown,linearinterpolationispermitted.
2.ForH/Lh>0.5,assumeH/Lh=0.5forevaluatingK1andsubstitute2HforLhforevaluatingK2and
K3.
3. Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or escarpment along the
directionofmaximumslope.
4.Notation:
H:Heightofhillorescarpmentrelativetotheupwindterrain,inmeters.
Lh:Distanceupwindofcresttowherethedifferenceingroundelevationishalftheheightof
hillorescarpment,inmeters.
K1:Factortoaccountforshapeoftopographicfeatureandmaximumspeedupeffect.
K2:Factortoaccountforreductioninspeedupwithdistanceupwindordownwindofcrest.
K3:Factortoaccountforreductioninspeedupwithheightabovelocalterrain.
x:Distance(upwindordownwind)fromthecresttothebuildingsite,inmeters.
z:Heightabovelocalgroundlevel,inmeters.
W:Horizontalattenuationfactor.
:Heightattenuationfactor.

36
 Chapter2

TopographicFactor,KztMethod2
Figure2.4.4(contd)

Equation:

K1 determined from table below

| |
1

ParametersforSpeedUpOverHillsandEscarpments
HillShape K1/(H/Lh)
Exposure Upwind of Downwindof
A B C crest Crest
2dimensionalridges 1.30 1.45 1.55 3 1.5 1.5
(or valleys with negative H in
K1/(H/Lh)
2dimensionalescarpments 0.75 0.85 0.95 2.5 1.5 4
3dimensionalaxisym.Hill 0.95 1.05 1.15 4 1.5 1.5

MainWindForceRes.Sys./CompandClad. Method2 AllHeight

Figure2.4.5 Internal PressureCoefficient,GCpi Walls&Roofs

Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosed,andOpenBuildings
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the internal surfaces,
respectively.
EnclosureClassification GCpi
OpenBuilding 0.00
PartiallyEnclosedBuilding +0.55
0.55
EnclosedBuilding +0.18
0.18
2. ValuesofGCpishallbeusedwithqzorqhasspecifiedin2.4.13.
3. Twocasesshallbeconsideredtodeterminethecriticalloadrequirementsfortheappropriate
condition:
(i)apositivevalueofGCpiappliedtoallinternalsurfaces
(ii)anegativevalueofGCpiappliedtoallinternalsurfaces.

37
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method2 AllHeights

Figure2.4.6 ExternalPressureCoefficients,Cp Walls&Roofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

38
 Chapter2

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method2 AllHeights

Figure2.4.6(cont) ExternalPressureCoefficients,Cp Walls&Roofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

WallPressureCoefficients,Cp
Surface L/B Cp UseWith
WindwardWall Allvalues 0.8 qz
LeewardWall 01 0.5 qh
2 0.3
>4 0.2
SideWall Allvalues 0.7 qh

RoofPressureCoefficients,Cp,forusewithqh
Wind Windward Leeward
Direction Angle,(degrees) Angle,(degrees)
h/L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 >60# 10 15 >20
Normal 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0* 0.3 0.6
Toridge <0.25 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.01 0.5
0
for>10 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0* 0.5 0.6
0.5 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.01 0.5
0.18
1.3** 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.0* 0.7 0.6
>1.0 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.01 0.6
0.18 0.18
Normal Horizontal Cp *Valueisprovidedforinterpolationpurposes
Toridge distancefrom
for Windwardedge **Valuecanbereducedlinearlywitharea
<10o 0toh/2 0.9,0.18 overwhichitisapplicableasfollows
and <0.5 h/2toh 0.9,0.18
Parallel Hto2h 0.5,0.18
Toridge >2h 0.3,0.18
forall 0toh/2 1.3**,0.18
Area(m2) ReductionFactor
>1.0 < 9.3sqm 1.0
>h/2 0.7,0.18 23,2sqm 0.9
>92.9sqm 0.8
Notes:
1.Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
2.LinearinterpolationispermittedforvaluesofL/B,h/Landotherthanshown.Interpolationshallonlybe
carriedoutbetweenvaluesofthesamesign.Wherenovalueofthesamesignisgiven,assume0.0for
interpolationpurposes.
3.WheretwovaluesofCparelisted,thisindicatesthatthewindwardroofslopeissubjectedtoeither
positiveornegativepressuresandtheroofstructureshallbedesignedforbothconditions.Interpolationfor
intermediateratiosofh/LinthiscaseshallonlybecarriedoutbetweenCpvaluesoflikesign.
4.Formonosloperoofs,entireroofsurfaceiseitherawindwardorleewardsurface.
5.ForflexiblebuildingsuseappropriateGfasdeterminedbySection2.4.10.
6.RefertoFigure2.4.7fordomesandFigure2.4.8forarchedroofs.
7.Notation:
B:Horizontaldimensionofbuilding,inmeter,measurednormaltowinddirection.
L:Horizontaldimensionofbuilding,inmeter,measuredparalleltowinddirection.
h:Meanroofheightinmeters,exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfore10degrees.
z:Heightaboveground,inmeters.
G:Gusteffectfactor.
qz,qh:Velocitypressure,inN/m2,evaluatedatrespectiveheight.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.
8.Formansardroofs,thetophorizontalsurfaceandleewardinclinedsurfaceshallbetreatedasleeward
surfacesfromthetable.
9.ExceptforMWFRS'sattheroofconsistingofmomentresistingframes,thetotalhorizontalshearshallnot
belessthanthatdeterminedbyneglectingwindforcesonroofsurfaces.
#Forroofslopesgreaterthan80,useCp=0.8

39
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method2 AllHeights

Figure2.4.7 ExternalPressureCoefficients,Cp Domed Roofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings andStructures

Note:
1. Twoloadcasesshallbeconsidered:
CaseA.CpvaluesbetweenAandBandbetweenBandCshallbedeterminedbylinear
interpolationalongarcsonthedomeparalleltothewinddirection;
CaseB.CpshallbetheconstantvalueofAfor25degrees,andshallbedeterminedbylinear
interpolationfrom25degreestoBandfromBtoC.
2. ValuesdenoteCptobeusedwith wherehD+fistheheightatthetopofthedome.
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
4. Cpisconstantonthedomesurfaceforarcsofcirclesperpendiculartothewinddirection;for
example,thearcpassingthroughBBBandallarcsparalleltoBBB.
5. ForvaluesofhD/Dbetweenthoselistedonthegraphcurves,linearinterpolationshallbe
permitted.
6. =0degreesondomespringline,=90degreesatdomecentertoppoint.fismeasuredfrom
springlinetotop.
7. Thetotalhorizontalshearshallnotbelessthanthatdeterminedbyneglectingwindforcesroof
surfaces.
8. Forf/Dvalueslessthan0.05.useFigure2.4.6.

40
 Chapter2

MainWindForceRes.Sys./CompandClad. Method2 AllHeight

Figure2.4.8 ExternalPressureCoefficients,Cp ArchedRoofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildingsandStructures

Condition Risetospan Cp
ratio,r Windward Center Leeward
quarter half quarter
0<r<0.2
0.9 0.7r 0.5
Roofonelevatedstructure
0.2 r<0.3*
l.5r0.3 0.7r 0.5

0.3r0.6
2.75r0.7 0.7r 0.5

Roof springing from ground
0<r0.6 1.4r 0.7r 0.5
level

*Whentherisetospanratiois0.2r0.3,alternatecoefficientsgivenby6r2.1shallalsobeusedfor
thewindwardquarter.
Notes:
1. Valueslistedareforthedeterminationofaverageloadonmainwindforceresistingsystems.
2. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
3. Forwinddirectedparalleltotheaxisofthearch,usepressurecoefficientsfromFig.2.4.6with
winddirectedparalleltoridge.
4. Forcomponentsandcladding:(1)Atroofperimeter,usetheexternalpressurecoefficientsinFig.
2.4.11withebasedonspringlineslopeand(2)forremainingroofareas,useexternalpressure
coefficientsofthistablemultipliedby0.87.

41
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method2 AllHeights

Figure2.4.9 DesignWindLoadCases

Case1.Fulldesignwindpressureactingontheprojectedareaperpendiculartoeachprincipalaxis
ofthestructure,consideredseparatelyalongeachprincipalaxis.
Case2.Threequartersofthedesignwindpressureactingontheprojectedareaperpendicularto
eachprincipalaxisofthestructureinconjunctionwithatorsionalmomentasshown,
consideredseparatelyforeachprincipalaxis.
Case3.WindloadingasdefinedinCase1,butconsideredtoactsimultaneouslyat75%ofthe
specifiedvalue.
Case4.WindloadingasdefinedinCase2,butconsideredtoactsimultaneouslyat75%ofthe
specifiedvalue.

Notes:
1. Designwindpressuresforwindwardandleewardfacesshallbedeterminedinaccordance
withtheprovisionsof2.4.13asapplicableforbuildingofallheights.
2. Diagramsshowplanviewsofbuilding.
3. Notation:
Pwx,PwY:Windwardfacedesignpressureactinginthex,yprincipalaxis,respectively.
PLX,PLY:Leewardfacedesignpressureactinginthex,yprincipalaxis,respectively.
e(eX+ey):Eccentricityforthex,yprincipalaxisofthestructure,respectively.
MT:Torsionalmomentperunitheightactingaboutaverticalaxisofthebuilding.

42
 Chapter2

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method2 h 18.3m

Figure2.4.10 ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCpf LowriseWalls&
Roofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

43
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem Method2 h 18.3m

Figure2.4.10(contd) ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCpf LowriseWalls&
Roofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Roof BuildingSurface
Angle
1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E
(degrees)
05 0.40 0.69 0.37 0.29 0.45 0.45 0.61 1.07 0.53 0.43
20 0.53 0.69 0.48 0.43 0.45 0.45 0.80 1.07 0.69 0.64
3045 0.56 0.21 0.43 0.37 0.45 0.45 0.69 0.27 0.53 0.48
90 0.56 0.56 0.37 0.37 0.45 0.45 0.69 0.69 0.48 0.48
Notes:
1. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
2. Forvaluesofotherthanthoseshown,linearinterpolationispermitted.
3. Thebuildingmustbedesignedforallwinddirectionsusingthe8loadingpatternsshown.Theload
patternsareappliedtoeachbuildingcornerinturnastheReferenceCorner.
4. Combinationsofexternalandinternalpressures(seeFigure2.4.5)shallbeevaluatedasrequiredto
obtainthemostsevereloadings.
5. Forthetorsionalloadcasesshownbelow,thepressuresinzonesdesignatedwithaT(1T,2T,3T,
4T)shallbe25%ofthefulldesignwindpressures(zones1,2,3,4).
Exception: One story buildings with h less than or equal to 9.1m, buildings two stories or less
framed with light frame construction, and buildings two stories or less designed with flexible
diaphragmsneednotbedesignedforthetorsionalloadcases.
Torsionalloadingshallapplytoalleightbasicloadpatternsusingthefiguresbelowappliedateach
referencecorner.
6. Except for momentresisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that
determinedbyneglectingwindforcesonroofsurfaces.
7. ForthedesignoftheMWFRSprovidinglateralresistanceinadirectionparalleltoaridgelineorfor
flatroofs,use=0andlocatethezone2/3boundaryatthemidlengthofthebuilding.
8. TheroofpressurecoefficientGCpf,whennegativeinZone2or2E,shallbeappliedinZone2/2Efor
adistancefromtheedgeofroofequalto0.5timesthehorizontaldimensionofthebuildingparallel
to the direction of the MWFRS being designed or 2.5 times the eave height, he, at the windward
wall, whichever is less; the remainder of Zone 2/2E extending to the ridge line shall use the
pressurecoefficientGCpfforZone3/3E.
9. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthaneither
4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,inmeters,exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfor10.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

44
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h18.3m
Figure2.4.11.A ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp Walls
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. Horizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindarea,insquaremeters.
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. ValuesofGCPforwallsshallbereducedby10%when100.
6. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthan
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,inmeters,exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfor100.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

45
Part6

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.11.B ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp GableRoofs70
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. Horizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindarea,insquaremeters.
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. Ifaparapetequaltoorhigherthan0.9misprovidedaroundtheperimeteroftheroofwith
70,thenegativevaluesofGC0inZone3shallbeequaltothoseforZone2andpositive
valuesofGCPinZones2and4shallbesetequaltothoseforwallZones4and5respectively
infigure2.4.11A.
6. ValuesofGCPforroofoverhangsincludepressurecontributionsfrombothupperandlower
surfaces.
7. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthan
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Eaveheightshallbeusedfor100.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

46
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.11.C ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp Gable/HipRoofs70<270
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. Horizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindarea,insquarefeet(squaremeters).
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. ValuesofGCPforroofoverhangsincludepressurecontributionsfrombothupperand
lowersurfaces.
6. Forhiproofswith70<270,edge/ridgestripsandpressurecoefficientsforridgesof
gabledroofsshallapplyoneachhip.
7. Forhiproofswith70<250,Zone3shallbetreatedasZone2.
8. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthan
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,inmeters,exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfor100.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

47
Part6

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
0 0
Figure2.4.11.D ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp GableRoofs27 <45
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. Horizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindarea,insquarefeet(squaremeters).
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. ValuesofGCPforroofoverhangsincludepressurecontributionsfrombothupperandlower
surfaces.
6. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthan
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,inmeters.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

48
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.12 ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings SteppedRoofs

Notes:
On the lower level of flat, stepped roofs shown in Fig. 2.4.12, the zone designations and pressure
coefficientsshowninFig.2.4.11Bshallapply,exceptthatat theroofupperwallintersection(s),Zone3
shallbetreatedasZone2andZone2shallbetreatedasZone1.PositivevaluesofGCp equaltothosefor
wallsinFig.2.4.11AshallapplyonthecrosshatchedareasshowninFig.2.4.12.
Notation:
b:1.5h1inFig.2.4.12,butnotgreaterthan30.5m.
h:Meanroofheight,inmeters.
hi:h1orh2inFig.2.4.12;h=h1+h2;h13.1m;hi/h=0.3to0.7.
W:BuildingwidthinFig.2.4.12.
Wi:W1orW2orW3inFig.2.4.12.W=W1+W2orW1+W2+W3;Wi/W=0.25to0.75.
e:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

49
Part6

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.13 ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp MultispanGableRoofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. Horizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindarea,insquaremeters.
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. For100ValuesofGCPfromFig.2.4.11shallbeused.
6. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthan
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,infeet(meters),exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfor100.
W:Buildingmodulewidth,inmeters.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

50
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.14.A ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp MonoslopeRoofs
30<100
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. HorizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindareaA,insquaremeters.
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. For30ValuesofGCPfromFig.2.4.11Bshallbeused.
6. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthan
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Eaveheightshallbeusedfor100.
W:Buildingwidth,inmeters.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

51
Part6

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.14.B ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp MonoslopeRoofs
100<300
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. HorizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindareaA,insquarefeet(squaremeters).
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
5. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.4h,whicheverissmaller,butnotlessthaneither
4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheightinmeters.
W:Buildingwidth,inmeters.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

52
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h 18.3m
Figure2.4.15 ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp SawtoothRoofs

Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCPtobeusedwithqh
2. HorizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindareaA,insquarefeet(squaremeters).
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
4. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
0
5. For10 ValuesofGCPfromFig.2.4.11shallbeused.
6. Notation:
a: 10 percent of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller, but not less than
either4%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.9m.
h:Meanroofheightinmetersexceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfor00100.
W:Buildingwidth,inmeters.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

53
Part6

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 AllHeights
Figure2.4.16 ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp DomedRoofs

Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

ExternalPressureCoefficientsforDomeswithacircularBase
NegativePressures PositivePressures PositivePressures
,degrees 090 060 6190
GCp 0.9 +0.9 +0.5

Notes:
1. ValuesdenoteCptobeusedwithq(hD+f)wherehD+fistheheightatthetopofthedome.
2. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,
respectively.
3. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
4. Valuesapplyto0hDD0.5,0.2f/D0.5.
5. =0degreesondomespringline,=90degreesatdomecentertoppoint.fismeasuredfrom
springlinetotop.

54
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladdingMethod2 h >18.3m
Figure2.4.17 ExternalPressureCoefficients,GCp Walls &Roofs
Enclosed,PartiallyEnclosedBuildings

Notes:
1. VerticalscaledenotesGCptobeusedwithappropriateqzorqh.
2. HorizontalscaledenoteseffectivewindareaA,insquarefeet(squaremeters).
3. Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardandawayfromthesurfaces,respectively.
4. UseqzwithpositivevaluesofGCpandqhwithnegativevaluesofGCp
5. Eachcomponentshallbedesignedformaximumpositiveandnegativepressures.
6. Coefficientsareforroofswithangle10.Forotherroofanglesandgeometry,useGCpvaluesfrom
Fig.2.4.11andattendantqhbasedonexposuredefinedin2.4.8.
7. Ifaparapetequaltoorhigherthan0.9misprovidedaroundtheperimeteroftheroofwith10,
Zone3shallbetreatedasZone2.
8. Notation:
a:10percentofleasthorizontaldimension,butnotlessthan0.9m.
h:Meanroofheight,inmeters,exceptthateaveheightshallbeusedfor10o.
z:heightaboveground,in(meters.
:Angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,indegrees.

55
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem 0.25< h/L<1.0

Figure2.4.18A NetPressureCoefficient,CN MonoslopeFreeRoofs
OpenBuildings q<45,=0,180

Roof Load WindDirection,=0 WindDirection,=180
Angle Case
ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow
CNW CNL CNW CNL CNW CNL CNW CNL
0 A 1.2 0.3 0.5 1.2 1.2 0.3 0.5 1.2
B 1.1 0.1 1.1 0.6 1.1 0.1 1.1 0.6
7.5 A 0.6 1 1 1.5 0.9 1.5 0.2 1.2
B 1.4 0 1.7 0.8 1.6 0.3 0.8 0.3
15 A 0.3 1.3 1.1 1.5 1.3 1.6 0.4 1.1
B 1.9 0 2.1 0.6 1.8 0.6 1.2 0.3
22.5 A 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.5 1
B 2.4 0.3 2.3 0.9 2.2 0.7 1.3 0
30 A 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.1 0.6 1
B 2.5 0.6 2.3 1.1 2.6 1 1.6 0.1
37.5 A 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.2 0.7 0.9
B 2.4 0.6 2.2 1.1 2.7 1.1 1.9 0.3
45 A 1.6 1.8 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.5 0.8 0.9
B 2.3 0.7 1.9 1.2 2.6 1.4 2.1 0.4
Notes:
CNWandCNLdenotenetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces)forwindwardand
leewardhalfofroofsurfaces,respectively.
Clearwindflowdenotesrelativelyunobstructedwindflowwithblockagelessthanorequalto50%.
Obstructedwindflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
Forvaluesofebetween7.5and45,linearinterpolationispermitted.Forvaluesofelessthan7.5,use
Monosloperoofloadcoefficients.
Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardsandawayfromthetoproofsurface,respectively.
Allloadcasesshownforeachroofangleshallbeinvestigated.
Notation:
L :horizontaldimensionofroof,measuredinthealongwinddirection,m
h :meanroofheight,m
:directionofwind,degrees
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

56
 Chapter2

MainWindForceResistingSystem 0.25h/L1.0
Figure2.4.18B NetPressureCoefficients,CN PitchedFreeRoofs
45o,=0o,180o
OpenBuildings

Roof Load WindDirection, =0o,180o

Angle, Case ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow
CNW CNL CNW CNL
7.5o A 1.1 0.3 1.6 1
B 0.2 1.2 0.9 1.7
15o A 1.1 0.4 1.2 1
B 0.1 1.1 0.6 1.6
22.5o A 1.1 0.1 1.2 1.2
B 0.1 0.8 0.8 1.7
30o A 1.3 0.3 0.7 0.7
B 0.1 0.9 0.2 1.1
37.5o A 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.6
B 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.9
45o A 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.5
B 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.7
Notes:
CNWandCNLdenotenetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces)forwindwardandleeward
halfofroofsurfaces,respectively.
Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%.
Obstructedwindflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
Forvaluesof between7.5 and 45,linear interpolationispermitted.Forvaluesof lessthan 7.5,use
monosloperoofloadcoefficients.
Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardsandawayfromthetoproofsurface,respectively.
Allloadcasesshownforeachroofangleshallbeinvestigated.
Notation:
L :horizontaldimensionofroof,measuredinthealongwinddirection,m
h :meanroofheight,m
:directionofwind,degrees
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

57
Part6

MainWindForceResistingSystem 0.25h/L1.0
Figure2.4.18C NetPressureCoefficients,CN TroughedFreeRoofs
45o,=0o,180o
OpenBuildings

Roof Load WindDirection,=0o,180o

Angle, Case ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow
CNW CNL CNW CNL
7.5o A 1.1 0.3 1.6 0.5
B 0.2 1.2 0.9 0.8
15o A 1.1 0.4 1.2 0.5
B 0.1 1.1 0.6 0.8
22.5o A 1.1 0.1 1.2 0.6
B 0.1 0.8 0.8 0.8
30o A 1.3 0.3 1.4 0.4
B 0.1 0.9 0.2 0.5
37.5o A 1.3 0.6 1.4 0.3
B 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.4
45o A 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.3
B 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4
Notes:
CNWandCNLdenotenetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces)forwindwardandleeward
halfofroofsurfaces,respectively.
Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%.
Obstructedwindflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
For values of between 7.5 and 45, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of less than 7.5, use
monosloperoofloadcoefficients.
Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardsandawayfromthetoproofsurface,respectively.
Allloadcasesshownforeachroofangleshallbeinvestigated.
Notation:
L :horizontaldimensionofroof,measuredinthealongwinddirection,m
h :meanroofheight,m
:directionofwind,degrees
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

58
 Chapter2

MainWindForceResistingSystem 0.25h/L1.0
Figure2.4.18D NetPressureCoefficients,CN TroughedFreeRoofs
45o,=0o,180o
OpenBuildings

Horizontal Roof LoadCase ClearWindFlow Obstructed Wind

Distancefrom Angle Flow
WindwardEdge CN CN
h AllShapes A 0.8 1.2
45o B 0.8 0.5
>h,2h AllShapes A 0.6 0.9
45o B 0.5 0.5
>2h AllShapes A 0.3 0.6
45o B 0.3 0.3
Notes:
CNdenotesnetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces).
Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%.
Obstructedwindflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardsandawayfromthetoproofsurface,respectively.
Allloadcasesshownforeachroofangleshallbeinvestigated.
Formonosloperoofswiththetalessthan5degrees,CNvaluesshownapplyalsoforcaseswheregamma=0
degreesand0.05lessthanorequaltoh/Llessthanorequalto0.25.SeeFigure2.4.18Aforotherh/Lvalues.
Notation:
L :horizontaldimensionofroof,measuredinthealongwinddirection,m
h :meanroofheight,m
y :directionofwind,degrees
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

59
Part6

ComponentsandCladding 0.25< h/L< 1.0

Figure2.4.19A NetPressureCoefficient,CN MonoslopeFreeRoofs
OpenBuildings <45

Roof Effective CN
Angle WindArea
ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow

Zone3 Zone2 Zone1 Zone3 Zone2 Zone1
0 <a2 2.4 3.3 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 1 3.6 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a2,<4.0a2 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>4.0a2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2
7.5 <a2 3.2 4.2 2.4 2.1 1.6 1.4 1.6 5.1 0.5 2.6 0.8 1.7
>a2,<4.0a2 2.4 2.1 2.4 2.1 1.6 1.4 1.2 2.6 1.2 2.6 0.8 1.7
>4.0a2 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.4 0.8 1.7 0.8 1.7 0.8 1.7
15 <a2 3.6 3.8 2.7 2.9 1.8 1.9 2.4 4.2 1.8 3.2 1.2 2.1
>a2,<4.0a2 2.7 2.9 2.7 2.9 1.8 1.9 1.8 3.2 1.8 3.2 1.2 2.1
>4.0a2 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.2 2.1 1.2 2.1 1.2 2.3
30 <a2 5.2 5 3.9 3.8 2.6 2.5 3.2 4.6 2.4 3.5 1.6 2.3
>a2,<4.0a2 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.8 2.6 2.5 2.4 3.5 2.4 3.5 1.6 2.3
>4.0a2 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.5 1.6 2.3 1.6 2.3 1.6 2.3
45 <a2 5.2 4.6 3.9 3.5 2.6 2.3 4.2 3.8 3.2 2.9 2.1 1.9
>a2,<4.0a2 3.9 3.5 3.9 3.5 2.6 2.3 3.2 2.9 3.2 2.9 2.1 1.9
>4.0a2 2.6 2.3 2.6 2.3 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9
Notes:
1.CNdenotesnetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces).
2.Clearwindflowdenotesrelativelyunobstructedwindflowwithblockagelessthanorequalto50%.
windflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
3.Forvaluesofeotherthanthoseshown,linearinterpolationispermitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface,
respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative pressure
coefficientsshown.
6.Notation:
a : 10% of least horizontal dimension or 0.4h, whichever is smaller but not less than 4% of least
horizontaldimensionor0.9m
h:meanroofheight,m
L:horizontaldimensionofbuilding,measuredinalongwinddirection,m
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

60
 Chapter2

ComponentsandCladding 0.25h/L1.0
Figure2.4.19B NetPressureCoefficients,CN MonoslopeFreeRoofs
45o
OpenBuildings

Roof Effective CN
Angle WindArea ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow
Zone3 Zone2 Zone1 Zone3 Zone2 Zone1
0o a2 2.4 3.3 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 1 3.6 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a2,4.0a2 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 08 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>4.0a2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2
7.5o a2 2.2 3.6 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 1 5.1 0.8 26 0.5 1.7
>a2,4.0a2 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 0.8 2.6 0.8 26 0.5 1.7
>4.0a2 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 0.5 1.7 0.5 1.7 as 1.7
15o a2 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.1 1 3.2 0.8 2.4 0.5 1.6
>a2,4.0a2 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.1 0.8 2.4 0.8 2.4 0.5 1.6
>4.0a2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.5 1.6 0.5 1.6 0.5 1.6
30o a2 2.6 1.8 2 1.4 1.3 0.9 1 2.4 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a2,4.0a2 2 1.4 2 1.4 1.3 0.9 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>4.0a2 1.3 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.5 1.2 0.5 .1.2 0.5 1.2
45o a2 2.2 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.1 0.8 1 2.4 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a2,4.0a2 1.7 1.2 1.7 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>4.0a2 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.8 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2
Notes:
1.CNdenotesnetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces).
2.Clearwindflowdenotesrelativelyunobstructedwindflowwithblockagelessthanorequalto50%.
Obstructedwindflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
3.Forvaluesofotherthanthoseshown,linearinterpolationispermitted.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting towards and away from the top roof surface,
respectively.
5.Componentsandcladdingelementsshallbedesignedforpositiveandnegativepressurecoefficients
shown.
6.Notation:
a:10%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.411,whicheverissmallerbutnotlessthan4%ofleast
horizontaldimensionor0.9m
h:meanroofheight,m
L:horizontaldimensionofbuilding,measuredinalongwinddirection,m
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

61
Part6

ComponentsandCladding 0.25h/L1.0
Figure2.4.19C NetPressureCoefficients,CN TroughedFreeRoofs
45o
OpenBuildings

Roof Effective CN
Angle WindArea ClearWindFlow ObstructedWindFlow
Zone3 Zone2 Zone1 Zone3 Zone2 Zone1
0o a2 2.4 3.3 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 1 3.6 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a2,4.0a2 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.1 1.1 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>4.0a2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2
7.5o a2 2.4 3.3 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 1 4.8 0.8 2.4 0.5 1.6
>a2,4.0a2 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.1 0.8 2.4 0.8 2.4 0.5 1.6
>4.0a2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.5 1.6 0.5 1.6 0.5 1.6
15o a2 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.1 1 2.4 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a2,4.0a2 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.1 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>4.0a2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.5 12 0.5 1.2
30o a2 1.8 2.6 1.4 2 0.9 1.3 1 2.8 0.8 2.1 0.5 1.4
>a2,4.0a2 1.4 2 1.4 2 0.9 1.3 0.8 2.1 0.8 2.1 0.5 1.4
>4.0a2 0.9 1.3 1.9 1.3 0.9 1.3 0.5 1.4 0.5 1.4 0.5 1.4
45o a2 1.6 2.2 1.2 1.7 0.8 1.1 1 2.4 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
>a ,4.0a 1.2 1.7 1.2 1.7 0.8 1.1 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 1.2
2 2

>4.0a2 0.8 1.1 1.8 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.2
Notes:
1.CNdenotesnetpressures(contributionsfromtopandbottomsurfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%.
Obstructedwindflowdenotesobjectsbelowroofinhibitingwindflow(>50%blockage).
3.Forvaluesofotherthanthoseshown,linearinterpolationispermitted.
4.Plusandminussignssignifypressuresactingtowardsandawayfromthetoproofsurface,respectively.
5. Components and cladding elements shall be designed for positive and negative pressure coefficients
shown.
6.Notation:
a:10%ofleasthorizontaldimensionor0.411,whicheverissmallerbutnotlessthan4%ofleast
horizontaldimensionor0.9m
h:meanroofheight,m
L:horizontaldimensionofbuilding,measuredinalongwinddirection,m
:angleofplaneofrooffromhorizontal,degrees

62
 Chapter2

OtherStructuresMethod2 AllHeight
Figure2.4.20 ForceCoefficient, Cf SolidFreestandingWalls&SolidSigns

Cf , CASE A & CASE B

Clearance Aspect Ratio, B/s
Ratio, s/h 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 5 10 20 30 45
1 1.80 1.70 1.65 1.55 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
0.9 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.45 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
0.7 1.90 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55
0.5 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.75
0.3 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85
0.2 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
0.16 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
Cf, CASE C
Region Aspect Ratio, B/s Region Aspect Ratio, B/s
(horizontal (horizontal
distance from distance from
windward edge) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 windward edge) 13 45
0 to s 2.25 2.60 2.90 3.10* 3.30* 3.40* 3.55* 3.65* 3.75* 0 to s 4.00* 4.30*
s to 2s 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.00 2.15 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.45 s to 2s 2.60 2.55
2s to 3s 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.85 2s to 3s 2.00 1.95
3s to 10s 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.00 0.95 3s to 4s 1.50 1.85
4s to 5s 1.35 1.85
*Values shall be 5s to 10s 0.90 1.10
multiplied by the
following Lr/s Reduction >10s 0.55 0.55
reduction Factor
factor when a 0.3 0.9
return 1.0 0.75
corner is present: 2 0.60
Notes:
1.Theterm"signs"innotesbelowalsoappliesto"freestandingwalls".
2.Signswithopeningscomprisinglessthan30%ofthegrossareaareclassifiedassolidsigns.Forcecoefficientsforsolid
signswithopeningsshallbepermittedtobemultipliedbythereductionfactor(1(1)1.5).
3.Toallowforbothnormalandobliquewinddirections,thefollowingcasesshallbeconsidered:
Fors/h<1:
CASEA:resultantforceactsnormaltothefaceofthesignthroughthegeometriccenter.
CASE B: resultant force acts normal to the face of the sign at a distance from the geometric center toward the
windwardedgeequalto0.2timestheaveragewidthofthesign.
ForB/s2,CASECmustalsobeconsidered:
CASEC:resultantforcesactnormaltothefaceofthesignthroughthegeometriccentersofeachregion.
Fors/h=1:
The same cases as above except that the vertical locations of the resultant forces occur at a distance above the
geometriccenterequalto0.05timestheaverageheightofthesign.
4.ForCASECwheres/h>0.8,forcecoefficientsshallbemultipliedbythereductionfactor(1.8s/h).
5.Linearinterpolationispermittedforvaluesofs/h,B/sandLr/sotherthanshown.
6.Notation:
B:horizontaldimensionofsign,inmeters;
h:heightofthesign,inmeters;
s:verticaldimensionofthesign,inmeters;
:ratioofsolidareatogrossarea;
Lr:horizontaldimensionofreturncorner,inmeters

63
Part6

OtherStructuresMethod2 AllHeight
Figure2.4.21 ForceCoefficient,Cf Chimneys,Tanks,Rooftop
Equipment,&SimilarStructures

CrossSection TypeofSurface h/D

1 7 25
Square(windnormaltoface) All 1.3 1.4 2.0

Square(windalongdiagomal) All 1.0 1.1 1.5

Hexagonaloroctagonal All 1.0 1.2 1.4

Round 5.3, inm, Moderately 0.5 0.6 0.7

in Nm smooth

Rough 0.7 0.8 0.9

(D/D=0.02)
Veryrough 0.8 1.0 0.2
(D/D=0.08)
Round 5.3, inm, All 0.7 0.8 1.2
in Nm

Notes:
Thedesignwindforceshallbecalculatedbasedontheareaofthestructureprojectedonaplanenormal
tothewinddirection.Theforceshallbeassumedtoactparalleltothewinddirection.
Linearinterpolationispermittedforh/Dvaluesotherthanshown.
Notation:
D: diameterofcircularcrosssectionandleasthorizontaldimensionofsquare,hexagonaloroctagonal
crosssectionatelevationunderconsideration,inmeters;
D: depthofprotrudingelementsuchasribsandspoilers,inmeters;
H: heightofstructure,metersand
qz: velocitypressureevaluatedatheightzaboveground,inN/m 2

64
 Chapter2

OtherStructuresMethod2 AllHeight
Figure2.4.22 ForceCoefficient,Cf OpenSigns&Lattice
Frameworks

FlatSided RoundedMembers
Members
5.3, 5.3,
<0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8

0.1to0.29 1.8 1.3 0.9

0.3to0.7 1.6 1.5 1.1

Notes:
Signswithopeningscomprising30%ormoreofthegrossareaareclassifiedasopensigns.
Thecalculationofthedesignwindforcesshallbebasedontheareaofallexposedmembersandelements
projectedonaplanenormaltothewinddirection.Forcesshallbeassumedtoactparalleltothewind.
TheareaAfconsistentwiththeseforcecoefficientsisthesolidareaprojectednormalthewinddirection.
Notation:
:ratioofsolidareatogrossarea;
D:diameterofatypicalroundnumber,inmeters
qz:velocitypressureevaluatedatheightzabovegroundinN/m2.

OtherStructuresMethod2 AllHeight
Figure2.4.23 ForceCoefficient,Cf TrussedTower
OpenStructures

TowerCrossSection Cf
Square 4.025.9+4.0
Triangle 3.424.7+3.4
Notes:
1. Forallwinddirectionsconsidered,theareaAfconsistentwiththespecifiedforcecoefficientsshallbe
the solid area of a tower face projected on the plane of that face for the tower segment under
consideration.
2. Thespecifiedforcecoefficientsarefortowerswithstructuralanglesorsimilarflatsidedmembers.
3. Fortowerscontainingroundedmembers,itisacceptabletomultiplythespecifiedforcecoefficients
bythefollowingfactorwhendeterminingwindforcesonsuchmembers:0.512+0.571.0
4. Windforcesshallbeapplied inthedirectionsresultingin maximummemberforcesandreactions.
Fortowerswithsquarecrosssections,windforcesshallbemultipliedbythefollowingfactorwhen
thewindisdirectedalongatowerdiagonal:
1+0.751.2
5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances such as ladders, conduits, lights, elevators, etc., shall be
calculatedusingappropriateforcecoefficientsfortheseelements.
6. LoadsduetoiceaccretionasdescribedinSection11shallbeaccountedfor.
7. Notation:
:ratioofsolidareatogrossareaofonetowerfaceforthesegmentunderconsideration.

65
Part6

Table2.4.1:BasicWindSpeedsforSelectedLocationsinBangladesh

BasicWind BasicWind
Location Speed(m/s) Location Speed(m/s)
Angarpota 47.8 Lalmonirhat 63.7
Bagerhat 77.5 Madaripur 68.1
Bandarban 62.5 Magura 65.0
Barguna 80.0 Manikganj 58.2
Barisal 78.7 Meherpur 58.2
Bhola 69.5 Maheshkhali 80.0
Bogra 61.9 Moulvibazar 53.0
Brahmanbaria 56.7 Munshiganj 57.1
Chandpur 50.6 Mymensingh 67.4
ChapaiNawabganj 41.4 Naogaon 55.2
Chittagong 80.0 Narail 68.6
Chuadanga 61.9 Narayanganj 61.1
Comilla 61.4 Narsinghdi 59.7
CoxsBazar 80.0 Natore 61.9
Dahagram 47.8 Netrokona 65.6
Dhaka 65.7 Nilphamari 44.7
Dinajpur 41.4 Noakhali 57.1
Faridpur 63.1 Pabna 63.1
Feni 64.1 Panchagarh 41.4
Gaibandha 65.6 Patuakhali 80.0
Gazipur 66.5 Pirojpur 80.0
Gopalganj 74.5 Rajbari 59.1
Habiganj 54.2 Rajshahi 49.2
Hatiya 80.0 Rangamati 56.7
Ishurdi 69.5 Rangpur 65.3
Joypurhat 56.7 Satkhira 57.6
Jamalpur 56.7 Shariatpur 61.9
Jessore 64.1 Sherpur 62.5
Jhalakati 80.0 Sirajganj 50.6
Jhenaidah 65.0 Srimangal 50.6
Khagrachhari 56.7 St.MartinsIsland 80.0
Khulna 73.3 Sunamganj 61.1
Kutubdia 80.0 Sylhet 61.1
Kishoreganj 64.7 Sandwip 80.0
Kurigram 65.6 Tangail 50.6
Kushtia 66.9 Teknaf 80.0
Lakshmipur 51.2 Thakurgaon 41.4

66
 Chapter2

ImportanceFactor,I(WindLoads)

Table2.4.2


Categoryor NonHurricaneProne HurricaneProneRegions
ImportanceClass Regionsand withV>44m/s
HurricaneProneRegions
with
V=3844m/s

I 0.87 0.77

II 1.0 1.00

III 1.15 1.15

IV 1.15 1.15

Note:
1. The building and structure classification categories are listed in Table 1.2.1

TerrainExposureConstants

Table2.4.3

Exposure Zg(m) c (m) Zmin(m)*

A 7.0 365.76 1/7 0.84 1/4.0 0.45 0.30 97.54 1/3.0 9.14

B 9.5 274.32 1/9.5 1.00 1/6.5 0.65 0.20 152.4 1/5.0 4.57

C 11.5 213.36 1/11.5 1.07 1/9.0 0.80 0.15 198.12 1/8.0 2.13

*zmin = minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is
greater of 0.6h or zmin.

For buildings with h zmin, shall be taken as zmin.

67
Part6

VelocityPressureExposureCoefficients,KhandKz

Table2.4.4

Heightabovegroundlevel,z Exposure(Note1)
A B C
(m) Case1 Case2 Case1&2 Case1&2
04.6 0.70 0.57 0.85 1.03
6.1 0.70 0.62 0.90 1.08
7.6 0.70 0.66 0.94 1.12
9.1 0.70 0.70 0.98 1.16
12.2 0.76 0.76 1.04 1.22
15.2 0.81 0.81 1.09 1.27
18 0.85 0.85 1.13 1.31
21.3 0.89 0.89 1.17 1.34
24.4 0.93 0.93 1.21 1.38
27.41 0.96 0.96 1.24 1.40
30.5 0.99 0.99 1.26 1.43
36.6 1.04 1.04 1.31 1.48
42.7 1.09 1.09 1.36 1.52
48.8 1.13 1.13 1.39 1.55
54.9 1.17 1.17 1.43 1.58
61.0 1.20 1.20 1.46 1.61
76.2 1.28 1.28 1.53 1.68
91.4 1.35 1.35 1.59 1.73
106.7 1.41 1.41 1.64 1.78
121.9 1.47 1.47 1.69 1.82
137.2 1.52 1.52 1.73 1.86
152.4 1.56 1.56 1.77 1.89
Notes:
1.Case1:a.Allcomponentsandcladding.
b.MainwindforceresistingsysteminlowrisebuildingsdesignedusingFigure2.4.10.
Case 2: a. All main wind force resisting systems in buildings except those in lowrise
buildingsdesignedusingFigure2.4.10.
b.Allmainwindforceresistingsystemsinotherstructures.
2. ThevelocitypressureexposurecoefficientKzmaybedeterminedfromthefollowingformula:
For4.57mzz :
g K =2.01(z/z )2/
z g
Forz<4.57m: Kz=2.01(4.57/zg)2/a
Note:zshallnotbetakenlessthan9.1mforCase1inexposureA.
3. andzgaretabulatedinTable2.4.3.
4. Linearinterpolationforintermediatevalues.ofheightzisacceptable.
5. Exposurecategoriesaredefinedin2.4.8.3.

68
 Chapter2

WindDirectionalityFactor,Kd

Table2.4.5

StructureType DirectionalityFactorKd*

Buildings
MainWindForceResistingSystem 0.85
ComponentsandCladding 0.85

ArchedRoofs 0.85

Chimneys,Tanks,andSimilarStructures
Square
Hexagonal 0.90
Round 0.95
0.95

SolidSigns 0.85

OpenSignsandLatticeFramework 0.85

TrussedTowers
Triangular,square,rectangular 0.85
Allothercrosssections 0.95

*DirectionalityFactorKdhasbeencalibratedwithcombinationsofloadsspecifiedinSection2.7.This
factorshallonlybeappliedwhenusedinconjunctionwithloadcombinationsspecifiedin2.7.4and
2.7.5.

69
Part6

2.5 EARTHQUAKELOADS
2.5.1 GENERAL
Minimumdesignearthquakeforcesforbuildings,structuresorcomponentsthereofshallbedeterminedin
accordance with the provisions of section 2.5. Some definitions and symbols relevant for earthquake
resistant design for buildings are provided in Sections 2.5.2 and 2.5.3. Section 2.5.4 presents basic
earthquake resistant design concepts. Section 2.5.5 describes procedures for soil investigations, while
Section 2.5.6 describes procedures for determining earthquake ground motion for design. Section 2.5.7
describesdifferenttypesofbuildingsandstructuralsystemswhichpossessdifferentearthquakeresistant
characteristics. Static analysis procedures for design are described in Sections 2.5.8, 2.5.9 and 2.5.14.
Dynamic analysis procedures are dealt with in Sections 2.5.10 to 2.5.13. Section 2.5.15 presents
combinationofearthquakeloadingeffectsindifferentdirectionsandwithotherloadingeffects.Section
2.5.16dealswithallowabledriftanddeformationlimits.Section2.5.17addressesdesignofnonstructural
componentsinbuildings.Section2.5.18presentsdesignconsiderationsforbuildingswithseismicisolation
systems.DesignforsoftstoreyconditioninbuildingsisaddressedinSection2.5.19.

2.5.2 DEFINITIONS
ThefollowingdefinitionsoftermsshallbeapplicableonlytotheprovisionsofSection2.5:

BASE:Thelevelatwhichtheearthquakemotionsareconsideredtobeimpartedtothestructuresorthe
levelatwhichthestructureasadynamicvibratorissupported.

BASESHEAR:Totaldesignlateralforceorshearduetoearthquakeatthebaseofastructure.

BEARINGWALLSYSTEM:Astructuralsystemwithoutacompleteverticalloadcarryingspaceframe.

BRACEDFRAME:Anessentiallyverticaltrusssystemoftheconcentricoreccentrictypeprovidedtoresist
lateralforces.

BUILDINGFRAMESYSTEM:Anessentiallycompletespaceframewhichprovidessupportforgravityloads.

CAPACITYCURVE:Aplotofthetotalappliedlateralforce,Vj,versusthelateraldisplacementofthecontrol
point,j,asdeterminedinanonlinearstaticanalysis.

CONTROL POINT: A point used to index the lateral displacement of the structure in a nonlinear static
analysis.

CRITICALDAMPING:Amountofdampingbeyondwhichthefreevibrationwillnotbeoscillatory.

DAMPING: The effect of inherent energy dissipation mechanisms in a structure (due to sliding, friction,
etc.)thatresultsinreductionofeffectofvibration,expressedasapercentageofthecriticaldampingfor
thestructure.

DESIGNACCELERATIONRESPONSESPECTRUM:Smoothenedidealizedplotofmaximumaccelerationofa
singledegreeoffreedomstructureasafunctionofstructureperiodfordesignearthquakegroundmotion.

DESIGNEARTHQUAKE:Theearthquakegroundmotionconsidered(fornormaldesign)astwothirdsofthe
correspondingMaximumConsideredEarthquake(MCE).

70
 Chapter2

DIAPHRAGM:Ahorizontalornearlyhorizontalsystemofstructuresactingtotransmitlateralforcestothe
vertical resisting elements. The term "diaphragm" includes reinforced concrete floor slabs as well as
horizontalbracingsystems.

DUALSYSTEM:AcombinationofaSpecialorIntermediateMomentResistingFrameandShearWallsor
BracedFramesdesignedinaccordancewiththecriteriaofSec1.3.2.

DUCTILITY: Capacity of a structure, or its members to undergo large inelastic deformations without
significantlossofstrengthorstiffness.

ECCENTRICBRACEDFRAME(EBF):AsteelbracedframedesignedinconformancewithSec10.20.15.

EPICENTRE:Thepointonthesurfaceofearthverticallyabovethefocus(pointoforigin)oftheearthquake.

ESSENTIAL FACILITIES : Buildings and structures which are necessary to remain functional during an
emergencyorapostdisasterperiod.

FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM : A floor or roof diaphragm shall be considered flexible, for purposes of this
provision,whenthemaximumlateraldeformationofthediaphragmismorethantwotimestheaverage
storey drift of the associated storey. This may be determined by comparing the computed midpoint in
plane deflection of the diaphragm under lateral load with the storey drift of adjoining vertical resisting
elementsunderequivalenttributarylateralload.

FLEXIBLE ELEMENT OR SYSTEM : An element or system whose deformation under lateral load is
significantlylargerthanadjoiningpartsofthesystem.

HORIZONTALBRACINGSYSTEM:Ahorizontaltrusssystemthatservesthesamefunctionasafloororroof
diaphragm.

IMPORTANCE FACTOR: It is a factor used to increase the design seismic forces for structures of
importance.

INTENSITYOFEARTHQUAKE:Itisameasureoftheamountofgroundshakingataparticularsiteduetoan
earthquake

INTERMEDIATE MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (IMRF): A concrete or steel frame designed in accordance
withSec8.3or10.20.10respectively.

LIQUEFACTION: State in saturated cohesionless soil wherein the effective shear strength is reduced to
negligible value due to pore water pressure generated by earthquake vibrations, when the pore water
pressureapproachesthetotalconfiningpressure.Inthiscondition,thesoiltendstobehavelikealiquid.

MAGNITUDEOFEARTHQUAKE:Themagnitudeofearthquakeisanumber,whichisameasureofenergy
releasedinanearthquake.

MAXIMUMCONSIDEREDEARTHQUAKE(MCE):Themostsevereearthquakegroundmotionconsideredby
thiscode.

MODALMASS:partofthetotalseismicmassofthestructurethatiseffectiveinmodekofvibration.

MODAL PARTICIPATION FACTOR: Amount by which mode k contributes to the overall vibration of the
structureunderhorizontalandverticalearthquakegroundmotions.

71
Part6

MODAL SHAPE COEFFICIENT: When a system is vibrating in a normal mode, at any particular instant of
time, the vibration amplitude of mass i expressed as a ratio of the vibration amplitude of one of the
massesofthesystem,isknownasmodalshapecoefficient

MOMENTRESISTINGFRAME:Aframeinwhichmembersandjointsarecapableofresistinglateralforces
primarilybyflexure.Momentresistingframesareclassifiedasordinarymomentresistingframes(OMRF),
intermediatemomentresistingframes(IMRF)andspecialmomentresistingframes(SMRF).

NUMBEROFSTOREYS(n):Numberofstoreysofabuildingisthenumberoflevelsabovethebase.This
excludes the basement storeys, where basement walls are connected with ground floor deck or fitted
betweenthebuildingcolumns.But,itincludesthebasementstoreys,whentheyarenotsoconnected.

ORDINARYMOMENTRESISTINGFRAME(OMRF):Amomentresistingframenotmeetingspecialdetailing
requirementsforductilebehaviour.

PDELTAEFFECT:Itisthesecondaryeffectonshearsandmomentsofframemembersduetoactionofthe
verticalloadsduetothelateraldisplacementofbuildingresultingfromseismicforces.

PERIOD OF BUILDING: Fundamental period (for 1st mode) of vibration of building for lateral motion in
directionconsidered.

RESPONSEREDUCTIONFACTOR:Itisthefactorbywhichtheactualbaseshearforcethatwoulddevelopif
the structure behaved truly elastic during earthquake, is reduced to obtain design base shear. This
reduction is allowed to account for the beneficial effects of inelastic deformation (resulting in energy
dissipation)thatcanoccurinastructureduringamajorearthquake,stillensuringacceptableresponseof
thestructure.

SEISMICDESIGNCATEGORY:Aclassificationassignedtoastructurebasedonitsimportancefactorandthe
severityofthedesignearthquakegroundmotionatthesite.

SEISMICFORCERESISTING SYSTEM: That part of the structural system that has been considered in the
designtoprovidetherequiredresistancetotheseismicforces.

SHEAR WALL : A wall designed to resist lateral forces acting in its plane (sometimes referred to as a
verticaldiaphragmorastructuralwall).

SOFTSTOREY:Storeyinwhichthelateralstiffnessislessthan70percentofthestiffnessofthestorey
aboveorlessthan80percentoftheaveragelateralstiffnessofthethreestoreysabove.

SITECLASS:Siteisclassifiedbasedonsoilpropertiesofupper30meters.

SPACE FRAME : A threedimensional structural system without bearing walls composed of members
interconnectedsoastofunctionasacompleteselfcontainedunitwithorwithouttheaidofhorizontal
diaphragmsorfloorbracingsystems.

SPECIAL MOMENT RESISTING FRAME (SMRF) : A moment resisting frame specially detailed to provide
ductilebehaviourcomplyingwiththeseismicrequirementsprovidedinChapters8and10forconcrete
andsteelframesrespectively.

STOREY:Thespacebetweenconsecutivefloorlevels.Storeyxisthestoreybelowlevelx.

STOREYSHEAR:Thetotalhorizontalshearforceataparticularstorey(level).

STOREYDRIFT:Thehorizontaldeflectionatthetopofthestoryrelativetobottomofthestorey.

72
 Chapter2

STRENGTH : The usable capacity of an element or a member to resist the load as prescribed in these
provisions.

TARGET DISPLACEMENT: An estimate of the maximum expected displacement of the control point
calculatedforthedesignearthquakegroundmotioninnonlinearstaticanalysis.

VERTICALLOADCARRYINGFRAME:Aspaceframedesignedtocarryallverticalgravityloads.

WEAKSTOREY:Storeyinwhichthelateralstrengthislessthan80percentofthatofthestoreyabove.

2.5.3 SYMBOLSANDNOTATION
Thefollowingsymbolsandnotationshallapplytotheprovisionsofthissection:

Ax = torsionamplificationfactoratlevelx.

Cd = Deflectionamplificationfactor.

Cs = Normalizedaccelerationresponsespectrum.

Ct = numericalcoefficienttodeterminebuildingperiod

eai = Accidentaleccentricityoffloormassatleveli

Fi,Fn,Fx= designlateralforceappliedtoleveli,n,orxrespectively.

= lateralforcesonanelementorcomponentoronequipmentsupports.

g = accelerationduetogravity.

hi,hn,hx= Heightinmetresabovethebasetoleveli,norxrespectively

hsx = StoreyHeightofstoreyx(belowlevelx)

I = Importancefactor

Leveli = floorlevelofthestructurereferredtobythesubscripti,e.g.,i=1designates
thefirstlevelabovethebase.

Leveln = Uppermostlevelinthemainportionofthestructure.

Mx = Overturningmomentatlevelx

Ni = StandardPenetrationNumberofsoillayeri

Px = Totalverticaldesignloadatlevelx

R = Responsereductionfactorforstructuralsystems

S = Soilfactor.

Sa = DesignSpectralAcceleration(inunitsofg)

Sui = Undrainedshearstrengthofcohesivelayeri

T = Fundamentalperiodofvibrationofstructure,inseconds,ofthestructureinthe
directionunderconsideration.

Te = Effective fundamental period of the structure in the direction under

consideration,asdeterminedfornonlinearstaticanalysis

73
Part6

V = Totaldesignbaseshearcalculatedbyequivalentstaticanalysis

V1 = Total applied lateral force at the first increment of lateral load in nonlinear
staticanalysis.

Vy = Effectiveyieldstrengthdeterminedfromabilinearcurvefittedtothecapacity
curve

Vrs = Totaldesignbaseshearcalculatedbyresponsespectrumanalysis

Vth = Totaldesignbaseshearcalculatedbytimehistoryanalysis

Vsi = Shearwavevelocityofsoillayeri

Vx = Designstoreyshearinstoreyx

W = Totalseismicweightofbuilding

wi,wx = PortionofWwhichisassignedtoleveliandxrespectively

Z = Seismiczonecoefficient.

i = Horizontal displacement at leveli relative to the base due to applied lateral

forces.

j = Thedisplacementofthecontrolpointatloadincrementj.

T = Thetargetdisplacementofthecontrolpoint.

1 = Thedisplacementofthecontrolpointatthefirstincrementoflateralload.

y = Theeffectiveyielddisplacementofthecontrolpointdeterminedfromabilinear
curvefittedtothecapacitycurve

a = Maximumallowablestoreydrift

x = Designstoreydriftofstoreyx

= Dampingcorrectionfactor

ik = Modalshapecoefficientatleveliformodek

= StabilitycoefficienttoassessPdeltaeffects
= Viscousdampingratioofthestructure

2.5.4 EARTHQUAKERESISTANTDESIGNBASICCONCEPTS

2.5.4.1 GENERALPRINCIPLES
Thepurposeofearthquakeresistantdesignprovisionsinthiscodeistoprovideguidelinesforthedesign
andconstructionofnewstructuressubjecttoearthquakegroundmotionsinordertominimizetheriskto
lifeforallstructures,toincreasetheexpectedperformanceofhigheroccupancystructuresascompared
to ordinary structures, and to improve the capability of essential structures to function after an
earthquake. Itis not economically feasible to design andconstructbuildings withoutany damage for a
majorearthquakeevent.Theintentisthereforetoallowinelasticdeformationandstructuraldamageat

74
 Chapter2

preferred locations in the structure without endangering structural integrity and to prevent structural
collapseduringamajorearthquake.

Theexpectedearthquakegroundmotionatthesiteduetoallprobableearthquakesmaybeevaluatedin
deterministic or probabilistic terms. The ground motion at the site due to an earthquake is a complex
phenomenaanddependsonseveralparameterssuchasearthquakemagnitude,focaldepth,earthquake
sourcecharacteristics,distancefromearthquakeepicenter,wavepathcharacteristics,aswellaslocalsoil
conditionsatthesite.Theseismiczoningmapdividesthecountryintofourseismiczoneswithdifferent
expected levels of intensity of ground motion. Each seismic zone has a zone coefficient which provides
expected peak ground acceleration values on rock/firm soil corresponding to the maximum considered
earthquake(MCE).Thedesignbasisearthquakeistakenas2/3ofthemaximumconsideredearthquake.

Theeffectsoftheearthquakegroundmotiononthestructureisexpressedintermsofanidealizedelastic
design acceleration response spectrum, which depends on (a) seismic zone coefficient and local soil
conditionsdefininggroundmotionand(b)importancefactorandresponsereductionfactorrepresenting
building considerations. The earthquake forces acting on the structure is reduced using the response
modification/reduction factor R in order to take advantage of the inelastic energy dissipation due to
inherent ductility and redundancy in the structure as well as material overstrength. The importance
factor I increases design forces for important structures. If suitable lateral force resisting systems with
adequateductilityanddetailingandgood constructionareprovided,thebuildingcanbedesignedfora
response reduction factor R which may be as high as 5 to 8. Because of this fact, the provisions of this
Code for ductility and detailing need to be satisfied even for structures and members for which load
combinations that do not contain the earthquake effect indicate larger demands than combinations
including earthquake. The elastic deformations calculated under these reduced design forces are
multipliedbythedeflectionamplificationfactor,Cd,toestimatethedeformationslikelytoresultfromthe
designearthquake.

The seismic design guidelines presented in this section are based on the assumption that the soil
supporting the structure will not liquefy, settle or slide due to loss of strength during the earthquake.
Reinforcedandprestressedconcretemembersshallbesuitablydesignedtoensurethatprematurefailure
due to shear or bond does not occur. Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete members is of prime
importance. In steel structures, members and their connections should be so proportioned that high
ductilityisobtained,avoidingprematurefailureduetoelasticorinelasticbucklingofanytype.

The building structure shall include complete lateral and vertical forceresisting systems capable of
providing adequate strength, stiffness, and energy dissipation capacity to withstand the design ground
motions within the prescribed limits of deformation and strength demand. The design ground motions
shall be assumed to occur along any horizontal direction of a building structure. The adequacy of the
structural systems shall be demonstrated through the construction of a mathematical model and
evaluation of this model for the effects of design ground motions. The design seismic forces, and their
distributionovertheheightofthebuildingstructure,shallbeestablishedinaccordancewithoneofthe
applicableproceduresindicatedinSection2.5andthecorrespondinginternalforcesanddeformationsin
themembersofthestructureshallbedetermined.Thedeformationofthestructureshallnotexceedthe
prescribedlimitsundertheactionofthedesignseismicforces.

2.5.4.2 CHARACTERISTICSOFEARTHQUAKERESISTANTBUILDINGS
Thedesirablecharacteristicsofearthquakeresistantbuildingsaredescribedbelow:

75
Part6

StructuralSimplicity,UniformityandSymmetry:

Structuralsimplicity,uniformityandplansymmetryischaracterizedbyanevendistributionofmassand
structural elements which allows short and direct transmission of the inertia forces created in the
distributedmassesofthebuildingtoitsfoundation.Themodelling,analysis,detailingandconstructionof
simple (regular) structures are subject to much less uncertainty, hence the prediction of its seismic
behaviourismuchmorereliable.

A building configuration with symmetrical layout of structural elements of the lateral force resisting
system, and welldistributed inplan, is desirable. Uniformity along the height of the building is also
important,sinceittendstoeliminatetheoccurrenceofsensitivezoneswhereconcentrationsofstressor
largeductilitydemandsmightcauseprematurecollapse.

Somebasicguidelinesaregivenbelow:

(i) Withrespecttothelateralstiffnessandmassdistribution,thebuildingstructureshallbe
approximatelysymmetricalinplanwithrespecttotwoorthogonalaxes.

(ii) Boththelateralstiffnessandthemassoftheindividualstoreysshallremainconstantor
reduce gradually, without abrupt changes, from the base to the top of a particular
building.

(iii) All structural elements of the lateral load resisting systems, such as cores, structural
walls, or frames shall run without interruption from the foundations to the top of the
building.

(iv) Anirregularbuildingmaybesubdividedintodynamicallyindependentregularunitswell
separatedagainstpoundingoftheindividualunitstoachieveuniformity.

(v) Thelengthtobreadthratio(=Lmax/Lmin)ofthebuildinginplanshallnotbehigherthan
4, where Lmax andLmin are respectivelythe larger and smaller inplan dimension ofthe
building,measuredinorthogonaldirections.
StructuralRedundancy:

A high degree of redundancy accompanied by redistribution capacity through ductility is desirable,

enabling a more widely spread energy dissipation across the entire structure and an increased total
dissipated energy. The use of evenly distributed structural elements increases redundancy. Structural
systemsofhigherstaticindeterminacymayresultinhigherresponsereductionfactorR.

HorizontalBidirectionalResistanceandStiffness:

Horizontal earthquake motion is a bidirectional phenomenon and thus the building structure needs to
resisthorizontalactioninanydirection.Thestructuralelementsoflateralforceresistingsystemshouldbe
arrangedinanorthogonal(inplan)pattern,ensuringsimilarresistanceandstiffnesscharacteristicsinboth
main directions. The stiffness characteristics of the structure should also limit the development of
excessive displacements that might lead to either instabilities due to second order effects or excessive
damages.

TorsionalResistanceandStiffness

Besides lateral resistance and stiffness, buildingstructures shouldpossess adequate torsional resistance
and stiffness in order to limit the development of torsional motions which tend to stress the different

76
 Chapter2

structural elements in a nonuniform way. In this respect, arrangements in which the main elements
resistingtheseismicactionaredistributedclosetotheperipheryofthebuildingpresentclearadvantages.

DiaphragmBehaviour

Inbuildings,floors(includingtheroof)actashorizontaldiaphragmsthatcollectandtransmittheinertia
forces to the vertical structural systems and ensure that those systems act together in resisting the
horizontalseismicaction.Theactionoffloorsasdiaphragmsisespeciallyrelevantincasesofcomplexand
nonuniform layouts of the vertical structural systems, or where systems with different horizontal
deformabilitycharacteristicsareusedtogether.

Floor systems and the roof should be provided with inplane stiffness and resistance and with effective
connectiontotheverticalstructuralsystems.Particularcareshouldbetakenincasesofnoncompactor
veryelongatedinplanshapesandincasesoflargeflooropenings,especiallyifthelatterarelocatedinthe
vicinity of the main vertical structural elements, thus hindering such effective connection between the
verticalandhorizontalstructure.

Theinplanestiffnessofthefloorsshallbesufficientlylargeincomparisonwiththelateralstiffnessofthe
vertical structural elements, so that the deformation of the floor shall have a small effect on the
distributionoftheforcesamongtheverticalstructuralelements.

Foundation

The design and construction of the foundation and of its connection to the superstructure shall ensure
that the whole building is subjected to a uniform seismic excitation. For buildings with individual
foundation elements (footings or piles), the use of a foundation slab or tiebeams between these
elementsinbothmaindirectionsisrecommended,asdescribedinChapter3.

2.5.5 INVESTIGATIONANDASSESSMENTOFSITECONDITIONS

2.5.5.1 SITEINVESTIGATION
Appropriate site investigations should be carried out to identify the ground conditions influencing the
seismicaction.

The ground conditions at the building site should normally be free from risks of ground rupture, slope
instabilityandpermanentsettlementscausedbyliquefactionordensificationduringanearthquake.The
possibilityofsuchphenomenashouldbeinvestigatedinaccordancewithstandardproceduresdescribed
inSection3.

TheintentofthesiteinvestigationistoclassifytheSiteintooneoftypesSA,SB,SC,SD,SE,S1andS2as
definedinSection2.5.5.2.Suchclassificationisbasedonsiteprofileandevaluatedsoilproperties(shear
wavevelocity,StandardPenetrationResistance,undrainedshearstrength,soiltype).Thesiteclassisused
todeterminetheeffectoflocalsoilconditionsontheearthquakegroundmotion.

ForsitesrepresentingspecialsoiltypeS1orS2,sitespecificspecialstudiesforthegroundmotionshould
be done. Soil type S1, having very low shear wave velocity and low material damping, can produce
anomalous seismicsite amplification and soilstructure interaction effects. ForS2soils,possibility of soil
failureshouldbestudied.

ForastructurebelongingtoSeismicDesignCategoryCorD(Section2.5.7.2),siteinvestigationshouldalso
includedeterminationofsoilparametersfortheassessmentofthefollowing:

77
Part6

a. Slopeinstability.

b. PotentialforLiquefactionandlossofsoilstrength.

c. Differentialsettlement.

d. Surfacedisplacementduetofaultingorlateralspreading.

e. Lateral pressures on basement walls and retaining walls due to earthquake ground
motion.

Liquefaction potential and possible consequences should be evaluated for design earthquake ground
motionsconsistentwithpeakgroundaccelerations.AnySettlementduetodensificationofloosegranular
soils under design earthquake motion should be studied. The occurrence and consequences of geologic
hazardssuchasslopeinstabilityorsurfacefaultingshouldalsobeconsidered.Thedynamiclateralearth
pressureonbasementwallsandretainingwallsduringearthquakegroundshakingistobeconsideredas
anearthquakeloadforuseindesignloadcombinations

2.5.5.2 SITECLASSIFICATION
Site will be classified as type SA, SB, SC, SD, SE, S1 and S2 based on the provisions of this section.
ClassificationwillbedoneinaccordancewithTable2.5.1basedonthesoilpropertiesofupper30meters
ofthesiteprofile.

Averagesoilpropertieswillbedeterminedasgiveninthefollowingequations:

2.5.1

2.5.2

2.5.3

where,

n=numberofsoillayersinupper30m

di=thicknessoflayeri

Vsi=shearwavevelocityoflayeri

Ni=Field(uncorrected)StandardPenetrationValueforlayeri

k=numberofcohesivesoillayersinupper30m

dci=thicknessofcohesivelayeri

Sui=Undrainedshearstrengthofcohesivelayeri

Thesiteprofileuptoadepthof30misdividedintonnumberofdistinctsoilorrocklayers.Wheresome
ofthelayersarecohesive,kisthenumberofcohesivelayers.Hence =30m,while <30

78
 Chapter2

m if k < n in other words if there are both cohesionless and cohesive layers. The standard penetration
valueNasdirectlymeasuredinthefieldwithoutcorrectionwillbeused.

The site classification should be done using average shear wave velocity if this can be estimated,
otherwisethevalueof maybeused.

Table2.5.1: Siteclassificationbasedonsoilproperties

Site Descriptionofsoil profile upto30 AverageSoilPropertiesintop30meters

Class metersdepth
Shear Standard Undrained
wave Penetration shear
velocity Value, strength,
(m/s) (blows/30cm) (kPa)
SA Rock or other rocklike geological >800
formation, including at most 5 m of
weakermaterialatthesurface.
SB Depositsofverydensesand,gravel,or 360800 >50 >250
very stiff clay, at least several tens of
metresinthickness,characterisedbya
gradual increase of mechanical
propertieswithdepth.

SC Deep deposits of dense or medium 180360 1550 70250

dense sand, gravel or stiff clay with
thickness from several tens to many
hundredsofmetres.

SD Deposits of loosetomedium <180 <15 <70

cohesionless soil (with or without
some soft cohesive layers), or of
predominantly softtofirm cohesive
soil.
SE A soil profile consisting of a surface
alluviumlayerwithVsvaluesoftypeC
or D and thickness varying between
about 5 m and 20 m, underlain by
stiffermaterialwithVs>800m/s.

S1 Deposits consisting, or containing a < 100 1020

layer at least 10 m thick, of soft (indicative)
clays/siltswithahigh plasticityindex
(PI>40)andhighwatercontent

S2 Deposits of liquefiable soils, of

sensitive clays, or any other soil
profile not included in types SA to SE
orS1

2.5.6 EARTHQUAKEGROUNDMOTION

2.5.6.1 REGIONALSEISMICITY
Bangladeshcanbeaffectedbymoderatetostrongearthquakeeventsduetoitsproximitytothecollision
boundary of the Northeast moving Indian plate and Eurasian Plate. Strong historical earthquakes with
magnitude greater than 7.0have affected parts of Bangladesh in the last 150 years, some of them had

79
Part6

their epicenters within the country. A brief description of the local geology, tectonic features and
earthquakeoccurrenceintheregionisgiveninAppendixC.

Fig.2.5.1:SeismicZoningMapofBangladesh

2.5.6.2 SEISMICZONING
The intent of the seismic zoning map is to give an indication of the Maximum Considered Earthquake
(MCE)motionatdifferentpartsofthecountry.Inprobabilisticterms,theMCEmotionmaybeconsidered
tocorrespondtohavinga2%probabilityofexceedancewithinaperiodof50years.Thecountryhasbeen

80
 Chapter2

dividedintofourseismiczoneswithdifferentlevelsofgroundmotion.Table2.5.2includesadescriptionof
thefourseismiczones.Fig.2.5.1presentsamapofBangladeshshowingtheboundariesofthefourzones.
Each zone has a seismic zone coefficient (Z) which represents the maximum considered peak ground
acceleration(PGA)onverystiffsoil/rock(siteclassSA)inunitsofg(accelerationduetogravity).Thezone
coefficients(Z)ofthefourzonesare:Z=0.12(Zone1),Z=0.20(Zone2),Z=0.28(Zone3)andZ=0.36(Zone
4). Table 2.5.3 lists zone coefficients for some important towns of Bangladesh. The most severe
earthquakepronezone,Zone4isinthenortheastwhichincludesSylhetandhasamaximumPGAvalueof
0.36g.DhakacityfallsinthemoderateseismicintensityzonewithZ=0.2,whileChittagongcityfallsina
severeintensityzonewithZ=0.28.

Table2.5.2DescriptionofSeismicZones

Seismic
Seismic Seismic Zone
Location
Zone Intensity Coefficient,
Z
1 SouthwesternpartincludingBarisal, Low 0.12
Khulna,Jessore,Rajshahi
2 LowerCentralandNorthwestern Moderate 0.20
partincludingNoakhali,Dhaka,
Pabna,Dinajpur,aswellas
Southwesterncornerincluding
Sundarbans
3 UpperCentralandNorthwestern Severe 0.28
partincludingBrahmanbaria,
Sirajganj,Rangpur
4 NortheasternpartincludingSylhet, VerySevere 0.36
Mymensingh,Kurigram

Table2.5.3 SeismicZoneCoefficientZforSomeImportantTownsofBangladesh

Town Z Town Z Town Z Town Z

Bagerhat 0.12 Dinajpur 0.20 Kushtia 0.20 Panchagarh 0.20
Bandarban 0.28 Faridpur 0.20 Lalmanirhat 0.28 Patuakhali 0.12
Barguna 0.12 Feni 0.20 Madaripur 0.20 Rajbari 0.20
Barisal 0.12 Gaibandha 0.28 Manikganj 0.20 Rajshahi 0.12
Bhola 0.12 Gazipur 0.20 Mongla 0.12 Rangamati 0.28
Bogra 0.28 Habiganj 0.36 Munshiganj 0.20 Rangpur 0.28
Brahmanbaria 0.28 Jaipurhat 0.20 Mymensingh 0.36 Satkhira 0.12
Chandpur 0.20 Jamalpur 0.36 Narsingdi 0.28 Sirajganj 0.28
Chittagong 0.28 Jessore 0.12 Natore 0.20 Srimangal 0.36
Chuadanga 0.12 Khagrachari 0.28 Naogaon 0.20 Sunamganj 0.36
Comilla 0.20 Khulna 0.12 Netrakona 0.36 Sylhet 0.36
Cox'sBazar 0.28 Kishoreganj 0.36 Noakhali 0.20 Tangail 0.28
Dhaka 0.20 Kurigram 0.36 Pabna 0.20 Thakurgaon 0.20

81
Part6

2.5.6.3 DESIGNRESPONSESPECTRUM
The earthquake ground motion for which the building has to be designed is represented by the design
responsespectrum.Bothstaticanddynamicanalysismethodsarebasedonthisresponsespectrum.This
spectrumrepresentsthespectralaccelerationforwhichthebuildinghastobedesignedasafunctionof
the building period, taking into account the ground motion intensity. The spectrum is based on elastic
analysis but in order to account for energy dissipation due to inelastic deformation and benefits of
structuralredundancy,thespectralaccelerationsarereducedbytheresponsemodificationfactorR.For
importantstructures,thespectralaccelerationsareincreasedbytheimportancefactorI.Thedesignbasis
earthquake (DBE) ground motion is selected at a ground shaking level that is 2/3 of the maximum
consideredearthquake(MCE)groundmotion.Theeffectoflocalsoilconditionsontheresponsespectrum
isincorporatedinthenormalizedaccelerationresponsespectrumCs.

Thespectralaccelerationforthedesignearthquakeisgivenbythefollowingequation:

2 ZI
Sa = C s (2.5.4)
3 R
where,

Sa=Designspectralacceleration(inunitsofg),whichshallnotbelessthan2/3*ZI*.

=coefficientusedtocalculatelowerboundforSa.Recommendedvalueforis0.2.

Z=Seismiczonecoefficient,asdefinedinSection2.5.6.2

I=Structureimportancefactor,asdefinedinSection2.5.7.1

R=ResponsereductionfactorwhichdependsonthetypeofstructuralsystemgiveninTable2.5.7.The
ratioI/Rcannotbegreaterthanone.

Cs=Normalizedaccelerationresponsespectrum,whichisafunctionofstructure(building)periodandsoil
type(siteclass)asdefinedbyEquations2.5.5ad

C s = S 1 +
T
(2.5 1 ) for 0 T TB (2.5.5a)
TB

C s = 2.5S for TB T TC (2.5.5b)

T
C s = 2.5S C for TC T TD (2.5.5c)
T

T T
C s = 2.5S C D for TD T 4 sec (2.5.5d )
T2

CsdependsonSandvaluesofTB,TCandTD,(Fig.2.5.2)whichareallfunctionsofthesiteclass.ConstantCs
valuebetweenperiodsTBandTCrepresentsconstantspectralacceleration.

S=SoilfactorwhichdependsonsiteclassandisgiveninTable2.5.4

T=Structure(building)periodasdefinedinSection2.5.9.2

TB = Lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch given in Table 2.5.4 as a
functionofsiteclass.

82
 Chapterr2

TC = Upper
U limit off the period of
o the constan
nt spectral accceleration bran
nch given in Table
T 2.5.4 as a
functio
onofsiteclasss

TD = Lower
L limit of the period off the constantt spectral disp
placement branch given in Table
T 2.5.4 as a
functio
onofsiteclasss

= Damping correcction factor ass a function off damping witth a referencee value of =1
1 for 5% viscous
dampiing.Itisgivenbythefollowin
ngexpression:

= 10 /( 5 + ) 0 .5
55 (2.5.6)

wheree,isthevisco ucture,expresssedasaperceentageofcriticaldamping.Th
ousdampingraatioofthestru he
valueofcannotbe
esmallerthan0
0.55.

Figure2..5.2:TypicalSha
apeoftheElasticResponseSpe
ectrumCoefficieentCs

Table2.5.4:Sitedependenttsoilfactorandotherparamete
ersdefiningelassticresponsesp
pectrum

Soiltyype S TB(s) TC TD
(s) (s)
SA
S 1..0 0.15 0.40 2.00
S
SB 1..2 0.15 0.50 2.00
S
SC 1.1
15 0.20 0.60 2.00
SD
S 1.3
35 0.20 0.80 2.00
S
SE 1..4 0.15 0.50 2.00

nticipated(dessignbasiseartthquake)peakgroundacceleeration(PGA) forrockorveerystiffsoil(site
Thean
S is 2/3*Z. However, for design, the ground
class SA) g motion
n is modified through the use
u of response
reducttionfactorRandimportanceefactorI,resulltinginPGArockk=2/3*Z*I/R.Fiig.2.5.3showssthenormalizeed
acceleeration response spectrum Cs for 5% dam
mping, which may
m be defined
d as the 5% damped
d spectrral
acceleeration (obtain
ned by Eq.2.5..4) normalized
d with respectt to PGArock. This figure deemonstrates th
he
significcantinfluenceofsiteclasson
ntheresponseespectrum.

83
Part6

Figure2..5.3: NormalizzedDesignAcce
elerationRespon
nseSpectrumfo
ordifferentsite
eclasses.
nSpectrumforrElasticAnalyssis
Design

For sitte classes SA to SE, the de

esign acceleraation response or elastic analysis methods is
e spectrum fo
obtain
nedusingEq.(2
2.5.4)tocomp
puteSa(inunittsofg)asafu
unctionofperiiodT.Thedessignacceleratio
on
respon
nse spectrum represents th
he expected ground motion
n (Design Basiss Earthquake) divided by th
he
factorR/I.

nSpectrumforrInelasticAnalysis
Design

Forinelasticanalysissmethods,theeanticipatedggroundmotion
n(DesignBasissEarthquake) isdirectlyuseed.
Corresspondingreald
designacceleraationresponseespectrumisu
used,whichisobtainedbyussingR=1andI==1
in Eq.((2.5.4). The reeal design acceleration resp
ponse spectrum
m is equal to design acceleeration response
spectrrummultiplied
dbyR/I.

SiteSp
pecificDesignSSpectrum

ForsitteclassS1andS2,sitespecificstudiesaren
neededtoobtaaindesignresp m.Forimportant
ponsespectrum
projeccts,sitespecificstudiesmayyalsobecarrieedouttodeteerminespectru
uminsteadof usingEq.(2.5.4
4).
Theob
bjectiveofsuchsitespecificgroundmotionanalysisisto
odeterminegro
oundmotionsforlocalseism
mic
andsitteconditionsw
withhighercon
nfidencethanispossibleusin
ngsimplifiedequations.

2.5.7
7 BUILD
DINGCATEG
GORIES

2.5.7
7.1 IMPOR
RTANCEFA
ACTOR
Buildin
ngs are classified in four occupancy
o cattegories in Ch
hapter 1 (Tab
ble 1.2.1), dep
pending on th
he
conseq
quencesofcollapseforhum
manlife,ontheeirimportanceeforpublicsaffetyandcivilp
protectioninth
he
immed
diateposteartthquakeperiod
d,andonthessocialandeconomicconsequ
uencesofcollaapse.Dependin
ng
on occupancy categgory, buildingss may be designed for high
her seismic fo
orces using im
mportance factor
 Chapter2

greater than one. Table 2.5.5 defines different occupancy categories and corresponding importance
factor.

Table2.5.5ImportanceFactorsforBuildingsandStructuresforEarthquakedesign
Occupancy Importance
Category factorI
IorII 1.0
III 1.25
IV 1.5

2.5.7.2 SEISMICDESIGNCATEGORY
Buildings shall be assigned a seismic design category among B, C or D based on seismic zone, local site
conditions and importance class of building, as given in Table 2.5.6. Seismic design category D has the
most stringent seismic design detailing, while seismic design category B has the least seismic design
detailingrequirements.

Table2.5.6SeismicDesignCategoryofBuildings

OccupancyCategoryI,IIandIII OccupancyCategoryIV

Site Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone
Class 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
SA B C C D C D D D
SB B C D D C D D D
SC B C D D C D D D
SD C D D D D D D D
SE,S1,S2 D D D D D D D D

2.5.7.3 BUILDINGIRREGULARITY:
Buildings with irregularity in plan or elevation suffer much more damage in earthquakes than buildings
with regular configuration. A building may be considered as irregular, if at least one of the conditions
givenbelowareapplicable:

2.5.7.3.1 PlanIrregularity

i) Torsionirregularity
To be considered for rigid floor diaphragms, when the maximum storey drift (max) as
showninFig.2.5.4a,computedincludingaccidentaltorsion,atoneendofthestructureis
morethan1.2timestheaverage(avg=(max+min)/2)ofthestoreydriftsatthetwoendsof
the structure. If max>1.4avg then the irregularity is termed as extreme torsional
irregularity.

ii) Reentrantcorners
Bothprojectionsofthestructurebeyondareentrantcomer(Fig.2.5.4b)aregreaterthan
15percentofitsplandimensioninthegivendirection.

iii) DiaphragmDiscontinuitv

85
Part6

Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having

cutout(Fig.2.5.4c)oropenareasgreaterthan50%ofthegrossencloseddiaphragmarea,
orchangesineffectivediaphragmstiffnessofmorethan50%fromonestoreytothenext.

iv) OutOfPlaneOffsets
Discontinuities in a lateral force resistance path, such as out ofplane offsets of vertical
elements,asshowninFig.2.5.4d.

v) NonparallelSystems
The vertical elements resisting the lateral force are not parallel to or symmetric (Fig.
2.5.4e)aboutthemajororthogonalaxesofthelateralforceresistingelements.

Fig.2.5.4aTorsionalIrregularity

Fig.2.5.4bReentrantcorners(A/L>0.15)

Fig.2.5.4cDiaphragmDiscontinuitv

86
 Chapter2

Fig.2.5.4dOutOfPlaneOffsetsofShearWall

Fig.2.5.4eNonparallelSystemsofShearWall

2.5.7.3.2 VerticalIrregularity

i) StiffnessIrregularitySoftStorey
Asoftstoreyisoneinwhichthelateralstiffnessislessthan70%ofthatinthestoreyabove
orlessthan80%oftheaveragelateralstiffnessofthethreestoreysaboveirregularity(Fig.
2.5.5a).Anextremesoftstoreyisdefinedwhereitslateralstiffnessislessthan60%ofthat
inthe storeyaboveorlessthan70%oftheaveragelateralstiffnessofthethreestoreys
above.

ii) MassIrregularity
The seismic weight of any storey is more than twice of that of its adjacent storeys (Fig.
2.5.5b).Thisirregularityneednotbeconsideredincaseofroofs.

iii) VerticalGeometricIrregularity
ThisirregularityexistsforbuildingswithsetbackswithdimensionsgiveninFig.2.5.5c.

iv) VerticalInPlaneDiscontinuityinVerticalElementsResistingLateralForce
Aninplaneoffsetofthelateralforceresistingelementsgreaterthanthelengthofthose
elements(Fig.2.5.5d).

v) DiscontinuityinCapacityWeakStorey
A weak storey is one in which the storey lateral strength is less than 80% of that in the
storeyabove.Thestoreylateralstrengthisthetotalstrengthofallseismicforceresisting
elements sharing the storey shear in the considered direction (Fig. 2.5.5e). An extreme
weakstoreyisonewherethestoreylateralstrengthislessthan65%ofthatinthestorey
above.

87
Part6

Fig.2.5.5aSoftStorey

Fig.2.5.5bMassIrregularity

L2>1.3L1

Fig.2.5.5cVerticalGeometricIrregularity(SetbackStructures)

88
 Chapter2

Fig.2.5.5dVerticalInPlaneDiscontinuityinVerticalElementsResistingLateralForce

Fig.2.5.5eWeakStorey

2.5.7.4 TYPEOFSTRUCTURALSYSTEMS
The basic lateral and vertical seismic forceresisting system shall conform to one of the types A to G
indicated in Table 2.5.7. Each type is again subdivided by the types of vertical elements used to resist
lateralseismicforces.AcombinationofsystemsmayalsobepermittedasstatedinSection2.5.7.5.

ThestructuralsystemtobeusedshallbeinaccordancewiththeseismicdesigncategoryindicatedinTable
2.5.6. Structural systems that are not permitted for a certain seismic design category are indicated by
NP. Structural systems that do not have any height restriction are indicated by NL. Where there is
heightlimit,themaximumheightinmetersisgiven.

Theresponsereductionfactor,R,andthedeflectionamplificationfactor,Cd,indicatedinTable2.5.7shall
beusedindeterminingthedesignbaseshearanddesignstorydrift.

Theselectedseismicforceresistingsystemshallbedesignedanddetailedinaccordancewiththespecific
requirementsforthesystem.

89
Part6

Table2.5.7Responsereductionfactor,deflectionamplificationfactorfordifferentStructuralSystems
andheightlimitations(m)fordifferentseismicdesigncategories

Amplification

Seis.Design

Seis.Design

Seis.Design
CategoryD
CategoryB

CategoryC
Deflection
Reduction
Response

Factor,Cd
Factor,R
SeismicForceResistingSystem

Heightlimit(m)
A.BEARINGWALLSYSTEMS(noframe)
1. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 5 5 NL NL 50
2. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 4 4 NL NL NP
3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls 2 1.75 NL 50 NP
4. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls 1.5 1.25 18 NP NP
B.BUILDINGFRAMESYSTEMS(with
bracingorshearwall)
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames, 8 4 NL NL 50
moment resisting connections at
columns away from links
2. Steel eccentrically braced frames, 7 4 NL NL 50
non-moment-resisting, connections at
columns away from links
3. Special steel concentrically braced 6 5 NL NL 50
frames
4. Ordinary steel concentrically braced 3.25 3.25 NL NL 11
frames
5. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 6 5 NL 50 50
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 5 4.25 NL NL NP
7. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls 2 2 NL 50 NP
8. Ordinary plain masonry shear walls 1.5 1.25 18 NP NP
C.MOMENTRESISTINGFRAMESYSTEMS
(noshearwall)
1. Special steel moment frames 8 5.5 NL NL P
2. Intermediate steel moment frames 4.5 4 NL NL 35
3. Ordinary steel moment frames 3.5 3 NL NL NP
4. Special reinforced concrete moment frames 8 5.5 NL NL NL
5. Intermediate reinforced concrete moment 5 4.5 NL NL NP
frames
6. Ordinary reinforced concrete moment 3 2.5 NL NP NP
frames
D.DUALSYSTEMS:SPECIALMOMENT
FRAMESCAPABLEOFRESISTINGAT
LEAST25%OFPRESCRIBEDSEISMIC
FORCES(withbracingorshearwall)
1. Steel eccentrically braced frames 8 4 NL NL NL
2. Special steel concentrically braced frames 7 5.5 NL NL NL

90
 Chapter2

Amplification

Seis.Design

Seis.Design

Seis.Design
CategoryD
CategoryB

CategoryC
Deflection
Reduction
Response

Factor,Cd
Factor,R
SeismicForceResistingSystem

Heightlimit(m)

3. Special reinforced concrete shear walls
7 5.5 NL NL NL
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 6 5 NL NL NP
E.DUALSYSTEMS:INTERMEDIATE
MOMENTFRAMESCAPABLEOF
RESISTINGATLEAST25%OFPRESCRIBED
SEISMICFORCES(withbracingorshear
wall)
1. Special steel concentrically braced frames 6 5 NL NL 11
2. Special reinforced concrete shear walls 6.5 5 NL NL 50
3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear walls 3 3 NL 50 NP
4. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 5.5 4.5 NL NL NP
F.DUALSHEARWALLFRAMESYSTEM: 4.5 4 NL NP NP
ORDINARYREINFORCEDCONCRETE
MOMENTFRAMESANDORDINARY
REINFORCEDCONCRETESHEARWALLS
G.STEELSYSTEMSNOTSPECIFICALLY 3 3 NL NL NP
DETAILEDFORSEISMICRESISTANCE
NOTE:
1. Under seismic design category, NL = No height restriction, NP = Not permitted,
Number represents maximum allowable height (m).
2. Dual Systems include buildings which consist of both moment resisting frame
and shear walls (or braced frame) where both systems resist the total design
forces in proportion to their lateral stiffness.
3. See Table 10.C.3.1 of Sec. 10 for additional values of R and Cd and height
limitsforsomeothertypesofsteelstructuresnotcoveredinTable2.5.7

SeismicforceresistingsystemsthatarenotgiveninTable2.5.7maybepermittedifsubstantialanalytical
andtestdataaresubmittedthatestablishthedynamiccharacteristicsanddemonstratethelateralforce
resistanceandenergydissipationcapacitytobeequivalenttothestructuralsystemslistedinTable2.5.7
forequivalentresponsemodificationcoefficient,R,anddeflectionamplificationfactor,Cd,values.

2.5.7.5 COMBINATIONOFSTRUCTURALSYSTEMS
2.5.7.5.1 CombinationsofStructuralSystemsinDifferentDirections:
Differentseismicforceresistingsystemsarepermittedtobeusedtoresistseismicforcesalongeachof
the two orthogonal axes of the structure. Where different systems are used, the respective R and Cd
coefficientsshallapplytoeachsystem,includingthelimitationsonsystemusecontainedinTable2.5.7.

2.5.7.5.2 CombinationsofStructuralSystemsintheSameDirection:
Where different seismic forceresisting systems are used in combination to resist seismic forces in the
same direction of structural response, other than those combinations considered as dual systems, the

91
Part6

morestringentsystemlimitationcontainedinTable2.5.7shallapply.ThevalueofRusedfordesigninthat
directionshallnotbegreaterthantheleastvalueofRforanyofthesystemsutilizedinthatdirection.The
deflectionamplificationfactor,Cdinthedirectionunderconsiderationatanystoryshallnotbelessthan
thelargestvalueofthisfactorfortheRfactorusedinthesamedirectionbeingconsidered

2.5.8 STATICANALYSISPROCEDURE
Although analysis of buildings subjected to dynamic earthquake loads should theoretically require
dynamic analysis procedures, for certain type of building structures subjected to earthquake shaking,
simplifiedstaticanalysisproceduresmayalsoprovidereasonablygoodresults.Theequivalentstaticforce
methodissuchaprocedurefordeterminingtheseismiclateralforcesactingonthestructure.Thistypeof
analysismaybeappliedtobuildingswhoseseismicresponseisnotsignificantlyaffectedbycontributions
from modes higher than the fundamental mode in each direction. This requirement is deemed to be
satisfiedinbuildingswhichfulfillthefollowingtwoconditions:

a. Thebuildingperiodinthetwomainhorizontaldirectionsissmallerthanboth4TC(TCis
definedinSection2.5.6.3)and2sec.

b. ThebuildingdoesntpossessirregularityinelevationasdefinedinSection2.5.7.3.

2.5.9 EQUIVALENTSTATICANALYSIS
Theevaluationoftheseismicloadsstartswiththecalculationofthedesignbaseshearwhichisderived
from the design response spectrum presented in Section 2.5.6.3. This section presents different
computationsrelevanttotheequivalentstaticanalysisprocedure.

2.5.9.1 DESIGNBASESHEAR
Theseismicdesignbaseshearforceinagivendirectionshallbedeterminedfromthefollowingrelation:

V = SaW (2.5.7)

where,

Sa = Lateral seismic force coefficient calculated using Eq.2.5.4 (Section 2.5.6.3). It is the design spectral
acceleration(inunitsofg)correspondingtothebuildingperiodT(computedasperSection2.5.9.2).

W=TotalseismicweightofthebuildingdefinedinSection2.5.9.3

2.5.9.2 BUILDINGPERIOD
The fundamental period T of the building in the horizontal direction under consideration shall be
determinedusingthefollowingguidelines:

a) Structuraldynamicsprocedures(suchasRayleighmethodormodaleigenvalueanalysis),
usingstructuralpropertiesanddeformationcharacteristicsofresistingelements,maybe
used to determine the fundamental period T of the building in the direction under
consideration. This period shall not exceed the approximate fundamental period
determinedbyEquation(2.5.8)bymorethan40%.

b) ThebuildingperiodT(insecs)maybeapproximatedbythefollowingformula:
2.5.8
T = Ct (hn )m

92
 Chapter2

where,

hn = Height of building in metres from foundation or from top of rigid basement.

Thisexcludesthebasementstoreys,wherebasementwallsareconnectedwith
the ground floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But it includes
thebasementstoreys,whentheyarenotsoconnected.

CtandmareobtainedfromTable2.5.8

Table2.5.8Valuesforcoefficientstoestimateapproximateperiod
Structuretype Ct m

Concrete moment-resisting frames 0.0466 0.9

Steel moment-resisting frames 0.0724 0.8

Eccentrically braced steel frame 0.0731 0.75

All other structural systems 0.0488 0.75

NOTE:
Consider moment resisting frames as frames which resist
100% of seismic force and are not enclosed or adjoined by
componentsthataremorerigidandwillpreventtheframes
fromdeflectingunderseismicforces.

c) Formasonryorconcreteshearwallstructures,theapproximatefundamentalperiod,Tin
secsmaybedeterminedasfollows:
0.0062
T= hn (2.5.9)
Cw

where,
2
100 x hn Ai
Cw =
AB i =1 hi 2
(2.5.10)

1 + 0.83 hi
D
i

where,
AB=areaofbaseofstructure

Ai=webareaofshearwalli

Di=lengthofshearwalli

hi=heightofshearwalli

x = number of shear walls in the building effective in resisting lateral forces in the
directionunderconsideration.

2.5.9.3 SEISMICWEIGHT
Seismic weight, W, is the total dead load of a building or a structure, including partition walls, and
applicableportionsofotherimposedloadslistedbelow:

93
Part6

a) For live load upto andincluding 3kN/m2, a minimumof 25%of thelive load shall be
applicable.

b) Forliveloadabove3kN/m2,aminimumof50%oftheliveloadshallbeapplicable.

c) Totalweight(100%)ofpermanentheavyequipmentorretainedliquidoranyimposed
loadsustainedinnatureshallbeincluded.

Where the probable imposed loads (mass) at the time of earthquake are more correctly
assessed,thedesignermaygoforhigherpercentageofliveload.

2.5.9.4 VERTICALDISTRIBUTIONOFLATERALFORCES
In the absence of a more rigorous procedure, the total seismic lateral force at the base level, in other
wordsthebaseshearV,shallbeconsideredasthesumoflateralforcesFxinducedatdifferentfloorlevels,
theseforcesmaybecalculatedas:

w x hx k
Fx = V (2.5.11)
n
w i hi k

i =1

where,

Fx=partofbaseshearforceinducedatlevelx

wi and wx = part of the total effective seismic weight of the structure (W) assigned to
leveliorx

hiandhx=theheightfromthebasetoleveliorx

k=1forstructureperiod0.5s

=2forstructureperiod2.5s

=linearinterpolationbetween1and2forotherperiods.

n=numberofstories

2.5.9.5 STOREYSHEARANDITSHORIZONTALDISTRIBUTION
ThedesignstoreyshearVx,atanystoreyxisthesumoftheforcesFxinthatstoreyandallotherstories
aboveit,givenbyEq.2.5.12:
n
Vx = Fi (2.5.12)
i=x

where,Fi=Portionofbaseshearinducedatleveli,asdeterminedbyEq.2.5.11

Ifthefloordiaphragmscanbeconsideredtobeinfinitelyrigidinthehorizontalplane,theshearVxshallbe
distributed to the various elements of the lateral force resisting system in proportion to their relative
lateralstiffness.Forflexiblediaphragms,thedistributionofforcestotheverticalelementsshallaccount
forthepositionanddistributionofthemassessupported.

94
 Chapter2

Allowance shall also be made for the increased shear arising due to horizontal torsional moment as
specifiedinSec2.5.9.6

2.5.9.6 HORIZONTALTORSIONALMOMENTS:
Design shall accommodate increase in storey shear forces resulting from probable horizontal torsional
momentsonrigidfloordiaphragms.Computationofsuchmomentsshallbeasfollows:

2.5.9.6.1 InbuiltTorsionalEffects:
Whenthereisinbuilteccentricitybetweencentreofmassandcentreofrigidity(lateralresistance)atthe
floorlevels,rigiddiaphragmsateachlevelwillbesubjectedtotorsionalmomentMt.

2.5.9.6.2 AccidentalTorsionalEffects:
Inordertoaccountforuncertaintiesinthelocationofmassesandinthespatialvariationoftheseismic
motion, accidental torsional effects need to be always considered. The accidental moment Mta is
determinedassumingthestoreymasstobedisplacedfromthecalculatedcentreofmassadistanceequal
to 5% of the building dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the force under
consideration.TheaccidentaltorsionalmomentMtaiatleveliisgivenas:

M tai = eai Fi (2.5.13)

where,

eai= accidentaleccentricityoffloormassatleveliappliedin thesame directionatall

floors=0.05Li

Li=floordimensionperpendiculartothedirectionofseismicforceconsidered.

Wheretorsionalirregularityexists(Section2.5.7.3.1)forSeismicDesignCategoryCorD,theirregularity
effects shall be accounted for by increasing the accidental torsion Mta at each level by a torsional
amplificationfactor,AxasillustratedinFigure2.5.6determinedfromthefollowingequation:

[ (
Ax = max 1.2 avg )]2 3.0 2.5.14

where,

max=MaximumdisplacementatlevelxcomputedassumingAx=1.

avg = Average of the displacements at extreme points of the building at levelx computed
assumingAx=1.

Theaccidentaltorsionalmomentneednotbeamplifiedforstructuresoflightframeconstruction.Alsothe
torsionalamplificationfactor(Ax)shouldnotexceed3.0.

2.5.9.6.3 DesignforTorsionalEffects
ThetorsionaldesignmomentatagivenstoreyshallbeequaltotheaccidentaltorsionalmomentMtaplus
the inbuilt torsional moment Mt (if any). Where earthquake forces are applied concurrently in two
orthogonaldirections,therequired5percentdisplacementofthecenterofmass(foraccidentaltorsion)
neednotbeappliedinbothoftheorthogonaldirectionsatthesametime,butshallbeappliedinonlyone
directionthatproducesthegreatereffect.

95
Part6

Figure2.5.6TorsionalamplificationfactorAxforplanirregularity.

2.5.9.7 DEFLECTIONANDSTOREYDRIFT:
The deflections (x) of level x at the center of the mass shall be determined in accordance with the
followingequation:

C d xe
x = (2.5.15)
I
where,

Cd=DeflectionamplificationfactorgiveninTable2.5.7

xe=Deflectiondeterminedbyanelasticanalysis

I=ImportancefactordefinedinTable2.5.5

Thedesignstoreydriftatstoreyxshallbecomputedasthedifferenceofthedeflectionsatthecentersof
massatthetopandbottomofthestoryunderconsideration:

x = x x 1 (2.5.16)

2.5.9.8 OVERTURNINGEFFECTS:
Thestructureshallbedesignedtoresistoverturningeffectscausedbytheseismicforcesdeterminedin
Section2.5.9.4.Atanystory,theincrementofoverturningmomentinthestoryunderconsiderationshall
bedistributedtothevariousverticalforceresistingelementsinthesameproportionasthedistributionof
thehorizontalshearstothoseelements.

Theoverturningmomentsatlevelx,Mx,shallbedeterminedasfollows:

96
 Chapter2

n
M x = Fi (hi hx ) (2.5.17)
i =x

where,

Fi=theportionoftheseismicbaseshear,V,inducedatleveli

hi,hx=theheightfromthebasetoleveliorx.

The foundations of structures, except inverted pendulumtype structures, shall be permitted to be

designed for threefourths of the foundation overturning design moment, Mo, determined using above
equation.

2.5.9.9 PDELTAEFFECTS:
The Pdelta effects on story shears and moments, the resulting member forces and moments, and the
story drifts induced by these effects are not required to be considered if the stability coefficient ()
determinedbythefollowingequationisnotmorethan0.10:

PX
= (2.5.18)
Vx hsxCd

Where,

Px=thetotalverticaldesignloadatandabovelevelx;wherecomputingPx,noindividualload
factorneedexceed1.0

=thedesignstorydriftoccurringsimultaneouslywithVx

Vx=thestoreyshearforceactingbetweenlevelsxandx1

hsx=thestoryheightbelowlevelx

Cd=thedeflectionamplificationfactorgiveninTable2.5.7

Thestabilitycoefficient()shallnotexceedmaxdeterminedasfollows:

0.5
max = 0.25 (2.5.19)
Cd

whereistheratioofsheardemandtoshearcapacityforthestorybetweenlevelsxandx1.Thisratio
ispermittedtobeconservativelytakenas1.0.

Where the stability coefficient () is greater than 0.10 but less than or equal to max , the incremental
factor related to Pdelta effects on displacements and member forces shall be determined by rational
analysis.Alternatively,itispermittedtomultiplydisplacementsandmemberforcesby1.0/(1).

Whereisgreaterthanmax,thestructureispotentiallyunstableandshallberedesigned.

WherethePdeltaeffectisincludedinanautomatedanalysis,Eq.2.5.19shallstillbesatisfied,however,
thevalueofcomputedfromEq.2.5.18usingtheresultsofthePdeltaanalysisispermittedtobedivided
by(1+)beforecheckingEq.2.5.19.

97
Part6

2.5.10 DYNAMICANALYSISMETHODS
Dynamicanalysismethodinvolvesapplyingprinciplesofstructuraldynamicstocomputetheresponseof
thestructuretoapplieddynamic(earthquake)loads.

2.5.10.1 REQUIREMENTFORDYNAMICANALYSIS
Dynamicanalysisshouldbeperformedtoobtainthedesignseismicforce,anditsdistributiontodifferent
levelsalongtheheightofthebuildingandtothevariouslateralloadresistingelements,forthefollowing
buildings:

a)Regularbuildingswithheightgreaterthan40minZones2,3,4andgreaterthan90min
Zone1.

b)Irregularbuildings(asdefinedinSection2.5.7.3)withheightgreaterthan12minZones2,
3,4andgreaterthan40minZone1.

For irregular buildings, smaller than 40 m in height in Zone 1, dynamic analysis, even though not
mandatory,isrecommended.

2.5.10.2 METHODSOFANALYSIS
Dynamicanalysismaybecarriedoutthroughthefollowingtwomethods:

(i) Response Spectrum Analysis method is a linear elastic analysis method using modal
analysis procedures, where the structure is subjected to spectral accelerations
correspondingtoadesignaccelerationresponsespectrum.Thedesignearthquakeground
motioninthiscaseisrepresentedbyitsresponsespectrum.

(ii) Time History Analysis method isanumerical integrationprocedure where design ground
motiontimehistories(accelerationrecord)areappliedatthebaseofthestructure.Time
historyanalysisprocedurescanbetwotypes:linearandnonlinear.

2.5.11 RESPONSESPECTRUMANALYSIS(RSA)
Aresponsespectrumanalysisshallconsistoftheanalysisofalinearmathematicalmodelofthestructure
todeterminethemaximumaccelerations,forces,anddisplacementsresultingfromthedynamicresponse
to ground shaking represented by the design acceleration response spectrum (presented in Section
2.5.6.3). Response spectrum analysis is also called a modal analysis procedure because it considers
differentmodesofvibrationofthestructureandcombineseffectsofdifferentmodes.

2.5.11.1 MODELING(RSA)
A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed that represents the spatial distribution of
massandstiffnessthroughoutthestructure.Forregularstructureswithindependentorthogonalseismic
forceresisting systems, independent twodimensional models are permitted to be constructed to
representeachsystem.Forirregularstructuresorstructureswithoutindependentorthogonalsystems,a
threedimensional model incorporating a minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom consisting of
translation in two orthogonal plan directions and torsional rotation about the vertical axis shall be
included at each level of the structure. Where the diaphragms are not rigid compared to the vertical
elements of the lateralforceresisting system, the model should include representation of the
diaphragmsflexibilityandsuchadditionaldynamicdegreesoffreedomasarerequiredtoaccountforthe

98
 Chapter2

participationofthediaphragminthestructuresdynamicresponse.Thestructureshallbeconsideredto
befixedatthebaseor,alternatively,itshallbepermittedtouserealisticassumptionswithregardtothe
stiffnessoffoundations.Inaddition,themodelshallcomplywiththefollowing:

1.Stiffnesspropertiesofconcreteandmasonryelementsshallconsidertheeffectsofcrackedsections

2.Thecontributionofpanelzonedeformationstooverallstorydriftshallbeincludedforsteelmoment
frameresistingsystems.

2.5.11.2 NUMBEROFMODES(RSA)
An analysis shall be conducted using the masses and elastic stiffnesses of the seismicforceresisting
systemtodeterminethenaturalmodesofvibrationforthestructureincludingtheperiodofeachmode,
themodalshapevector,themodalparticipationfactorPandmodalmassM.Theanalysisshallincludea
sufficientnumberofmodestoobtainacombinedmodalmassparticipationofatleast90percentofthe
actualmassineachoftwoorthogonaldirections.

2.5.11.3 MODALSTORYSHEARSANDMOMENTS(RSA)
For each mode, the story shears, story overturning moments, and the shear forces and overturning
moments in vertical elements of the structural system at each level due to the seismic forces shall be
computed.ThepeaklateralforceFikinducedatleveliinmodekisgivenby:

Fik = Akik PkWi (2.5.20)

where,

Ak=DesignhorizontalspectralaccelerationcorrespondingtoperiodofvibrationTkofmodek,obtained
fromdesignresponsespectrum(Section2.5.6.3)

ik=Modalshapecoefficientatleveliinmodek

Pk=Modalparticipationfactorofmodek

Wi=Weightoffloori.

2.5.11.4 STRUCTURERESPONSE(RSA)
Intheresponsespectrumanalysismethod,thebaseshearVrs;eachofthestoryshear,moment,anddrift
quantities; and the deflection at each level shall be determined by combining their modal values. The
combinationshallbecarriedoutbytakingthesquarerootofthesumofthesquares(SRSS)ofeachofthe
modal values or by the complete quadratic combination (CQC) technique. The complete quadratic
combinationshallbeusedwherecloselyspacedperiodsinthetranslationalandtorsionalmodesresultin
crosscorrelationofthemodes.

The distribution of horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Section 2.5.9.5. It
should be noted that amplification of accidental torsion as per Section 2.5.9.6 is not required where
accidentaltorsionaleffectsareincludedinthedynamicanalysismodelbyoffsettingthecentreofmassin
eachstorybytherequiredamount.

A base shear, V, shall also be calculated using the equivalent static force procedure in Section 2.5.9.
Where the base shear, Vrs, is less than 85% of V, all the forces but not the drifts obtained by response
spectrumanalysisshallbemultipliedbytheratio0.85V/Vrs.

99
Part6

ThedisplacementsanddriftsobtainedbyresponsespectrumanalysisshallbemultipliedbyCd/Itoobtain
designdisplacementsanddrifts,asdoneinequivalentstaticanalysisprocedure(Section2.5.9.7).

ThePdeltaeffectsshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithSection2.5.9.9.

2.5.12 LINEARTIMEHISTORYANALYSIS(LTHA)
A linear time history analysis (LTHA) shall consist of an analysis of a linear mathematical model of the
structuretodetermineitsresponse,throughdirectnumericalintegrationofthedifferentialequationsof
motion,toanumberofgroundmotionaccelerationtimehistoriescompatiblewiththedesignresponse
spectrumforthesite.Theanalysisshallbeperformedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthissection.
Forthepurposesofanalysis,thestructureshallbepermittedtobeconsideredtobefixedatthebaseor,
alternatively,itshallbepermittedtouserealisticassumptionswithregardtothestiffnessoffoundations.
The acceleration time history (ground motion) is applied atthe base ofthe structure.The advantage of
thisprocedureisthatthetimedependentbehaviorofthestructuralresponseisobtained.

2.5.12.1 MODELING(LTHA)
MathematicalmodelsshallconformtotherequirementsofmodelingdescribedinSection2.5.11.1.

2.5.12.2 GROUNDMOTION(LTHA)
Atleastthreeappropriategroundmotions(accelerationtimehistory)shallbeusedintheanalysis.Ground
motionshallconformtotherequirementsofthissection.

Twodimensional analysis: Where twodimensional analyses are performed, each ground motion shall
consist of a horizontal acceleration time history selected from an actual recorded event. Appropriate
acceleration histories shall be obtained from records of events having magnitudes, fault distance, and
source mechanisms that are consistent with those that control the maximum considered earthquake.
Where the required number of appropriate ground motion records are not available, appropriate
simulatedgroundmotiontimehistoriesshallbeusedtomakeupthetotalnumberrequired.Theground
motionsshallbescaledsuchthatforeachperiodbetween0.2Tand1.5T(whereTisthenaturalperiodof
the structure in the fundamental mode for the direction considered) the average of the fivepercent
damped response spectra for the each acceleration time history is not less than the corresponding
ordinateofthedesignaccelerationresponsespectrum,determinedinaccordancewithSection2.5.6.3.

Threedimensionalanalysis:Wherethreedimensionalanalysisisperformed,groundmotionsshallconsist
ofpairsofappropriatehorizontalgroundmotionaccelerationtimehistories(intwoorthogonalhorizontal
directions)thatshallbeselectedandscaledfromindividualrecordedevents.Appropriategroundmotions
shall be selected from events having magnitudes, fault distance, and source mechanisms that are
consistentwiththosethatcontrolthemaximumconsideredearthquake.Wheretherequirednumberof
recordedgroundmotionpairsarenotavailable,appropriatesimulatedgroundmotionpairsshallbeused
tomakeupthetotalnumberrequired.Foreachpairofhorizontalgroundmotioncomponents,anSRSS
spectrum shall be constructed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the fivepercent
damped response spectra for the components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both
componentsofapair).Eachpairofmotionsshallbescaledsuchthatforeachperiodbetween0.2Tand
1.5T (where T is the natural periodof the fundamental mode ofthe structure) the average ofthe SRSS
spectrafromallhorizontalcomponentpairsisnotlessthan1.3timesthecorrespondingordinateofthe
designresponsespectrum,determinedinaccordancewithSection2.5.6.3.

100
 Chapter2

2.5.12.3 STRUCTURERESPONSE(LTHA)
Foreachscaledaccelerationtimehistory,themaximumvaluesofbaseshearandotherstructureresponse
quantitiesshallbeobtainedfromthetimehistoryanalysis.Forthreedimensionalanalysis,orthogonalpair
ofscaledmotionsareappliedsimultaneously.Abaseshear,V,shallalsobecalculatedusingtheequivalent
static force procedure described in Section 2.5.9.1. Where the maximum base shear, Vth computed by
linear time history analysis, is less than V, all response quantities (storey shear, moments, drifts, floor
deflections,memberforcesetc)obtainedbytimehistoryanalysisshallbeincreasedbymultiplyingwith
the ratio V/Vth. If number of earthquake records (or pairs) used in the analysis is less than seven, the
maximumstructuralresponseobtainedcorrespondingtodifferentearthquakerecordsshallbeconsidered
asthedesignvalue.Ifthenumberisatleastseven,thentheaverageofmaximumstructuralresponsesfor
differentearthquakerecordsshallbeconsideredasthedesignvalue.

The displacements and drifts obtained as mentioned above shall be multiplied by Cd/I to obtain design
displacementsanddrifts,asdoneinequivalentstaticanalysisprocedure(Section2.5.9.7).

2.5.13 NONLINEARTIMEHISTORYANALYSIS(NTHA)
Nonlineartimehistoryanalysis(NTHA)shallconsistofanalysisofamathematicalmodelofthestructure
which incorporates the nonlinear hysteretic behavior of the structures components to determine its
response, through methods of numerical integration, to ground acceleration time histories compatible
withthe designresponse spectrum for the site. The analysisshall beperformed inaccordancewiththe
requirements of this section. For the purposes of analysis, the structure shall be permitted to be
consideredtobefixedatthebaseor,alternatively,itshallbepermittedtouserealisticassumptionswith
regardtothestiffnessoffoundations.Theaccelerationtimehistory(groundmotion)isappliedatthebase
ofthestructure.Theadvantageofthisprocedureisthatactualtimedependentbehaviorofthestructural
responseconsideringinelasticdeformationsinthestructurecanbeobtained.

2.5.13.1 MODELING(NTHA)
A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed that represents the spatial distribution of
mass throughout the structure. The hysteretic behavior of elements shall be modeled consistent with
suitablelaboratorytestdataandshallaccountforallsignificantyielding,strengthdegradation, stiffness
degradation,andhystereticpinchingindicatedbysuchtestdata.Strengthofelementsshallbebasedon
expectedvaluesconsideringmaterialoverstrength,strainhardening,andhystereticstrengthdegradation.
As a minimum, a bilinear forcedeformation relationship should be used at the element level. In
reinforced concrete and masonry buildings, the elastic stiffness should correspond to that of cracked
sections.Linearproperties,consistentwiththeprovisionsofChapter5shallbepermittedtobeusedfor
those elements demonstrated by the analysis to remain within their linear range of response. The
structure shall be assumed to have a fixed base or, alternatively, it shall be permitted to use realistic
assumptions with regard to the stiffness and load carrying characteristics of the foundations consistent
withsitespecificsoilsdataandrationalprinciplesofengineeringmechanics.

For regular structures with independent orthogonal seismicforceresisting systems, independent two
dimensionalmodelsshallbepermittedtobeconstructedtorepresenteachsystem.Forstructureshaving
plan irregularity or structures without independent orthogonal systems, a threedimensional model
incorporatingaminimumofthreedynamicdegreesoffreedomconsistingoftranslationintwoorthogonal
plandirectionsandtorsionalrotationabouttheverticalaxisateachlevelofthestructureshallbeused.

101
Part6

Where the diaphragms are not rigid compared to the vertical elements of the lateralforceresisting
system,themodelshallincluderepresentationofthediaphragmsflexibilityandsuchadditionaldynamic
degreesoffreedomasarerequiredtoaccountfortheparticipationofthediaphragminthestructures
dynamicresponse.

2.5.13.2 GROUNDMOTION(NTHA)
The actual timedependent inelastic deformation of the structure is modeled. For inelastic analysis
method,therealdesignaccelerationresponsespectrum(Section2.5.6.3)isobtainedusingEq.2.5.4with
R=1andI=1.Therealdesignaccelerationresponsespectrumisthetruerepresentationoftheexpected
ground motion (design basis earthquake) including local soil effects and corresponds to a peak ground
acceleration(PGA)valueof2/3*Z*S.

Atleastthree appropriateaccelerationtimehistoriesshall be usedintheanalysis.Groundmotionshall

conformtotherequirementsofthissection.

Twodimensional analysis: Where twodimensional analyses are performed, each ground motion shall
consist of a horizontal acceleration time history selected from an actual recorded event. Appropriate
acceleration histories shall be obtained from records of events having magnitudes, fault distance, and
source mechanisms that are consistent with those that control the maximum considered earthquake.
Where the required number of appropriate ground motion records are not available, appropriate
simulatedgroundmotiontimehistoriesshallbeusedtomakeupthetotalnumberrequired.Theground
motionsshallbescaledsuchthatforeachperiodbetween0.2Tand1.5T(whereTisthenaturalperiodof
the structure in the fundamental mode for the direction considered) the average of the fivepercent
dampedresponsespectraforeachaccelerationtimehistoryisnotlessthanthecorrespondingordinateof
therealdesignaccelerationresponsespectrum,asdefinedhere.

Threedimensionalanalysis:Wherethreedimensionalanalysisisperformed,groundmotionsshallconsist
ofpairsofappropriatehorizontalgroundmotionaccelerationtimehistories(intwoorthogonalhorizontal
directions)thatshallbeselectedandscaledfromindividualrecordedevents.Appropriategroundmotions
shall be selected from events having magnitudes, fault distance, and source mechanisms that are
consistentwiththosethatcontrolthemaximumconsideredearthquake.Wheretherequirednumberof
recordedgroundmotionpairsarenotavailable,appropriatesimulatedgroundmotionpairsshallbeused
tomakeupthetotalnumberrequired.Foreachpairofhorizontalgroundmotioncomponents,anSRSS
spectrum shall be constructed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the fivepercent
damped response spectra for the components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both
componentsofapair).Eachpairofmotionsshallbescaledsuchthatforeachperiodbetween0.2Tand
1.5T (where T is the natural periodof the fundamental mode ofthe structure) the average ofthe SRSS
spectrafromallhorizontalcomponentpairsisnotlessthan1.3timesthecorrespondingordinateofthe
realdesignaccelerationresponsespectrum.

2.5.13.3 STRUCTURERESPONSE(NTHA)
Foreachscaledaccelerationtimehistory,themaximumvaluesofbaseshearandotherstructureresponse
quantities shall be obtained from the nonlinear time history analysis. For three dimensional analysis,
orthogonalpairofscaledmotionsareappliedsimultaneously.Ifnumberofearthquakerecords(orpairs)
used in the analysis is less than seven, the maximum structural response obtained corresponding to
differentearthquakerecordsshallbeconsideredasthedesignvalue.Ifthenumberisatleastseven,then

102
 Chapter2

theaverageofmaximumstructuralresponsesfordifferentearthquakerecordsshallbeconsideredasthe
design value. Since real expected earthquake motion input and model incorporating real nonlinear
behaviorofthestructureisused,theresultsasobtainedaredirectlyused(noscalingasinLTHAorRSAis
required)forinterpretationanddesign.

2.5.13.4 STRUCTUREMEMBERDESIGN(NTHA)
The adequacy of individual members and their connections to withstand the design deformations
predicted by the analyses shall be evaluated based onlaboratory testdataforsimilar components. The
effects of gravity and other loads on member deformation capacity shall be considered in these
evaluations.Memberdeformationshallnotexceedtwothirdsofthesmallerof:thevaluethatresultsin
lossofabilitytocarrygravityloadsorthevalueatwhichmemberstrengthhasdeterioratedtolessthan
67%ofpeakstrength.

2.5.13.5 DESIGNREVIEW(NTHA)
Specialcareandexpertiseisneededintheuseofnonlineardynamicanalysisbaseddesign.Checkingof
thedesignbycompetentthirdpartyisrecommended.Areviewofthedesignoftheseismicforceresisting
systemandthesupportingstructuralanalysesshallbeperformedbyanindependentteamconsistingof
design professionals with experience in seismic analysis methods and the theory and application of
nonlinear seismic analysis and structural behavior under extreme cyclic loads. The design review shall
includethefollowing:(i)Reviewofdevelopmentofgroundmotiontimehistories(ii)Reviewofacceptance
criteria (including laboratory test data) used to demonstrate the adequacy of structural elements and
systemstowithstandthecalculatedforceanddeformationdemands(iii)Reviewofstructuraldesign.

2.5.14 NONLINEARSTATICANALYSIS(NSA)
Nonlinear static analysis (NSA), also popularly known as pushover analysis, is a simplified method of
directly evaluating nonlinear response of structures to strong earthquake ground shaking. It is an
alternative to the more complex nonlinear time history analysis (NTHA). The building is subjected to
monotonicallyincreasingstatichorizontalloadsunderconstantgravityload.

2.5.14.1 MODELING(NSA)
Amathematicalmodelofthestructureshallbeconstructedtorepresentthespatialdistributionofmass
and stiffness of the structural system considering the effects of element nonlinearity for deformation
levelsthatexceedtheproportionallimit.PDeltaeffectsshallalsobeincludedintheanalysis.

For regular structures with independent orthogonal seismicforceresisting systems, independent two
dimensional models may be used to represent each system. For structures having plan irregularities or
structureswithoutindependentorthogonalsystems,athreedimensionalmodelincorporatingaminimum
of three degrees of freedom for each level of the structure, consisting of translation in two orthogonal
plandirectionsandtorsionalrotationabouttheverticalaxis,shallbeused.Wherethediaphragmsarenot
rigid compared to the vertical elements of the seismicforceresisting system, the model should include
representationofthediaphragmflexibility.
Unless analysis indicates that a element remains elastic, a nonlinear force deformation model shall be
usedtorepresentthestiffnessoftheelementbeforeonsetofyield,theyieldstrength,andthestiffness
properties of the element after yield at various levels of deformation. Strengths of elements shall not
exceed expected values considering material overstrength and strain hardening. The properties of

103
Part6

elements and components after yielding shall account for strength and stiffness degradation due to
softening,buckling,orfractureasindicatedbyprinciplesofmechanicsortestdata.

A control point shall be selected for the model. For normal buildings, the control point shall be at the
centerofmassofthehighestlevel(roof)ofthestructure.

2.5.14.2 ANALYSISPROCEDURE(NSA)
The lateral forces shall be applied at the center of mass of each level and shall be proportional to the
distributionobtainedfromamodalanalysisforthefundamentalmodeofresponseinthedirectionunder
consideration.Thelateralloadsshallbeincreasedincrementallyinamonotonicmanner.
Atthejthincrementoflateralloading,thetotallateralforceappliedtothemodelshallbecharacterized
bythetermVj.Theincrementalincreasesinappliedlateralforceshouldbeinstepsthataresufficiently
smalltopermitsignificantchangesinindividualelementbehavior(suchasyielding,bucklingorfailure)to
be detected.The first increment in lateral loading shall resultin linear elastic behavior. At eachloading
step,thetotalappliedlateralforce,Vj,thelateraldisplacementofthecontrolpoint,j,andtheforcesand
deformationsineachelementshallberecorded.Theanalysisshallbecontinueduntilthedisplacementof
thecontrolpointisatleast150%ofthetargetdisplacementdeterminedinaccordancewithSec.2.5.14.3.
The structure shall be designed so that the total applied lateral force does not decrease in any load
incrementforcontrolpointdisplacementslessthanorequalto125percentofthetargetdisplacement.

2.5.14.3 EFFECTIVEPERIODANDTARGETDISPLACEMENT(NSA)
A bilinear curve shall be fitted to the capacity curve, such that the first segment of the bilinear curve
coincides with the capacity curve at 60% of the effective yield strength, the second segment coincides
withthecapacitycurveatthetargetdisplacement,andtheareaunderthebilinearcurveequalsthearea
underthecapacitycurve,betweentheoriginandthetargetdisplacement.Theeffectiveyieldstrength,Vy,
correspondstothetotalappliedlateralforceattheintersectionofthetwolinesegments.Theeffective
yielddisplacement,y,correspondstothecontrolpointdisplacementattheintersectionofthetwoline
segments.Theeffectivefundamentalperiod,Te,ofthestructureinthedirectionunderconsiderationshall
bedeterminedusingEq.2.5.21asfollows:

V1 1
Te = T1
V y y (2.5.21)

whereV1,1,andT1aredeterminedforthefirstincrementoflateralload.

Thetargetdisplacementofthecontrolpoint,T,shallbedeterminedasfollows:
2
T
T = C 0 C1 S a e g
2 (2.5.22)

wherethespectralacceleration,Sa,isdeterminedattheeffectivefundamentalperiod,Te,usingEq.(2.5.4),
gistheaccelerationduetogravity.

ThecoefficientC0shallbecalculatedas:

104
 Chapter2

w i i
C0 = i =1
n

w 2
i i
(2.5.23)
i =1

where:

wi=theportionoftheseismicweight,W,atleveli,and

i=theamplitudeoftheshapevectoratleveli.

Wheretheeffectivefundamentalperiod,Te,isgreaterthanTC(definedinSec.2.5.6.3),thecoefficientC1
shallbetakenas1.0.Otherwise,thevalueofthecoefficientC1shallbecalculatedasfollows:

1 (Rd 1)Ts
C1 = 1 +
Rd Te (2.5.24)

whereRdisgivenasfollows:

Sa
Rd =
Vy W (2.5.25)

2.5.14.4 STRUCTUREMEMBERDESIGN(NSA)
Foreachnonlinearstaticanalysisthedesignresponseparameters,includingtheindividualmemberforces
andmemberdeformationsshallbetakenasthevaluesobtainedfromtheanalysisatthestepatwhichthe
targetdisplacementisreached.

Theadequacyofindividualmembersandtheirconnectionstowithstandthememberforcesandmember
deformations shall be evaluated based on laboratory test data for similar components. The effects of
gravity and other loads on member deformation capacity shall be considered in these evaluations. The
deformationofamembersupportinggravityloadsshallnotexceed(i)twothirdsofthedeformationthat
results in loss of ability to support gravity loads, and (ii) twothirds of the deformation at which the
memberstrengthhasdeterioratedtolessthan70%ofthepeakstrengthofthecomponentmodel.The
deformationofamembernotrequiredforgravityloadsupportshallnotexceedtwothirdsofthevalueat
whichmemberstrengthhasdeterioratedtolessthan70%ofthepeakstrengthofthecomponentmodel.

2.5.14.5 DESIGNREVIEW(NSA)
Checkingofthedesignbycompetentthirdpartyisrecommended.Anindependentteamcomposedofat
least two members with experience in seismic analysis methods and the theory and application of
nonlinearseismicanalysisandstructuralbehaviorunderearthquakeloading,shallperformareviewofthe
designoftheseismicforceresistingsystemandthesupportingstructuralanalyses.Thedesignreviewshall
include(i)reviewofanysitespecificseismiccriteria(ifdeveloped)employedintheanalysis(ii)reviewof
thedeterminationofthetargetdisplacementandeffectiveyieldstrengthofthestructure(iii)reviewof
adequacyofstructuralelementsandsystemstowithstandthecalculatedforceanddeformationdemands,
togetherwithlaboratoryandotherdata(iv)reviewofstructuraldesign.

105
Part6

2.5.15 EARTHQUAKELOADCOMBINATIONS

2.5.15.1 HORIZONTALEARTHQUAKELOADING
Thedirectionsofapplicationofseismicforcesfordesignshallbethosewhichwillproducethemostcritical
loadeffects.Earthquakeforcesactinbothprincipaldirectionsofthebuildingsimultaneously.Inorderto
accountforthat,

(a) ForstructuresofSeismicDesignCategoryB,thedesignseismicforcesarepermittedtobeapplied
independently in each of two orthogonal directions and orthogonal interaction effects are
permittedtobeneglected

(b) StructuresofSeismicDesignCategoryCandDshall,asaminimum,conformtotherequirements
of (a) for Seismic Design Category B and in addition the requirements of this section. The
structure shall be designed for 100% of the seismic forces in one principal direction combined
with30%oftheseismicforcesintheorthogonaldirection.Possiblecombinationsare:

100% in x-direction 30% in y-direction or

30% in x-direction 100% in y-direction

Thecombinationwhichproducesmost unfavourableeffectfortheparticularactioneffectshall
be considered. This approach may be applied to equivalent static analysis, response spectrum
analysisandlineartimehistoryanalysisprocedure.

(c) Wherethreedimensionalanalysisofaspatialstructuremodelisperformedasin3Dtimehistory
analysis,simultaneousapplicationofaccelerationsintwodirectionsshallbeconsideredwheretheground
motionsshallsatisfytheconditionsstatedinSections2.5.12.2or2.5.13.2.

2.5.15.2 VERTICALEARTHQUAKELOADING
Themaximumverticalgroundaccelerationshallbetakenas50%oftheexpectedhorizontalpeakground
acceleration(PGA).TheverticalseismicloadeffectEvmaybedeterminedas:

Ev=0.5(ah)D (2.5.26)

where,

ah=expectedhorizontalpeakgroundacceleration(ing)fordesign=(2/3)ZS

D=effectofdeadload

2.5.15.3 COMBINATIONOFEARTHQUAKELOADINGWITHOTHERLOADINGS
Whenearthquakeeffectisincludedintheanalysisanddesignofabuildingorstructure,theprovisionsset
forth in section 2.7 shall be followed to combine earthquake load effects with other loading effects to
obtaindesignforcesetc.

106
 Chapter2

2.5.16 DRIFTANDDEFORMATION

2.5.16.1 STOREYDRIFTLIMIT
The design storey drift () of each storey, as determined in Sections 2.5.9 (equivalent static analysis),
2.5.11(responsespectrumanalysis)or2.5.12(lineartimehistoryanalysis)shallnotexceedtheallowable
storeydrift(a)asobtainedfromTable2.5.9foranystory.

Forstructureswithsignificanttorsionaldeflections,themaximumdriftshallincludetorsionaleffects.For
structuresassignedtoSeismicDesignCategoryCorDhavingtorsionalirregularity,thedesignstoreydrift,
shallbecomputedasthelargestdifferenceofthedeflectionsalonganyoftheedgesofthestructureat
the top and bottom of the storey under consideration. For seismic forceresisting systems comprised
solelyofmomentframesinSeismicDesignCategoriesD,theallowablestoreydriftforsuchlinearelastic
analysisproceduresshallnotexceed a/whereistermedasastructuralredundancyfactor.Thevalue
ofredundancyfactormaybeconsideredas1.0withtheexceptionofstructureswithverylowlevelof
redundancywheremaybeconsideredas1.3.

Fornonlineartimehistoryanalysis(NTHA),thestoreydriftobtained(Section2.5.13)shallnotexceed1.25
timesthestoreydriftlimitspecifiedaboveforlinearelasticanalysisprocedures.

Table2.5.9AllowableStoreyDriftLimit(a)

Structure Occupancy Category

I andII III IV
Structures,otherthanmasonryshearwall
structures,4storiesorlesswithinteriorwalls,
partitions,ceilingsandexteriorwallsystemsthat 0.025hsx 0.020hsx 0.015hsx
havebeendesignedtoaccommodatethestory
drifts.
Masonrycantilevershearwallstructures 0.010hsx 0.010hsx 0.010hsx
Othermasonryshearwallstructures 0.007hsx 0.007hsx 0.007hsx
Allotherstructures 0.020hsx 0.015hsx 0.010hsx
NOTES:
1. hsxisthestoryheightbelowLevelx.
2. Thereshallbenodriftlimitforsinglestorystructureswithinteriorwalls,partitions,ceilings,
andexteriorwallsystemsthathavebeendesignedtoaccommodatethestoreydrifts.
3. Structuresinwhichthebasicstructuralsystemconsistsofmasonryshearwallsdesignedas
verticalelementscantileveredfromtheirbaseorfoundationsupportwhichareso
constructedthatmomenttransferbetweenshearwalls(coupling)isnegligible.
4. OccupancycategoriesaredefinedinTable1.2.1

2.5.16.2 DIAPHRAGMDEFLECTION
Thedeflectionintheplaneofthediaphragm,asdeterminedbyengineeringanalysis,shallnot
exceed the permissible deflection of the attached elements. Permissible deflection shall be
thatdeflectionthatwillpermittheattachedelementtomaintainitsstructuralintegrityunder
theindividualloadingandcontinuetosupporttheprescribedloads.

2.5.16.3 SEPARATIONBETWEENADJACENTSTRUCTURES
Buildings shallbe protected from earthquakeinduced pounding from adjacentstructuresor
between structurally independent units of the same building maintaining safe distance
betweensuchstructuresasfollows:

107
Part6

(i) forbuildings,orstructurallyindependentunits,thatdonotbelongtothesameproperty,
the distance from the property line to the potential points of impact shall not be less
than the computed maximumhorizontal displacement (Section 2.5.9.7) of the building
atthecorrespondinglevel.

(ii) for buildings, or structurally independent units, belonging to the same property, if the
distancebetweenthemisnotlessthanthesquarerootofthesumofthesquares(SRSS)
of the computed maximum horizontal displacements (Section 2.5.9.7) of the two
buildingsorunitsatthecorrespondinglevel.

(iii) Ifthefloorelevationsofthebuildingorindependentunitunderdesignarethesameas
those of the adjacent building or unit, the above referred minimum distance may be
reducedbyafactorof0.7

2.5.16.4 SPECIAL DEFORMATION REQUIREMENT FOR SEISMIC DESIGN

CATEGORYD
For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, every structural component not included in the
seismicforceresistingsysteminthedirectionunderconsiderationshallbedesignedtobeadequatefor
thegravityloadeffectsandtheseismicforcesresultingfromdisplacementtothedesignstorydrift()as
determinedinaccordancewithSection2.5.9.7.Evenwhereelementsofthestructurearenotintendedto
resist seismic forces, their protection may be important. Where determining the moments and shears
inducedincomponentsthatarenotincludedintheseismicforceresistingsysteminthedirectionunder
consideration, the stiffening effects of adjoining rigid structural and nonstructural elements shall be
consideredandarationalvalueofmemberandrestraintstiffnessshallbeused.

2.5.17 SEISMICDESIGNFORNONSTRUCTURALCOMPONENTS
This section establishes minimum design criteria for nonstructural components that are permanently
attachedtostructuresandfortheirsupportsandattachments.

Thefollowingcomponentsareexemptfromtherequirementsofthissection.

1.ArchitecturalcomponentsinSeismicDesignCategoryB,otherthanparapetssupportedby
bearingwallsorshearwalls,wherethecomponentimportancefactor,Ic,isequalto1.0.

2.MechanicalandelectricalcomponentsinSeismicDesignCategoryB.

3. MechanicalandelectricalcomponentsinSeismicDesignCategoryCwheretheimportance
factor,Ic,isequalto1.0.

4. MechanicalandelectricalcomponentsinSeismicDesignCategoryDwherethecomponent
importance factor, Ic, is equal to 1.0 and either (a) flexible connections between the
components and associated ductwork, piping, and conduit are provided, or (b)
componentsaremountedat1.2morlessaboveafloorlevelandweigh1780Norless.

5. Mechanical and electrical components in Seismic Design Category C or D where the

componentimportancefactor,Ic,isequalto1.0and(a)flexibleconnectionsbetweenthe
components and associated ductwork, piping, and conduit are provided, and (b) the
componentsweigh95Norlessor,fordistributionsystems,whichweigh7N/morless.

108
 Chapter2

Where the individual weight of supported components and nonbuilding structures with periods greater
than0.06secondsexceeds25%ofthetotalseismicweightW,thestructureshallbedesignedconsidering
interactioneffectsbetweenthestructureandthesupportedcomponents.

Testingshallbepermittedtobeusedinlieuofanalysismethodsoutlinedinthischaptertodeterminethe
seismiccapacityofcomponentsandtheirsupportsandattachments.

2.5.17.1 COMPONENTIMPORTANCEFACTOR
Allcomponentsshallbeassignedacomponentimportancefactor.Thecomponentimportancefactor,Ic,
shallbetakenas1.5ifanyofthefollowingconditionsapply:

1.Thecomponentisrequiredtofunctionafteranearthquake,

2.Thecomponentcontainshazardousmaterials,or

3.ThecomponentisinorattachedtoaoccupancycategoryIVbuildinganditisneededfor
continuedoperationofthefacility.

Allothercomponentsshallbeassignedacomponentimportancefactor,Ic,equalto1.0.

2.5.17.2 COMPONENTFORCETRANSFER
Components shall be attached such that the component forces are transferred to the structure.
Componentattachmentsthatareintendedtoresistseismicforcesshallbebolted,welded,orotherwise
positively fastened without consideration of frictional resistance produced by the effects of gravity. A
continuous load path of sufficient strength and stiffness between the component and the supporting
structureshallbeverified.Localelementsofthesupportingstructureshallbedesignedforthecomponent
forces where such forces control the design of the elements or their connections. In this instance, the
component forces shallbe thosedetermined inSection 2.5.17.3, exceptthat modifications to Fp and Rp
due to anchorage conditions need not be considered. The design documents shall include sufficient
informationconcerningtheattachmentstoverifycompliancewiththerequirementsoftheseProvisions.

2.5.17.3 SEISMICDESIGNFORCE
The seismic design force, Fc, applied in the horizontal direction shall be centered at the components
centerofgravityanddistributedrelativetothecomponent'smassdistributionandshallbedeterminedas
follows:

c a hW c I c z
Fc = 1 + 2
Rc h (2.5.27)

Where,

0.75WcIcFc1.5WcIc

c=componentamplificationfactorwhichvariesfrom1.0to2.5(Table2.5.10orTable2.5.11).

ah=expectedhorizontalpeakgroundacceleration(ing)fordesign=2/3*Z*S

Wc=weightofcomponent

Rc=componentresponsereductionfactorwhichvariesfrom1.0to12.0(Table2.5.10orTable2.5.11)

109
Part6

z=heightabovethebaseofthepointofattachmentofthecomponent,butzshallnotbetakenlessthan
0andthevalueofz/hneednotexceed1.0

h=roofheightofstructureabovethebase

TheforceFcshallbeindependentlyappliedinatleasttwoorthogonalhorizontaldirectionsincombination
withserviceloadsassociatedwiththecomponent.Inaddition,thecomponentshallalsobedesignedfora
concurrentverticalforceof0.5ahWc.

Where nonseismic loads on nonstructural components exceed Fc, such loads shall govern the strength
design,buttheseismicdetailingrequirementsandlimitationsshallapply.

2.5.17.4 SEISMICRELATIVEDISPLACEMENTS
Therelativeseismicdisplacement,Dc,fortwoconnectionpointsonthesamestructureA,oneataheight
hxandotheratheighthy,foruseincomponentdesignshallbedeterminedasfollows:

Dc = xA yA (2.5.28)

DcshallnotexceedDcmaxgivenby:

(h h y ) aA
Dc max =
x

hsx (2.5.29)

where,

xA=DeflectionatlevelxofstructureA

yA=DeflectionatlevelyofstructureA

aA=AllowablestorydriftforstructureA

hx=Height(abovebase)oflevelxtowhichupperconnectionpointisattached.

hy=Height(abovebase)oflevelytowhichlowerconnectionpointisattached.

hsx=Storyheightusedinthedefinitionoftheallowabledrifta

Fortwoconnectionpointsonseparatestructures,AandB,orseparatestructuralsystems,oneatlevelx
andtheotheratlevely,Dcshallbedeterminedasfollows:

Dc = xA + yB
(2.5.30)
DcshallnotexceedDcmaxgivenby:
X aA Y aB
Dc max = +
hsx hsx (2.5.31)
Where,
yB=DeflectionatlevelyofstructureB
aB=AllowablestorydriftforstructureB

The effects of relative seismic relative displacements shall be considered in combination with
displacementscausedbyotherloadsasappropriate.

110
 Chapter2

Table2.5.10CoefficientscandRcforArchitecturalComponents

ArchitecturalComponentorElement c a Rc
InteriorNonstructuralWallsand Partitions
Plain(unreinforced)masonrywalls 1.0 1.5
Allotherwallsandpartitions 1.0 2.5
CantileverElements(Unbracedor braced to structural frame below itscenter of mass)
Parapetsandcantileverinteriornonstructuralwalls 2.5 2.5
Chimneysandstackswherelaterallybracedorsupportedbythestructuralframe 2.5 2.5
CantileverElements(Bracedtostructuralframeaboveitscenterofmass)Parapets
ChimneysandStacks 1.0 2.5
ExteriorNonstructuralWalls 1.0 2.5
ExteriorNonstructuralWallElementsandConnections
WallElement 1.0 2.5
Bodyofwallpanelconnections 1.0 2.5
F t
Veneer f th ti t
Limiteddeformabilityelementsandattachments 1.0 2.5
Lowdeformabilityelementsandattachments 1.0 1.5
Penthouses(exceptwhereframedbyanextensionofthebuildingframe) 2.5 3.5
Ceilings
All 1.0 2.5
Cabinets
Storagecabinetsandlaboratoryequipment 1.0 2.5
AccessFloors
Specialaccessfloors 1.0 2.5
Allother 1.0 1.5
AppendagesandOrnamentations 2.5 2.5
SignsandBillboards 2.5 2.5
OtherRigidComponents
Highdeformabilityelementsandattachments 1.0 3.5
Limiteddeformabilityelementsandattachments 1.0 2.5
Lowdeformabilitymaterialsandattachments 1.0 1.5
OtherFlexibleComponents
Highdeformabilityelementsandattachments 2.5 3.5
Limiteddeformabilityelementsandattachments 2.5 2.5
Lowdeformabilitymaterialsandattachments 2.5 1.5
a Alowervalueforcispermittedwherejustifiedbydetaileddynamicanalysis.Thevalueforcshall

not be less than 1.0. The value of c equal to 1.0 is for rigid components and rigidly attached
components.Thevalueofcequalto2.5isforflexiblecomponentsandflexiblyattachdcomponents.

111
Part6

Table2.5.11CoefficientscandRcforMechanicalandElectricalComponents

MechanicalandElectricalComponents c a Rc
AirsideHVAC,fans,airhandlers,airconditioningunits,cabinetheaters,air 2.5 6.0
distributionboxes,andothermechanicalcomponentsconstructedofsheetmetal
fWetsideHVAC,boilers,furnaces,atmospherictanksandbins,chillers,waterheaters,
i 1.0 2.5
heatexchangers,evaporators,airseparators,manufacturingorprocessequipment,
Engines,turbines,pumps,compressors, and pressure vessels not supported on skirts 1.0 2.5
Skirtsupportedpressurevessels 2.5 2.5
Elevatorandescalatorcomponents. 1.0 2.5
Generators,batteries,inverters,motors,transformers,andotherelectricalcomponents 1.0 2.5
Motorcontrolcenters,panelboards,switchgear,instrumentationcabinets,andother 2.5 6.0
Communicationequipment,computers, instrumentation, and controls. 1.0 2.5
Roofmountedchimneys,stacks,coolingandelectricaltowerslaterallybracedbelow 2.5 3.0
Roofmounted chimneys,stacks, cooling and electrical towers laterally braced above 1.0 2.5
Lightingfixtures. 1.0 1.5
Othermechanicalorelectricalcomponents. 1.0 1.5
VIBRATION ISOLATED COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMSb
Componentsandsystemsisolatedusingneopreneelementsandneopreneisolated 2.5 2.5
floorswithbuiltinorseparateelastomeric snubbing devicesor resilient perimeter
Springisolatedcomponentsand systems and vibration isolated floors closely 2.5 2.0
restrainedusingbuiltinorseparate elastomeric snubbing devicesor resilient
Internallyisolatedcomponentsand systems. 2.5 2.0
Suspendedvibrationisolatedequipmentincludinginlineductdevicesandsuspended 2.5 2.5
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
PipinginaccordancewithASME B31, including inline components with joints made 2.5 12.0
PipinginaccordancewithASMEB31,includinginlinecomponents,constructedof 2.5 6.0
highorlimiteddeformabilitymaterials, with joints madeby threading, bonding,
PipingandtubingnotinaccordancewithASMEB31,includinginlinecomponents, 2.5 9.0
constructedofhighdeformability materials, with jointsmade by welding or brazing.
Pipingandtubingnotinaccordance with ASME B31, including inline components, 2.5 4.5
constructedofhighorlimiteddeformability materials,with joints made by threading,
Pipingandtubingconstructedoflowdeformabilitymaterials,suchascastiron,glass, 2.5 3.0
Ductwork,includinginlinecomponents,constructedofhighdeformabilitymaterials, 2.5 9.0
Ductwork,includinginlinecomponents, constructed of high or limiteddeformability 2.5 6.0
materialswith jointsmadebymeans other than weldingor brazing.
Ductwork,includinginlinecomponents,constructedoflowdeformabilitymaterials, 2.5 3.0
Electricalconduit,busducts,rigidly mounted cable trays, and plumbing. 1.0 2.5
Manufacturingorprocessconveyors(nonpersonnel). 2.5 3.0
Suspendedcabletrays. 2.5 6.0
a
A lower value for c is permitted where justified by detailed dynamic analysis. The value for c shall not be less than
1.0. The value of c equal to 1.0 is for rigid components and rigidly attached components. The value of c equal to 2.5 is
for flexible components and flexibly attached components.
b
Components mounted on vibration isolators shall have a bumper restraint or snubber in each horizontal direction. The
design force shall be taken as 2Fc if the nominal clearance (air gap) between the equipment support frame and restraint is
greater than 6 mm. If the nominal clearance specified on the construction documents is not greater than 6 mm, the design
force may be taken as Fc.

112
 Chapter2

2.5.18 DESIGNFORSEISMICALLYISOLATEDBUILDINGS
Buildings that use special seismic isolation systems for protection against earthquakes shall be called
seismically isolated or base isolated buildings. Seismically isolated structure and every portion thereof
shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements of provisions presented in this
section.

2.5.18.1 GENERALREQUIREMENTSFORISOLATIONSYSTEM
Theisolationsystemtobeusedinseismicallyisolatedstructuresshallsatisfythefollowingrequirements:

1. Designofisolationsystemshallconsidervariationsinseismicisolatormaterialproperties
over the projected life of structure including changes due to ageing, contamination,
exposuretomoisture,loadings,temperature,creep,fatigue,etc.

2. Isolatedstructuresshallresistdesignwindloadsatalllevelsabovetheisolationinterface.
At the isolation interface, a wind restraint system shall be provided to limit lateral
displacementintheisolationsystemtoavalueequaltothatrequiredbetweenfloorsof
thestructureabovetheisolationinterface.

3. The fire resistance rating for the isolation system shall be consistent with the
requirementsofcolumns,walls,orothersuchelementsinthesameareaofthestructure.

4. Theisolationsystemshallbeconfiguredtoproducealateralrestoringforcesuchthatthe
lateralforceatthetotaldesigndisplacementisatleast0.025Wgreaterthanthelateral
forceat50%ofthetotaldesigndisplacement.

5. Theisolationsystemshallnotbeconfiguredtoincludeadisplacementrestraintthatlimits
lateral displacement due to the maximum considered earthquake to less than the total
maximum displacement unless it is demonstrated by analysis that such engagement of
restraintdoesnotresultinunsatisfactoryperformanceofthestructure.

6. Each element of the isolation system shall be designed to be stable under the design
vertical load when subjected to a horizontal displacement equal to the total maximum
displacement.

7. The factor of safety against global structural overturning at the isolation interface shall
not be less than 1.0 for required load combinations. All gravity and seismic loading
conditionsshallbeinvestigated.Seismicforcesforoverturningcalculationsshallbebased
onthemaximumconsideredearthquakeandtheverticalrestoringforceshallbebasedon
theseismicweightabovetheisolationinterface.

8. Localupliftofindividualunitsofisolationsystemispermittediftheresultingdeflections
do not cause overstress or instability of the isolator units or other elements of the
structure.

9. Accessforinspectionandreplacementofallcomponentsoftheisolationsystemshallbe
provided.

10. Thedesigneroftheisolationsystemshallestablishaqualitycontroltestingprogramfor
isolatorunits.Eachisolatorunitbeforeinstallationshallbetestedunderspecifiedvertical
andhorizontalloads.

113
Part6

11. After completion of construction, a design professional shall complete a final series of
inspectionsorobservationsofstructureseparationareasandcomponentsthatcrossthe
isolation interface. Such inspections and observations shall confirm that existing
conditionsallowfreeandunhindereddisplacementofthestructuretomaximumdesign
levels and that all components that cross the isolation interface as installed are ableto
accommodatethestipulateddisplacements.

12. Thedesigneroftheisolationsystemshallestablishaperiodicmonitoring,inspection,and
maintenanceprogramforsuchsystem.

13. Remodeling,repair,orretrofittingattheisolationinterface,includingthatofcomponents
that cross the isolation interface, shall be performed under the direction of a design
professionalexperiencedinseismicisolationsystems.

2.5.18.2 EQUIVALENTSTATICANALYSIS
The equivalent static analysis procedure is permitted to be used for design of a seismically isolated
structureprovidedthat:

1.ThestructureislocatedonSiteClassSA,SB,SC,SDorSEsite;

2.Thestructureabovetheisolationinterfaceisnotmorethanfourstoriesor20minheight

4.Theeffectiveperiodoftheisolatedstructureatthemaximumdisplacement,TM,islessthanorequalto
3.0sec.

5.Theeffectiveperiodoftheisolatedstructureatthedesigndisplacement,TD,isgreaterthanthreetimes
theelastic,fixedbaseperiodofthestructureabovetheisolationsystemasdeterminedinSec.2.5.9.2

6.Thestructureabovetheisolationsystemisofregularconfiguration;and

7.Theisolationsystemmeetsallofthefollowingcriteria:

a.Theeffectivestiffnessoftheisolationsystematthedesigndisplacementisgreaterthanonethirdofthe
effectivestiffnessat20%ofthedesigndisplacement,

b.TheisolationsystemiscapableofproducingarestoringforceasspecifiedinSec.2.5.18.1,

c.Theisolationsystemdoesnotlimitmaximumconsideredearthquakedisplacementtolessthanthetotal
maximumdisplacement.

Where the equivalent lateral force procedure is used to design seismically isolated structures, the
requirementsofthissectionshallapply.

2.5.18.2.1 DisplacementofIsolationSystem
Theisolationsystemshallbedesignedandconstructedtowithstandminimumlateralearthquake
displacementsthatactinthedirectionofeachofthemainhorizontalaxesofthestructureand
suchdisplacementsshallbecalculatedasfollows:

Sa g T D2
DD =
4 2 B
D (2.5.32)

where,

114
 Chapter2

Sa= Design spectral acceleration (in units of g), calculated using Eq.(2.5.4) for period TD and
assumingR=1,I=1,=1(Section2.5.6.3)forthedesignbasisearthquake(DBE).

g= accelerationduetogravity

BD= damping coefficient related to the effective damping D of the isolation system at the
designdisplacement,assetforthinTable2.5.12.

TD=effectiveperiodofseismicallyisolatedstructureatthedesigndisplacementinthedirection
underconsideration,asprescribedbyEq.2.5.33:

W
TD = 2
k D min g (2.5.33)

where,

W=seismicweightabovetheisolationinterface

kDmin = minimum effective stiffness of the isolation system at the design displacement in the
horizontaldirectionunderconsideration.

Table2.5.12DampingCoefficient,BD orBM

EffectiveDamping,DorM BDorBM
(%)
a,b
2 0.8
5 1.0
10 1.2
20 1.5
30 1.7
40 1.9
50 2.0
a
The damping coefficient shall be based on the effective
damping of the isolation system
b
The damping coefficient shall be based on linear interpolation
for effective damping values other than those given.

The maximum displacement of the isolation system, DM, in the most critical direction of horizontal
responseshallbecalculatedinaccordancewiththefollowingformula:

S aM g TM2
DM =
4 2 B M (2.5.34)

where:

SaM= Maximum spectral acceleration (in units of g), calculated using Eq.(2.5.4) for period TD and
assumingR=1,I=1,=1(Section2.5.6.3)forthemaximumconsideredearthquake(MCE).

BM= numericalcoefficientrelatedtotheeffectivedampingMoftheisolationsystematthemaximum
displacement,assetforthinTable2.5.12

TM= effectiveperiodofseismicisolatedstructureatthemaximumdisplacementinthedirectionunder
considerationasprescribedby:

115
Part6

W
T M = 2
k M min g (2.5.35)

where,

kMmin=minimumeffectivestiffnessoftheisolationsystematthemaximumdisplacementinthehorizontal
directionunderconsideration.

Thetotaldesigndisplacement,DTD,andthetotalmaximumdisplacement,DTM,ofelementsoftheisolation
systemshallincludeadditionaldisplacementduetoinherentandaccidentaltorsioncalculatedconsidering
the spatial distribution of the lateral stiffness of the isolation system and the most disadvantageous
locationofeccentricmass.

2.5.18.2.2 LateralSeismicforces
The structure above the isolation system shall be designed and constructed to withstand a minimum
lateralforce,Vs,usingalloftheappropriateprovisionsforanonisolatedstructure.Theimportancefactor
forallisolatedstructuresshallbeconsideredas1.0,alsotheresponsereductionfactorRIconsideredhere
(forcomputingdesignseismicforces)isintherangeof1.0to2.0.Vsshallbedeterminedinaccordance
withEq.2.5.36asfollows:

k D max D D
Vs = (2.5.36)
RI

where:

kDmax=maximumeffectivestiffnessoftheisolationsystematthedesigndisplacementinthehorizontal
directionunderconsideration.

DD= design displacement at the center of rigidity of the isolation system in the direction under
considerationasprescribedbyEq.2.5.32.

RI= responsereductionfactorrelatedtothetypeofseismicforceresistingsystemabovetheisolation
system.RIshallbebasedonthetypeofseismicforceresistingsystemusedforthestructureabove
theisolationsystemandshallbetakenasthelesserof3/8*R(Table2.5.7)or2.0,butneednotbe
takenlessthan1.0.

InnocaseshallVsbetakenlessthanthefollowing:

1.ThelateralforcerequiredbySection2.5.9forafixedbasestructureofthesameweight,W,anda
periodequaltotheisolatedperiod,TD;

2.Thebaseshearcorrespondingtothefactoreddesignwindload;and

3.Thelateralforcerequiredtofullyactivatetheisolationsystem(e.g.,theyieldlevelofasoftening
system,theultimatecapacityofasacrificialwindrestraintsystem,orthebreakawayfrictionlevelof
aslidingsystem)multipliedby1.5.

Theisolationsystem,thefoundation,andallstructuralelementsbelowtheisolationsystemshallbe
designed and constructed to withstand a minimum lateral force, Vb, using all of the appropriate
provisions for a nonisolated structure. Vb shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 2.5.37 as
follows:

116
 Chapter2

Vb=kDmaxDD (2.5.37)

In all cases, Vb shall not be taken less than the maximum force in the isolation system at any
displacementuptoandincludingthedesigndisplacement.

2.5.18.2.3 VerticalDistributionofLateralForces
Thetotallateralforceshallbedistributedovertheheightofthestructureabovetheisolationinterfacein
accordancewithEq.2.5.38asfollows:

w x hx
Fx = V s n
(2.5.38)
w h
i =1
i i

where:

Vs=totalseismiclateraldesignforceonelementsabovetheisolationsystem.

hi,hx=heightabovethebase,toLeveliorLevelx,respectively.

wi,wx=portionofWthatislocatedatorassignedtoLeveliorLevelx,respectively.

At each Level x the force, Fx, shall be applied over the area of the structure in accordance with the
distributionofmassatthelevel.Stressesineachstructuralelementshallbedeterminedbyapplyingtoan
analyticalmodelthelateralforces,Fx,atalllevelsabovethebase.

2.5.18.2.4 StoreyDrift
ThestoreydriftshallbecalculatedasinSection2.5.9.7exceptthatCdfortheisolatedstructureshallbe
takenequaltoRIandimportancefactorequalto1.0.Themaximumstoreydriftofthestructureabovethe
isolationsystemshallnotexceed0.015hsx.

2.5.18.3 DYNAMICANALYSIS
Responsespectrumanalysismaybeconductedifthebehavioroftheisolationsystemcanbeconsidered
asequivalentlinear.Otherwise,nonlineartimehistoryanalysisshallbeusedwherethetruenonlinear
behaviour of the isolation system can be modeled. The mathematical models of the isolated structure
includingtheisolationsystemshallbealongguidelinesgiveninSections2.5.11.1and2.5.13.1,andother
requirementsgiveninSection2.5.18.

The isolation system shall be modeled using deformational characteristics developed and verified by
testing.Thestructuremodelshallaccountfor:(i)spatialdistributionofisolatorunits;(ii)considerationof
translation in both horizontal directions, and torsion of the structure above the isolation interface
considering the most disadvantageous location of eccentric mass; (iii) overturning/uplift forces on
individualisolatorunits;and(iv)effectsofverticalload,bilateralload,andtherateofloadingiftheforce
deflectionpropertiesoftheisolationsystemaredependentonsuchattributes.

A linear elastic model of the isolated structure (above isolation system) may be used provided that: (i)
stiffness properties assumed for the nonlinear components of the isolation system are based on the
maximum effective stiffness of the isolation system, and (ii) all elements of the seismicforceresisting
systemofthestructureabovetheisolationsystembehavelinearly.

117
Part6

2.5.18.3.1 ResponseSpectrumAnalysis
Responsespectrumanalysisshallbeperformedusingamodaldampingvalueforthefundamentalmode
inthedirectionofinterestnotgreaterthantheeffectivedampingoftheisolationsystemor30percentof
critical,whicheverisless.Modaldampingvaluesforhighermodesshallbeselectedconsistentwiththose
that would be appropriate for response spectrum analysis of the structure above the isolation system
assumingafixedbase.

Response spectrum analysis used to determine the total design displacement and the total maximum
displacementshallincludesimultaneousexcitationofthemodelby100percentofthegroundmotionin
thecriticaldirectionand30percentofthegroundmotionintheperpendicular,horizontaldirection.The
design basis earthquake shall be used for the design displacement, while the maximum considered
earthquake shall be used for the maximum displacement. The maximum displacement of the isolation
systemshallbecalculatedasthevectorialsumofthetwoorthogonaldisplacements.

Forthedesigndisplacement,structuresthatdonotrequiresitespecificgroundmotionevaluation,shall
be analyzed using the design acceleration response spectrum in accordance with Section 2.5.6.3. The
maximumdesignspectrumtobeusedforthemaximumconsideredearthquakeshallnotbelessthan1.5
timesthedesignaccelerationresponsespectrum.

The response spectrum procedure is based on an equivalent linear model, where the effective stiffness
andeffectivedampingisafunctionofthedisplacement,thisformulationisthusaniterativeprocess.The
effective stiffness must be estimated, based on assumed displacement, and then adjusted till obtained
displacementagreewithassumeddisplacement.

Thedesignshearatanystoryshallnotbelessthanthestoryshearresultingfromapplicationofthestory
forcescalculatedusingEq.2.5.38withavalueofVsequaltothebaseshearobtainedfromtheresponse
spectrumanalysisinthedirectionofinterest.

2.5.18.3.2 NonlinearTimeHistoryAnalysis
Whereatimehistoryanalysisprocedureisperformed,notfewerthanthreeappropriategroundmotions
shallbeusedintheanalysisasdescribedbelow.

Groundmotionsshallconsistofpairsofappropriatehorizontalgroundmotionaccelerationcomponents
that shall be selected and scaled from individual recorded events. Appropriate ground motions shall be
selectedfromeventshavingmagnitudes,faultdistance,andsourcemechanismsthatareconsistentwith
thosethatcontrolthemaximumconsideredearthquake.Ifrequirednumberofrecordedgroundmotion
pairs are not available, appropriate simulated ground motion pairs shall be used to make up the total
numberrequired.Foreachpairofhorizontalgroundmotioncomponents,asquarerootofthesumofthe
squares (SRSS) spectrum shall be constructed by taking the SRSS of the 5 percent damped response
spectra for the scaled components (where an identical scale factor is applied to both components of a
pair).Eachpairofmotionsshallbescaledsuchthatforeachperiodbetween0.5TDand1.25TM(whereTD
andTMaredefinedinSection2.5.18.2.1)theaverageoftheSRSSspectrafromallhorizontalcomponent
pairsdoesnotfallbelow1.3timesthecorrespondingordinateofthedesignresponsespectrum(Section
2.5.18.4),bymorethan10percent.

Each pair of ground motion components shall be applied simultaneously to the model considering the
most disadvantageous location of eccentric mass. The maximum displacement of the isolation system
shallbecalculatedfromthevectorialsumofthetwoorthogonaldisplacementsateachtimestep.

118
 Chapter2

Theparametersofinterestshallbecalculatedforeachgroundmotionusedforthetimehistoryanalysis.If
atleastsevengroundmotionsareusedforthetimehistoryanalysis,theaveragevalueoftheresponse
parameterofinterestispermittedtobeusedfordesign.Iffewerthansevengroundmotionsareanalyzed,
themaximumvalueoftheresponseparameterofinterestshallbeusedfordesign.

2.5.18.3.3 StoreyDrift
Maximum story drift corresponding to the design lateral force including displacement due to vertical
deformationoftheisolationsystemshallnotexceedthefollowinglimits:

1.Themaximumstorydriftofthestructureabovetheisolationsystemcalculatedbyresponsespectrum
analysisshallnotexceed0.015hsx.

2. The maximum story drift of the structure above the isolation system calculated by nonlinear time
historyanalysisshallnotexceed0.020hsx.

ThestoreydriftshallbecalculatedasinSection2.5.9.7exceptthatCdfortheisolatedstructureshallbe
takenequaltoRIandimportancefactorequalto1.0.

2.5.18.4 TESTING
The deformation characteristics and damping values of the isolation system used in the design and
analysisofseismicallyisolatedstructuresshallbebasedontestresultsofisolatorunits.Thetestsarefor
establishing and validating the design properties of the isolation system and shall not be considered as
satisfyingthemanufacturingqualitycontroltests.

Thefollowingsequenceoftestsshallbeperformedonisolatorunitsfortheprescribednumberofcyclesat
averticalloadequaltotheaveragedeadloadplusonehalftheeffectsduetoliveloadonallisolatorunits
ofacommontypeandsize:

1.Twentyfullyreversedcyclesofloadingatalateralforcecorrespondingtothewinddesignforce.

2. Three fully reversed cycles of loading at each of the following increments of the total design
displacement0.25DD,0.5DD,1.0DD,and1.0DMwhereDDandDMareasdeterminedinSections2.5.18.2.1.

3.Threefullyreversedcyclesofloadingatthetotalmaximumdisplacement,1.0DTM.

4.Notlessthantenfullyreversedcyclesofloadingat1.0timesthetotaldesigndisplacement,1.0DTD.

For each cycle of each test, the forcedeflection and hysteretic behavior of each isolator unit shall be
recorded.Theeffectivestiffnessisobtainedasthesecantvalueofstiffnessatdesigndisplacementwhile
theeffectivedampingisdeterminedfromtheareaofhystereticloopatthedesigndisplacement.

2.5.18.5 DESIGNREVIEW
Adesignreviewoftheisolationsystemandrelatedtestprogramsshallbeperformedbyanindependent
team of design professionals experienced in seismic analysis methods and the application of seismic
isolation.Isolationsystemdesignreviewshallinclude,butneednotbelimitedto,thefollowing:

1. Review of sitespecific seismic criteria including the development of sitespecific spectra and ground
motiontimehistoriesandallotherdesigncriteriadevelopedspecificallyfortheproject;

2.Reviewofthepreliminarydesign includingthedeterminationofthe totaldesigndisplacementofthe

isolationsystemandthelateralforcedesignlevel;

119
Part6

3.Overviewandobservationofprototype(isolatorunit)testing

4.Reviewofthefinaldesignoftheentirestructuralsystemandallsupportinganalyses;and

5.Reviewoftheisolationsystemqualitycontroltestingprogram.

2.5.19 BUILDINGSWITHSOFTSTOREY
Buildings with possible soft storey action at ground level for providing open parking spaces belong to
structures with major vertical irregularity (Fig.2.5.5a). Special arrangement is needed to increase the
lateralstrengthandstiffnessofthesoft/openstorey.Thefollowingtwoapproachesmaybeconsidered:

1. Dynamic analysis of such building may be carried out incorporating the strength and
stiffness ofinfill walls and inelastic deformations in the members, particularly thosein
thesoftstorey,andthemembersdesignedaccordingly.

2. Alternatively, the following design criteria are to be adopted after carrying out the
earthquake analysis, neglecting the effect of infill walls in other storeys. Structural
elements(e.gcolumnsandbeams)ofthesoftstoreyaretobedesignedfor2.5timesthe
storey shears and moments calculated under seismic loads neglecting effect of infill
walls. Shear walls placed symmetrically in both directions of the building as far away
fromthecentreofthebuildingasfeasiblearetobedesignedexclusivelyfor1.5times
thelateralshearforcecalculatedbefore.

2.5.20 NONBUILDINGSTRUCTURES
Calculation of seismic design forces on nonbuilding structures (e.g. chimney, self supported overhead
water/fluid tank, silo, trussed tower, storage tank, cooling tower, monument and other structures not
covered in the preceding part of Section 2.5) shall be in accordance with "Chapter 15: Seismic Design
RequirementsforNonBuildingStructures,MinimumDesignLoadsforBuildingsandOtherStructures,ASCE
StandardASCE/SEI705"complyingwiththerequirementsofSection2.5ofthisCode.

2.6 MISCELLANEOUSLOADS
2.6.1 GENERAL
Theproceduresandlimitationsforthedeterminationofselectedmiscellaneousloadsareprovidedinthis
section.Loadsthatarenotspecifiedinthissectionorelsewhereinthischapter,maybedeterminedbased
oninformationfromreliablereferencesorspecialistadvicemaybesought.

2.6.2 DEFINITIONS
Thefollowingdefinitionsandnotationshallapplytotheprovisionsofthissectiononly.

ESSENTIAL FACILITIES: Buildings and structures which are necessary to remain functional during an
emergencyorapostdisasterperiod.

RATIONALANALYSIS:Ananalysisbasedonestablishedmethodsortheoriesusingmathematicalformulae
andactualorappropriatelyassumeddata.

SITESPECIFICDATA:Dataobtainedeitherfrommeasurementstakenatasiteorfromsubstantiatedfield
informationrequiredspecificallyforthestructureconcerned.

120
 Chapter2

2.6.3 RAINLOADS
Rainloadsshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththefollowingprovisions.

2.6.3.1 BLOCKEDDRAINS
Eachportionofaroofshallbedesignedtosustaintheloadfromallrainwaterthatcouldbeaccumulated
onitiftheprimarydrainagesystemforthatportionisundersizedorblocked.Pondinginstabilityshallbe
consideredinthissituation.

2.6.3.2 CONTROLLEDDRAINAGE
Roofs equipped with controlled drainage provisions shall be designed to sustain all rainwater loads on
them to the elevation of the secondary drainage system plus 0.25 kN/m2. Ponding instability shall be
consideredinthissituation.

2.6.4 LOADSDUETOFLOODANDSURGE
For the determinationof flood andsurge loads on a structural member, consideration shall be givento
bothhydrostaticandhydrodynamiceffects.Requiredloadingshallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththe
established principles of mechanics based on site specific criteria and in compliance with the following
provisionsofthissection.Foressentialfacilitieslikecycloneandfloodsheltersandforhazardousfacilities
specifiedinTable1.2.1,valuesofmaximumfloodelevation,surgeheight,windvelocitiesetc.,requiredfor
the determination of flood and surge load, shall be taken corresponding to 100year return period. For
structures other than essential and hazardous facilities, these values shall be based on 50year return
period.

2.6.4.1 FLOODLOADSONSTRUCTURESATINLANDAREAS:
Forstructures sitedatinlandareassubject toflood,loadsduetoflood shall bedeterminedconsidering
hydrostatic effects which shall be calculated based on the flood elevation of 50year return period. For
riversidestructuressuchasthatunderExposureCspecifiedinSec2.4.8.3,hydrodynamicforces,arising
duetoapproachingwindgeneratedwavesshallalsobedeterminedinadditiontothehydrostaticloadon
them.Inthiscase,theamplitudeofsuchwindinducedwaterwavesshallbeobtainedfromsitespecific
data.

2.6.4.2 FLOODANDSURGELOADSONSTRUCTURESATCOASTALAREAS:
For structures sited at coastal areas, the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads shall be determined as
follows:

2.6.4.2.1 HydrostaticLoads
Thehydrostaticloadsonstructuralelementsandfoundationsshallbedeterminedbasedonthemaximum
staticheightofwater,Hmproducedbyfloodsorsurgesasgivenbytherelation:

Hm=max(hs,hf) (2.6.1)

where,hf=yTygand (2.6.2)

hs = Maximumsurgeheightasspecifiedina(i)below.

121
Part6

yT = ElevationoftheextremesurfacewaterlevelcorrespondingtoaTyear

returnperiodspecifiedin(ii)below,metres

yg = Elevationofgroundlevelatsite,metres.

i) Maximum Surge Height, hs : The maximum surge height, hs, associated with cyclones, shall be
thatcorrespondingtoa50yearora100yearreturnperiodasmaybeapplicable,basedonsitespecific
analysis.Intheabsenceofamorerigoroussitespecificanalysis,thefollowingrelationmaybeused:

hs=hT(x1)k (2.6.3)

where,hT = designsurgeheightcorrespondingtoareturnperiodofTyearsatseacoast,in
metres,giveninTable2.6.1.

x = distanceofthestructuresitemeasuredfromthespringtidehighwaterlimitonthesea
coast,inkm;x=1,ifx<1.

k = rate of decrease in surge height in m/km; the value of k may be taken as 1/2 for
ChittagongCox'sBazarTeknafcoastandas1/3forothercoastalareas.

ii) ExtremeSurfaceWaterLevel,yT :Theelevationoftheextremesurfacewaterlevel,yT forasite,

which may not be associated with a cyclonic storm surge, shall be that obtained from a site specific
analysiscorrespondingtoa50yearora100yearreturnperiod.ValuesofyT aregiveninTable2.6.2for
selectedcoastallocationswhichmaybeusedintheabsenceofanysitespecificdata.

2.6.4.2.2 HydrodynamicLoads:
Thehydrodynamicloadappliedonastructuralelementduetowindinducedlocalwavesofwater,shallbe
determined by a rational analysis using an established method and based on site specific data. In the
absenceofasitespecificdatatheamplitudeofthelocalwave,tobeusedintherationalanalysis,shallbe
takenashw=hs/41m,where,hsisgiveninSec2.6.4.2.1.Suchforcesshallbecalculatedbasedon50
yearor100yearreturnperiodoffloodorsurge.Thecorrespondingwindvelocitiesshallbe260km/hor
289km/hrespectively.

2.6.4.3 BREAKAWAYWALLS
When nonstructural walls, partitions or other nonstructural elements located below the maximum flood or surge
elevation,arerequiredtobreakawayunderhightidesorwaveaction,suchnonstructuralelementsshallbedesigned
to sustain a maximum uniformly distributed load of 1.0 kN/m2 but not less than 0.5 kN/m2 applied on a vertical
projectionofthearea.

2.6.5 TEMPERATUREEFFECTS
Temperatureeffects,ifsignificant,shallbeconsideredinthedesignofstructuresorcomponentsthereof
inaccordancewiththeprovisionofthissection.

Indeterminingthetemperatureeffectsonastructure,thefollowingprovisionsshallbeconsidered:

a) Thetemperaturesindicated,shallbetheairtemperatureintheshade.Therangeofthevariation
intemperatureforabuildingsiteshallbetakenintoconsideration.

122
 Chapter2

Table2.6.1:DesignSurgeHeightsattheSeaCoast,hT*

CoastalRegion SurgeHeightattheSeaCoast,hT(m)

T=50year(1) T=100year(2)
TeknaftoCox'sBazar 4.5 5.8

ChakariatoAnwara,andMaheshkhaliKutubdiaIslands 7.1 8.6

ChittagongtoNoakhali
7.9 9.6
Sandwip,Hatiyaandallislandsinthisregion
7.9 9.6
BholatoBarguna
6.2 7.7
SarankholatoShyamnagar
5.3 6.4
*ValuespreparedfrominformationobtainedfromAnnexD3,MCSP.
Note:(1) Thesevaluesmaybeusedintheabsenceofsitespecificdataforstructuresotherthanessential
facilitieslistedinTable6.1.1.
(2) ThesevaluesmaybeusedintheabsenceofsitespecificdataforessentialfacilitieslistedinTable
1.2.1.

b) Effects of the variation of temperature within the material of a structural element shall be
accountedforbyoneofthefollowingmethods.

i) relievethestressesbyprovidingadequatenumbersofexpansionorcontraction
joints,

ii) designthestructuralelementtosustainadditionalstressesduetotemperature
effects.

c) whenthemethodb(ii)aboveisconsideredtobeapplicable,thestructuralanalysisshalltakeinto
accountthefollowing:

i) the variation in temperature within the material of the structural element,

exposureconditionoftheelementandtherateatwhichthematerialabsorbor
radiateheat.

ii) the warping or any other distortion caused due to temperature changes and
temperaturegradientinthestructuralelement.

d) Whenitcanbedemonstratedbyestablishedprincipleofmechanicsorbyanyothermeansthat
neglectingsomeoralloftheeffectsoftemperature,doesnotaffectthesafetyandserviceabilityofthe
structure,thetemperatureeffectcanbeconsideredinsignificantandneednotbeconsideredindesign.

2.6.6 SOILANDHYDROSTATICPRESSURE
For structures or portions thereof, lying below ground level, loads due to soil and hydrostatic pressure
shallbedeterminedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthissectionandappliedinadditiontoallother
applicableloads.

123
Part6

Table2.6.2:ExtremeSurfaceWaterLevelsDuringMonsoonatSelectedLocationsoftheCoastalArea
abovePWDDatum,yT*

yT(m)
CoastalArea
Location Thana T=50years(1) T=100
years(2)
Teknaf Teknaf 2.33 2.44
Cox'sBazar Cox'sBazar 3.84 3.88
Shaflapur Moheshkhali 4.67 4.87
Lemsikhali Kutubdia 4.95 5.19
Banigram Patiya 5.05 5.24

Chittagong Bandar 4.72 4.88
Patenga Bandar 4.08 4.16
Sonapur Sonagazi 7.02 7.11
Sandwip Sandwip 6.09 6.2
Companyganj Companyganj 7.53 7.94

Hatiya Hatiya 5.55 5.76
Daulatkhan Daulatkhan 4.62 4.72
Dashmina Dashmina 3.60 3.73
Galachipa Galachipa 3.79 3.92
Patuakhali Patuakhali 2.87 3.03

Khepupara Kalapara 2.93 3.02
Bamna Bamna 3.32 3.37
Patharghata Patharghata 3.65 3.84
Raenda Sarankhola 3.66 3.75
Chardouni Patharghata 4.41 4.66

Mongla Monglaport 3.23 3.36
Kobodak Shyamnagar 3.51 3.87
(riverestuary)
Kaikhali Shyamnagar 3.94 4.12
*ValuespreparedfrominformationobtainedfromAnnexD3,MCSP
Note:(1)ThesevaluesmaybeusedintheabsenceofsitespecificdataforstructuresinStructure
OccupancyCategoryIVlistedTable1.2.1.
(2)ThesevaluesmaybeusedintheabsenceofsitespecificdataforstructuresinStructure
OccupancyCategoriesI,IIandIIIlistedinTable1.2.1.

2.6.6.1 PRESSUREONBASEMENTWALL:
In the design of basement walls and similar vertical or nearly vertical structures below grade, provision
shallbemadeforthelateralpressureofadjacentsoil.Allowanceshallbemadeforpossiblesurchargedue
tofixedormovingloads.Whenaportionorthewholeoftheadjacentsoilisbelowthesurroundingwater
table,computationsshallbebasedonthesubmergedunitweightofsoil,plusfullhydrostaticpressure.

2.6.6.2 UPLIFTONFLOORS:
Inthedesignofbasementfloorsandsimilarhorizontalornearlyhorizontalconstructionbelowgrade,the
upwardpressureof water, if any, shall be takenas the full hydrostatic pressure applied over the entire
area.Thehydrostaticheadshallbemeasuredfromtheundersideoftheconstruction.

124
 Chapter2

2.6.7 LOADSDUETOEXPLOSIONS
Loadsonbuildingsorportionsthereof,shallbeassessedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthissection.

2.6.7.1 EXPLOSIONEFFECTSINCLOSEDROOMS:
a) Determination of Loads and Response : Internal overpressure developed from an internal
explosion such as that due to leaks in gas pipes, evaporation of volatile liquids, internal dust explosion
etc.,inroomsofsizescomparabletoresidentialroomsandwithventilationareasconsistingofwindow
glass breaking at a pressure of 4 kN/m2 (34 mm machine made glass) may be calculated from the
followingmethod:

i) The overpressure, qo provided in Fig 2.6.1(a) shall be assumed to depend on a factor

Ao/v,where,Aoisthetotalwindowareainm2andvisthevolumeinm3oftheroom
considered,

ii) Theinternalpressureshallbeassumedtoactsimultaneouslyuponallwallsandfloorsin
oneclosedroom,and

iii) TheactionqoobtainedfromFig2.6.1(a)maybetakenasstaticaction.

When a time dependent response is required, an impulsive force function similar to that shown in Fig
2.6.1(b) shall be used in a dynamic analysis, where t1 is the time from the start of combustion until
maximumpressureisreachedandt2isthetimefrommaximumpressuretotheendofcombustion.Fort1

Fig.2.6.1Magnitudeanddistributionofinternalpressureinabuildingduetointernalgasexplosion

and t2 the most unfavourable values shall be chosen in relation to the dynamic properties of the
structures.However,thevaluesshallbechosenwithintheintervalsasgiveninFig2.6.1(b).

Thepressuremaybeappliedsolelyinoneroomorinmorethanoneroomatthesametime.Inthelatter
case,allroomsareincorporatedinthevolumev.Onlywindowsorothersimilarlyweakandlightweight

125
Part6

structuralelementsmaybetakenasventilationareaseventhoughcertainlimitedstructuralpartsbreakat
pressureslessthanqo.

b) Limitations : Procedure for determining explosion loads given in (a) above shall have the
followinglimitations:

i) Valuesofqo giveninFig2.6.1(a)arebasedontestswithgasexplosionsinroom
corresponding to ordinary residential flats, and may be applied to considerably
different conditions with caution after appropriate adjustment of the values
basedonmoreaccurateinformation.

ii) Fig 2.6.1 shall be taken as a guide only, and probability of occurrence of an
explosionshallbecheckedineachcaseusingappropriatevalues.

2.6.7.2 MINIMUMDESIGNPRESSURE:
Walls,floorsandroofsandtheirsupportingmembersseparatingausefromanexplosionexposure,shall
be designed to sustain the anticipated maximum load effects resulting from such use including any
dynamiceffects,butforaminimuminternalpressureorsuctionof5kN/m2,inadditiontoallotherloads
specifiedinthischapter.

2.6.7.3 DESIGNPRESSUREONRELIEFVENTS:
When pressurerelief vents are used, such vents shall be designed to relieve at a maximum internal
pressureof1.0kN/m2.

2.6.7.4 LOADSDUETOOTHEREXPLOSIONS:
Loadsarisingfromothertypesofexplosions,suchasthosefromexternalgascloudexplosions,external
explosions duetohighexplosives(TNT)etc.shallbe determined,for specific cases, byrationalanalyses
basedoninformationfromreliablereferencesorspecialistadviceshallbesought.

2.6.8 VERTICALFORCESONAIRRAIDSHELTERS
For the design of air raid shelters located in a building e.g. in the basement below ground level, the
characteristicverticalloadshallbedeterminedinaccordancewithprovisionsofSec2.6.8.1below.

Table2.6.3:CharacteristicVerticalLoadsforanAirRaidShelterinaBuilding
No.ofStoreys(1) VerticalLoad
AbovetheAirRaidShelter kN/m2
<2 28
34 34
>4 41
Buildingsofparticularlystableconstruction 28(2)
irrespectiveofthenumberofstoreys
Note: Storeysshallmeaneveryusablestoreyabovetheshelterfloor
(1) Buildings of particularly stable construction shall mean buildings
(2) having bearing structural elements made from reinforced insitu
concrete.

126
 Chapter2

2.6.8.1 CHARACTERISTICVERTICALLOADS
Buildingsinwhichtheindividualfloorsareacteduponbyatotaldistributedliveloadofupto5.0kN/m2,
vertical forces on air raid shelters generally located below ground level, such as a basement, shall be
consideredtohavethecharacteristicvaluesprovidedinTable2.6.3.Inthecaseofbuildingshavingfloors
thatareacteduponbyaliveloadlargerthan5.0kN/m2,abovevaluesshallbeincreasedbythedifference
betweentheaverageliveloadsonallstoreysabovetheoneusedastheshelterand5.0kN/m2.

2.6.9 LOADSONHELICOPTERLANDINGAREAS
Inadditiontoallotherapplicableloadsprovidedinthischapter,includingthedeadload,theminimumlive
load on helicopter landing or touch down areas shall be one of the loads L1, L2 or L3 as given below
producingthemostunfavourableeffect:

i)L1=W1 (2.6.4a)

ii)L2=kW2 (2.6.4b)

iii)L3=w (2.6.4c)

where,W1 = ActualweightofthehelicopterinkN,
W2 = FullyloadedweightofthehelicopterinkN,
w = Adistributedloadof5.0kN/m2,
k = 0.75forhelicoptersequippedwithhydraulictypeshock
absorbers,and
= 1.5forhelicopterswithrigidorskidtypelandinggear.
Theliveload,L1 shallbeappliedovertheactualareasofcontactoflanding.Theload,L2 shallbeasingle
concentratedloadincludingimpactappliedovera300mmx300mmarea.TheloadsL1 andL2 maybe
appliedanywherewithinthelandingareatoproducethemostunfavourableeffectsofload.

2.6.10 ERECTIONANDCONSTRUCTIONLOADS
All loads required to be sustained by a structure or any portion thereof due to placing or storage of
constructionmaterialsanderectionequipmentincludingthoseduetooperationofsuchequipmentshall
beconsideredaserectionloads.Provisionsshallbemadeindesigntoaccountforallstressesduetosuch
loads.

2.7 COMBINATIONSOFLOADS
2.7.1 GENERAL
Buildings, foundations and structural members shall be investigated for adequate strength to resist the
most unfavourable effect resultingfrom the various combinations ofloads provided in thissection. The
combination of loads may be selected using the provisions of either Sec 2.7.4 or 2.7.5 whichever is
applicable.However,onceSec2.7.4or2.7.5isselectedforaparticularconstructionmaterial,itmustbe
usedexclusivelyforproportioningelementsofthatmaterialthroughoutthestructure.Inadditiontothe
loadcombinationsgiveninSec2.7.4and2.7.5anyotherspecificloadcombinationprovidedelsewherein
thisCodeshallalsobeinvestigatedtodeterminethemostunfavourableeffect.

127
Part6

The most unfavourable effect of loads may also occur when one or more of the contributing loads are
absent,oract inthereverse direction.LoadssuchasF,HorSshallbeconsideredindesignwhen their
effects are significant. Floor live loads shall not be considered where their inclusion results in lower
stresses in the member under consideration. The most unfavourable effects from both wind and
earthquake loads shall be considered where appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act
simultaneously.

2.7.2 DEFINITIONS
ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGNMETHOD(ASD):Amethodforproportioningstructuralmemberssuchthat
themaximumstressesduetoserviceloadsobtainedfromanelasticanalysisdoesnotexceedaspecified
allowablevalue.ThisisalsocalledWorkingStressDesignMethod(WSD).

DESIGNSTRENGTH:Theproductofthenominalstrengthandaresistancefactor.

FACTOREDLOAD:Theproductofthenominalloadandaloadfactor.

LIMIT STATE : A condition in which a structure or component becomes unfit for service and is judged
eithertobenolongerusefulforitsintendedfunction(serviceabilitylimitstate)ortobeunsafe(strength
limitstate).

LOADEFFECTS:Forces,moments,deformationsandothereffectsproducedinstructuralmembersand
componentsbytheappliedloads.

LOAD FACTOR : A factor that accounts for unavoidable deviations of the actual load from the nominal
valueandforuncertaintiesintheanalysisthattransformstheloadintoaloadeffect.

LOADS : Forces or other actions that arise on structural systems from the weight of all permanent
constructions, occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential settlement, and
restraineddimensionalchanges.Permanentloadsarethoseloadsinwhichvariationsintimearerareorof
smallmagnitude.Allotherloadsarevariableloads.

NOMINAL LOADS : The magnitudes of the loads such as dead, live, wind, earthquake etc. specified in
Sec2.2through2.6ofthischapter.

NOMINAL STRENGTH : The capacity of a structure or component to resist the effects of loads, as
determined by computations using specified material strengths and dimensions and formulas derived
from accepted principles of structural mechanics or by field tests or laboratory tests of scaled models,
allowingformodellingeffectsanddifferencesbetweenlaboratoryandfieldconditions.

RESISTANCEFACTOR:Afactorthataccountsforunavoidabledeviationsoftheactualstrengthfromthe
nominal value and the manner and consequences of failure. This is also known as strength reduction
factor.

STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD : A method of proportioning structural members using load factors and
resistancefactorssatisfyingboththeapplicablelimitstateconditions.ThisisalsoknownasLoadFactor
DesignMethod(LFD)orUltimateStrengthDesignMethod(USD).

WORKINGSTRESSDESIGNMETHOD(WSD):SeeALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGNMETHOD.

128
 Chapter2

2.7.3 SYMBOLSANDNOTATION
D = deadloads,orrelatedinternalmomentsandforces,Deadloadconsistsof:a)weight
of the member itself, b) weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building to be
permanentlysupportedbythemember,includingbuiltinpartitions,c)weightofpermanentequipment.

E = load effects of earthquake, or related internal moments and forces, For specific
definitionoftheearthquakeloadeffectE,seeSection2.5

F = loadsduetoweightandpressuresoffluidswithwelldefineddensitiesandcontrollable
maximumheightsorrelatedinternalmomentsandforces.

Fa = loadsduetofloodortidalsurgeorrelatedinternalmomentsandforces.

H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soil, or other materials, or related
internalmomentsandforces,

L = live loads due tointended use andoccupancy, including loads due to movable objects
andmovablepartitionsandloadstemporarilysupportedbythestructureduringmaintenance,orrelated
internalmomentsandforces,.Lincludesanypermissiblereduction.Ifresistancetoimpactloadsistaken
intoaccountindesign,sucheffectsshallbeincludedwiththeliveloadsL.

Lr = roofliveloads,orrelatedinternalmomentsandforces,

R = rainload,orrelatedinternalmomentsandforces

T = selfstrainingforcesandcumulativeeffectoftemperature,creep,shrinkage,differential
settlement,andshrinkagecompensatingconcrete,orcombinationsthereof,orrelatedinternalmoments
andforces.

W = windload,orrelatedinternalmomentsandforces,

2.7.4 COMBINATIONSOFLOADEFFECTSFORALLOWABLESTRESS
DESIGNMETHOD

2.7.4.1 BASICCOMBINATIONS
Provisions of this section shall apply to all construction materials permitting their use in proportioning
structuralmembersbyallowablestressdesignmethod.Whenthismethodisusedindesigningstructural
members,allloadslistedhereinshallbeconsideredtoactinthefollowingcombinations.Thecombination
thatproducesthemostunfavourableeffectshallbeusedindesign.

1. D

2. D+L

3. D+F

4. D+H+F+L+T

5. D+H+F+(LrorR)

6. D+H+F+0.75(L+T)+0.75(LrorR)

7. D+H+F+(Wor0.7E)

129
Part6

8. D+H+F+0.75(Wor0.7E)+0.75L+0.75(LrorR)

9. D+L+(Wor0.7E)

10. 0.6D+W+H

11. 0.6D+0.7E+H

Whenastructureislocatedinafloodzoneorintidalsurgezone,thefollowingloadcombinationsshallbe
considered:

1.InCoastalZonesvulnerabletotidalsurges,1.5Fashallbeaddedtootherloadsincombinations(7),(8),
(9),and(10)andEshallbesetequaltozeroin(7),(8)and(9).

2. In noncoastal Zones, 0.75Fa shall be added to combinations (7), (8), (9), and (10) and E shall be set
equaltozeroin(7),(8)and(9).

2.7.4.2 STRESSINCREASE
UnlesspermittedelsewhereinthisCode,increasesinallowablestressshallnotbeusedwiththeloadsor
loadcombinationsgivenaboveinSection2.7.4.1.

2.7.5 COMBINATIONSOFLOADEFFECTSFORSTRENGTHDESIGN
METHOD
When strength design method is used, structural members and foundations shall be designed to have
strengthnotlessthanthatrequiredtoresistthemostunfavorableeffectofthecombinationsoffactored
loadslistedinthefollowingsections:

2.7.5.1 BASICCOMBINATIONS
1. 1.4(D+F)

2. 1.2(D+F+T)+1.6(L+H)+0.5(LrorP)

3. 1.2D+1.6(LrorP)+(1.0Lor0.8W)

4. 1.2D+1.6W+1.0L+0.5(LrorP)

5. 1.2D+1.0E+1.0L

6. 0.9D+1.6W+1.6H

7. 0.9D+1.0E+1.6H

Exception:

1.TheloadfactoronliveloadLincombinations(3),(4),and(5)ispermittedtobereducedto0.5forall
occupanciesinwhichminimumspecifieduniformlydistributedliveloadislessthanorequalto5.0kN/m2,
withtheexceptionofgaragesorareasoccupiedasplacesofpublicassembly.

2.TheloadfactoronHshallbesetequaltozeroincombinations(6)and(7)ifthestructuralactiondueto
HcounteractsthatduetoWorE.Wherelateralearthpressureprovidesresistancetostructuralactions
fromotherforces,itshallnotbeincludedinHbutshallbeincludedinthedesignresistance.

130
 Chapter2

3.ForstructuresdesignedinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofChapter6,Part6ofthisCode(reinforced
concrete structures), where wind load W has not been reduced by a directionality factor, it shall be
permittedtouse1.3Winplaceof1.6Win(4)and(6)above.

Whenastructureislocatedinafloodzoneorintidalsurgezone,thefollowingloadcombinationsshallbe
considered:

1. InCoastalZonesvulnerabletotidalsurges,1.6Wshallbereplaced by 1.6W+2.0Fain
combinations(4)and(6).

2. InNoncoastalZones,1.6Wshallbereplacedby0.8W+1.0Faincombinations(4)and
(6).

2.7.6 LOADCOMBINATIONSFOREXTRAORDINARYEVENTS
Where required by the applicable code, standard, or the authority having jurisdiction, strength and
stabilityshallbecheckedtoensurethatstructuresarecapableofwithstandingtheeffectsofextraordinary
(i.e.,lowprobability)events,suchasfires,explosions,andvehicularimpact.

RelatedAppendix

AppendixA ConversionofExpressionsfromSItoFPSUnits

131
 CHAPTER3

SOILSANDFOUNDATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

TheSoilsandFoundationschapterofthecodeisdividedintothefollowingthreemajorparts:

PartA: GeneralRequirements,MaterialsandFoundationTypes

PartB: ServiceLoadDesignMethodofFoundations

PartC: AdditionalConsiderationsinPlanning,DesignandConstructionofBuildingFoundations.

PartA(GeneralRequirements,MaterialsandFoundationTypes)consistsofthefollowingsections:

Scope

Terminology

SiteInvestigations

Identification,ClassificationandDescriptionofSoils

GeotechnicalInvestigationreport

Materials

TypesofFoundation

PartB(ServiceLoadDesignMethodofFoundations)hasthesectionsasunder:

ShallowFoundations

GeotechnicalDesignofshallowFoundations

GeotechnicalDesignofshallowFoundations

FieldTestsforDrivenPilesandDrilledShafts

Part C (Additional Considerations in Planning, Design and Construction of Building Foundations) deals with the
followingsections:

Excavation

Dewatering

SlopeStabilityofAdjoiningBuildings

Part6
StructuralDesign 6151
Part6
StructuralDesign

Fills

RetainingWallsforFoundations

WaterproofingandDampproofing

FoundationonSlopes

FoundationsonFillandProblematicSoils

FoundationDesignforDynamicForces

GeohazardsforBuildings

PARTA:GENERALREQUIREMENTS,MATERIALSANDFOUNDATIONTYPES(Sections3.2
to3.8)

3.2 SCOPE

The provisions of this chapter shall be applicable to the design and construction of foundations of buildings and
structures for the safe support of dead and superimposed loads without exceeding the allowable bearing stresses,
permissiblesettlementsanddesigncapability.

3.3 TERMINOLOGY

Forthetermsusedinthischapter,thefollowingdefinitionsshallapply.

ALLOWABLE LOAD: The maximum load that may be safely applied to a foundation unit, considering both the
strengthandsettlementofthesoil,underexpectedloadingandsoilconditions.

DESIGNLOAD:Theexpectedunfactoredloadtoafoundationunit.

GROSSPRESSURE:Thetotalpressureatthebaseofafootingduetotheweightofthesuperstructureand
theoriginaloverburdenpressure.

NETPRESSURE:Thegrosspressureminusthesurchargepressurei.e.theoverburdenpressureofthesoilat
thefoundationlevel.

SERVICELOAD:Theexpectedunfactoredloadtoafoundationunit.

BEARING CAPACITY: The general term used to describe the load carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock in
termsofaveragepressurethatenablesittobearandtransmitloadsfromastructure.

BEARING SURFACE: The contact surface between a foundation unit and the soil or rock upon which the
foundationrests.

DESIGNBEARINGCAPACITY:Themaximumnetaveragepressureappliedtoasoilorrockbyafoundation
unitthatthefoundationsoilorrockwillsafelycarrywithouttheriskofbothshearfailureandpermissible
settlement. Itis equal to the least of the two values of net allowable bearing capacity and safe bearing
pressure.ThismayalsobecalledALLOWABLEBEARINGPRESSURE.

GROSSALLOWABLEBEARINGPRESSURE:Themaximumgrossaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilcan
safely carry with a factor of safety considering risk of shear failure. This may be calculated by dividing
grossultimatebearingcapacitywithafactorofsafety.

GROSS ULTIMATE BEARINGCAPACITY: The maximum average gross pressure of loading at the base of a
foundationwhichinitiatesshearfailureofthesupportingsoil

6152 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

ALLOWABLEBEARINGCAPACITY:Themaximumnetaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilwillsafelycarry
withafactorofsafetyconsideringriskofshearfailureandthesettlementoffoundation.Thisistheminimum
ofsafebearingcapacityandsafebearingpressure.

NETULTIMATEBEARINGCAPACITY:Theaveragenetincreaseofpressureatthebaseofafoundationdueto
loadingwhichinitiatesshearfailureofthesupportingsoil.Itisequaltothegrossultimatebearingcapacity
minustheoverburdenpressure.

PRESUMPTIVE BEARING CAPACITY: The net approximate pressure prescribed as appropriate for the
particulartypeofgroundtobeusedinpreliminarydesignsoffoundations

SAFEBEARINGCAPACITY:Themaximumaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilwillsafelycarrywithoutthe
riskofshearfailure.Thismaybecalculatedbydividingnetultimatebearingcapacitywithafactorofsafety.

SAFEBEARINGPRESSURE:Themaximumaveragepressureofloadingthatthesoilwillsafelycarrywithout
theriskofpermissiblesettlement.

CAISSON: A deep foundation unit, relatively large section, sunk down (not driven) to the ground. This is also
calledWELLFOUNDATION.

CLAYMINERAL:Asmallgroupofminerals,commonlyknownasclayminerals,essentiallycomposedofhydrous
aluminiumsilicateswithmagnesiumorironreplacingwhollyorinpartsomeofthealuminium.

CLAYSOIL:Anaturalaggregateofmicroscopicandsubmicroscopicmineralgrainsthatareproduct ofchemical
decompositionanddisintegrationofrockconstituents.Itisplasticinmoderatetowiderangeofwatercontents.

DOWNDRAG: The transfer of load (drag load) to a deep foundation, when soil settles in relation to the
foundation.ThisisalsoknownasNEGATIVESKINFRICTION.

DRILLED PIER/DRILLED SHAFT:Adeep foundationgenerally of largediameter shaft usually morethan 600mm

andconstructedbydrillingandexcavatingintothesoil.

EFFECTIVESTRESS/ EFFECTIVE PRESSURE: The pressure transmittedthrough grainto grain at the contact point
throughasoilmassistermedaseffectivestressoreffectivepressure.

ENDBEARING:Theloadbeingtransmittedtothetoeofadeepfoundationandresistedbythebearingcapacityof
thesoilbeneaththetoe.

EXCAVATION:Thespacecreatedbytheremovalofsoilorrockforthepurposeofconstruction.

FACTOROFSAFETY:Theratiooftheultimatecapacitytothedesign(working)capacityofthefoundationunit.

FILL:Manmadedepositsofnaturalearthmaterials(soil,rock)and/orwastematerials.

FOOTING:Afoundationconstructedofmasonry,concreteorothermaterialunderthebaseofawalloroneor
morecolumnsforthepurposeofspreadingtheloadoveralargerareaatshallowerdepthofgroundsurface.

FOUNDATION: Lower part of the structure which is in direct contact with the soil and transmits loads to the
ground.

DEEPFOUNDATION:Afoundationunitthatprovidessupportforastructuretransferringloadsbyendbearing
and/orbyshaftresistanceatconsiderabledepthbelowtheground.Generally,thedepthisatleastfivetimes
theleastdimensionofthefoundation.

SHALLOWFOUNDATION:Afoundationunitthatprovidessupportforastructuretransferringloadsatasmall
depthbelowtheground.Generally,thedepthislessthantwotimestheleastdimensionofthefoundation.

FOUNDATION ENGINEER: A graduate Engineer with at least five years of experience in civil engineering
particularlyinfoundationdesignorconstruction.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6153
Part6
StructuralDesign

GEOTECHNICALENGINEER:EngineerwithMastersdegreeingeotechnicalengineeringhavingatleastthreeyears
ofexperienceingeotechnicaldesignorconstruction.

GROUND WATER LEVEL/ GROUND WATER TABLE: The level of water at which porewater pressure is equal to
atmosphericpressure.Itisthetopsurfaceofafreebodyofwater(peizometricwaterlevel)intheground.

MATFOUNDATION:SeeRAFT.

NEGATIVESKINFRICTION:SeeDOWNDRAG.

OVERCONSOLIDATIONRATIO(OCR):Theratioofthepreconsolidationpressure(maximumpastpressure)tothe
existingeffectiveoverburdenpressureofthesoil.

PILE:A slenderdeep foundationunit made of materialssuch as steel, concrete, wood, or combination thereof
thattransmitstheloadtothegroundbyskinfriction,endbearingandlateralsoilresistance.

BATTERPILE:Thepilewhichisinstalledatanangletotheverticalinordertocarrylateralloadsalongwith
theverticalloads.ThisisalsoknownasRAKERPILE.

BOREDPILE/CASTINSITUPILE/REPLACEMENTPILE:Apileformedintoapreformedholeofground,usuallyof
reinforcedconcretehavingadiametersmallerthan600mm.

DRIVEN PILE/DISPLACEMENT PILE: A plie foundation premanufactured and placed in ground by driving,
jacking,jettingorscrewing.

LATERALLYLOADEDPILE:Apilethatisinstalledverticallytocarrymainlythelateralloads.

PILECAP:Apilecapisaspecialfootingneededtotransmitthecolumnloadtoagrouporclusterofpiles.

PILEHEAD/PILETOP:Theuppersmalllengthofapile.

PILESHOE:Aseparatereinforcementorsteelformattachedtothebottomend(piletoe)ofapiletofacilitate
driving,toprotectthepiletoe,and/ortoimprovethetoeresistanceofthepile.

PILETOE/PILETIP:Thebottomendofapile.

SCREWPILE/AUGURPILE:Apremanufacturedpileconsistingofsteelhelicalbladesandashaftplacedinto
groundbyscrewing.

POREWATERPRESSURE:Thepressureinducedinthewaterorvapourandwaterfillingtheporesofsoil.Thisis
alsoknownasneutralstress.

RAFT:Arelativelylargespreadfoundationsupportinganarrangementofcolumnsorwallsinaregularorirregular
layout transmitting the loads to the soil by means of a continuous slab and/or beams, with or without
depressionsoropenings.ThisisalsoknownasMATFOUNDATION.

RAKERPILE:SeeBATTERPILE.

ROCK: A natural aggregate of one or more minerals that are connected by strong and permanent cohesive
forces.

ROTATION:Itistheanglebetweenthehorizontalandanytwofoundationsortwopointsinasinglefoundation.

RELATIVEROTATION/ANGULARDISTORTION:Anglebetweenthehorizontalandanytwofoundationsortwo
pointsinasinglefoundation.

TILT:Rotationoftheentiresuperstructureoratleastawelldefinedpartofit.

SETTLEMENT:Thedownwardverticalmovementoffoundationunderload.Whensettlementoccursoveralarge
area,itissometimescalledsubsidence.

6154 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

CONSOLIDATIONSETTLEMENT:Atimedependentsettlementresultingfromgradualreductionofvolumeof
saturated soils because of squeezing out of water from the pores due to increase in effective stress and
hence pore water pressure. It is also known as primary consolidation settlement. It is thus a time related
processinvolvingcompression,stresstransferandwaterdrainage.

DIFFERENTIALSETTEMENT:Thedifferenceinthetotalsettlementsbetweentwofoundationsortwopoints
inthesamefoundation.

ELASTIC/DISTORTION SETTLEMENT: It is attributed due to lateral spreading or elastic deformation of dry,

moistorsaturatedsoilwithoutachangeinthewatercontentandvolume.

IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT: This vertical compression occurs immediately after the application of loading
either on account of elastic behaviour that produces distortion at constant volume and on account of
compressionofairvoid.Forsands,eventheconsolidationcomponentisimmediate.

SECONDARY CONSOLDATION SETTLEMENT: This is the settlement speculated to be due to the plastic
deformation of the soil as a result of some complex colloidalchemical processes or creep under imposed
longtermloading.

TOTALSETTLEMENT:Thetotaldownwardverticaldisplacementofafoundationbaseunderloadfromitsas
constructedposition.Itisthesummationofimmediatesettlement,consolidationsettlementandsecondary
consolidationsettlementofthesoil.

SHAFTRESISTANCE:Theresistancemobilizedontheshaft(side)ofadeepfoundation.Upwardresistanceiscalled
positiveshaftresistance.Downwardforceontheshaftiscallednegativeshaftresistance.

SOIL:Alooseorsoftdepositofparticlesofmineraland/ororganicoriginthatcanbeseparatedbysuchgentle
mechanicalmeansasagitationinwater.

COLLAPSIBLE SOIL: Consists predominant of sand and silt size particles arranged in a loose honeycomb
structure. These soils are dry and strong in their natural state and consolidate or collapse quickly if they
becomewet.

DISPERSIVESOIL:Soilsthatarestructurallyunstableanddisperseinwaterintobasicparticlesi.e.sand,silt
and clay. Dispersible soils tend to be highly erodible. Dispersive soils usually have a high Exchangeable
SodiumPercentage(ESP).

EXPANSIVESOIL:Theseareclaysoilsexpandwhentheybecomewettedandcontractwhendried.Theseare
formedofclaymineralslikemontmorilloniteandillite.

INORGANIC SOIL: Soil of mineral origin having small amount usually less than 5 percent of organic matter
content.

ORGANIC SOIL: Soil having appreciable/significant amount of organic matter content to influence the soil
properties.

PEATSOIL:Anorganicsoilwithhighorganiccontent,usuallymorethan75%byweight,composedprimarily
ofvegetabletissueinvariousstagesofdecompositionusuallywithanorganicodor,adarkbrowntoblack
color, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous. Fully decomposed organic
soilsareknownasMUCK.

SOILPARTICLESIZE:Thesizesofparticlesthatmakeupsoilvaryingoverawiderange.Soilparticlesaregenerally
gravel,sand,siltandclay,thoughthetermsboulderandcobblecanbeusedtodescribelargersizesofgravel.

BOULDER:Particlesofrockthatwillnotpassa12in.(300mm)squareopening.

Cobbles:Particlesofrockthatwillpassa12in.(300mm)squareopeningandberetainedona3in.(75mm)
sieve.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6155
Part6
StructuralDesign

Clay:Anaturalaggregateofmicroscopicandsubmicroscopicmineralgrainslessthan0.002mminsizeand
plasticinmoderatetowiderangeofwatercontents.

GRAVEL:Particlesofrockthatwillpassa3in.(75mm)sieveandberetainedonaNo.4(4.75mm)sieve.

SAND:Aggregatesofrounded,subrounded,angular,subangularorflatfragmentsofmoreorlessunaltered
rockormineralswhichislargerthan75mandsmallerthan4.75mminsize.

Silt:SoilpassingaNo.200(75m)sievethatisnonplasticorveryslightlyplasticandthatexhibitslittleorno
strengthwhenairdry.

3.4 SITEINVESTIGATIONS

3.4.1 SubSurfaceSurvey
Dependingonthetypeofprojectthoroughinvestigationshastobecarriedoutforidentification,location,alignment
anddepthofvariousutilities,e.g.,pipelines,cables,seweragelines,watermainsetc.belowthesurfaceoftheexisting
groundlevel.Detailedsurveymayalsobeconductedtoascertainthetopographyoftheexistingground.

3.4.2 SubSoilInvestigations
Subsoilinvestigationshallbedonedescribingthecharacter,nature,loadbearingcapacityandsettlementcapacityof
thesoilbeforeconstructinganewbuildingandstructureorforalterationofthefoundationofanexistingstructure.

Theaimsofageotechnicalinvestigationaretoestablishthesoil,rockandgroundwaterconditions,todeterminethe
properties of the soil and rock, and to gather additional relevant knowledge about the site. Careful collection,
recording and interpretation of geotechnical information shall be made. This information shall include ground
conditions,geology,geomorphology,seismicityandhydrology,asrelevant.Indicationsofthevariabilityoftheground
shallbetakenintoaccount.

An engineering geological study may be an important consideration to establish the physiographic setting and
stratigraphicsequencesofsoilstrataofthearea.Geologicalandagriculturalsoilmapsoftheareamaygivevaluable
informationofsiteconditions.

During the various phases of subsoil investigations, e.g. drilling of boreholes, field tests, sampling, groundwater
measurements,etc.acompetentgraduateengineerhavingexperiencesinsupervisingsubsoilexplorationworksshall
beemployedbythedrillingcontractor.

3.4.2.1 MethodsofExploration
Subsoil exploration process may be grouped into three types of activities such as: reconnaissance, exploration and
detailedinvestigations.Thereconnaissancemethodincludesgeophysicalmeasurements,soundingorprobing,while
exploratorymethodsinvolvevariousdrillingtechniques.Fieldinvestigationsshouldcomprise

(i) drillingand/orexcavations(testpitsincludingexploratoryboreholes)forsampling;
(ii) groundwatermeasurements;
(iii) fieldtests.
Examplesofthevarioustypesoffieldinvestigationsare:

(i) fieldtesting(e.g.CPT,SPT,dynamicprobing,WST, pressuremetertests,dilatometertests,plateload

tests,fieldvanetestsandpermeabilitytests);
(ii) soilsamplingfordescriptionofthesoilandlaboratorytests;
(iii) groundwatermeasurementstodeterminethegroundwatertableortheporepressureprofileandtheir
fluctuations

6156 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

(iv) geophysical investigations(e.g. seismic profiling, ground penetratingradar, resistivity measurements

anddownholelogging);
(v) largescaletests,forexampletodeterminethebearingcapacityorthebehaviourdirectlyonprototype
elements,suchasanchors.

Where groundcontaminationorsoilgasisexpected,informationshallbegatheredfromtherelevantsources. This

informationshallbetakenintoaccountwhenplanningthe groundinvestigation.Someofthe commonmethods of
exploration,methodsofsamplingandgroundwatermeasurementsinsoilsaredescribedinAppendix6.3.A.

3.4.2.2 NumberandLocationofInvestigationPoints
The locations of investigation points, eg., pits and boreholes shall be selected on the basis of the preliminary
investigations as a function of the geological conditions, the dimensions of the structure and the engineering
problemsinvolved.Whenselectingthelocationsofinvestigationpoints,thefollowingshouldbeobserved:

(i) the investigation points should be arranged in such a pattern that the stratification can be
assessedacrossthesite;

(ii) theinvestigationpointsforabuildingorstructureshouldbeplacedatcriticalpointsrelativetothe
shape, structural behaviour and expected load distribution (e.g. at the corners of the foundation
area);

(iii) forlinearstructures,investigationpointsshouldbearrangedatadequateoffsetstothecentreline,
dependingontheoverallwidthofthestructure,suchasanembankmentfootprintoracutting;

(iv) forstructuresonornearslopesandstepsintheterrain(includingexcavations),investigationpoints
should also be arranged outside the project area, these being located so that the stabilityof the
slopeorcutcanbeassessed.Whereanchoragesareinstalled,dueconsiderationshouldbegivento
thelikelystressesintheirloadtransferzone;

(v) theinvestigationpointsshouldbearrangedsothattheydonotpresentahazardtothestructure,the
constructionwork,orthesurroundings(e.g.asaresultofthechangestheymaycausetotheground
andgroundwaterconditions);

(vi) the area considered in the design investigations should extend into the neighbouring area to a
distancewherenoharmfulinfluenceontheneighbouringareaisexpected.

Where ground conditions are relatively uniform or the ground is known to have sufficient strength and stiffness
properties,widerspacingorfewerinvestigationpointsmaybeapplied.Ineithercase,thischoiceshouldbejustified
bylocalexperience.

Thelocationsandspacingofsounding,pitsandboreholesshallbesuchthatthesoilprofilesobtainedwillpermita
reasonably accurate estimate of the extent and character of the intervening soil or rock masses and will disclose
importantirregularitiesinsubsurfaceconditions.Forbuildingstructures,thefollowingguidelinesshallbefollowed:

(i) For large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of the terrain will
helpindecidingthenumberofboreholesortrialpits.Thewholeareamaybedividedintogridpattern
withConePenetrationTests(seeAppendix6.3.B)performedatevery100mgridpoints.Thenumber
ofboreholes or trial pits shall be decided by examining the variation inpenetration curves. At least
67%oftherequirednumberofboringsortrialpitsshallbelocatedwithintheareaunderthebuilding.

(ii) Incompactbuildingsitescoveringanareaof0.4hectare(43,000squarefeet),oneboreholeortrialpit
ineachcornerandoneincentreshallbeadequate.

(iii) Forwidelyspacedbuildingscoveringanareaoflessthan90m2 (1000squarefeet)andaheightless

thanfourstoreys,atleastoneboreholeortrialpitinthecentreshallbedone.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6157
Part6
StructuralDesign

3.4.2.3 DepthofExploration

The depth of investigations shall be extended to all strata that will affect the project or are affected by the
construction.Thedepthofexplorationshalldependtosomeextentonthesiteandtypeoftheproposedstructure,
and on certain design considerations such as safety against foundation failure, excessive settlement, seepage and
earth pressure. Cognizance shall be taken of the character and sequence of the subsurface strata. The site
investigationshouldbecarriedtosuchadepththattheentirezoneofsoilorrockaffectedbythechangescausedby
thebuildingortheconstructionwillbeadequatelyexplored.Aruleofthumbusedforthispurposeistoextendthe
boringstoadepthwheretheadditionalloadresultingfromtheproposedbuildingislessthan10%oftheaverageload
of the structure, or less than 5% of the effective stress in the soil at that depth. Where the depth of investigation
cannot be related to background information, the following guide lines are suggested to determine the depth of
exploration:

(a) Wheresubstructure units will be supported onspread footings, the minimum depth boring should extend
belowtheanticipatedbearinglevelaminimumoftwofootingwidthsforisolated,individualfootingswhere
length two times width, and four footing widths for footings where length > five times width. For
intermediate footing lengths, the minimum depth of boring may be estimated by linear interpolation as a
functionoflengthbetweendepthsoftwotimeswidthandfivetimeswidthbelowthebearinglevel.Greater
depthmayberequiredwherewarrantedbylocalconditions.

(b) Formoreheavilyloadedstructures,suchasmultistoriedstructuresandforframedstructures,atleast50%of
theboringsshouldbeextendedtoadepthequalto1.5timesthewidthofthebuildingbelowthelowestpart
ofthefoundation.

(c) Normallythedepthofexplorationshallbeoneandahalftimestheestimatedwidthortheleastdimension
ofthefootingbelowthefoundationlevel.Ifthepressurebulbsforanumberofloadedareasoverlap,the
wholeareamaybeconsideredasloadedandexplorationshallbecarrieddowntooneandahalftimesthe
least dimension. In weak soils, the exploration shall be continued to a depth at which the loads can be
carriedbythestratuminquestionwithoutundesirablesettlementorshearfailure.

(d) Where substructure units will be supported on deep foundations, the depth boring should extend a
minimumof6mbelowtheanticipatedpileofshafttipelevation.Wherepileorshaftgroupswillbeused,
the boring should extend at least two times the maximum pile or shaft group dimension below the
anticipatedtipelevation,unlessthefoundationwillbeendbearingonorinrock.

(e) Forpiles bearingonrock,a minimumof1.5mofrockcoreshould be obtainedateach boringlocationto

ensuretheboringhasnotbeenterminatedinaboulder.

(f) Forshaftssupportedonorextendingintorock,aminimumof1.5mofrockcore,oralengthofrockcore
equaltoatleastthreetimestheshaftdiameterforisolatedshaftsortwotimesthemaximumshaftgroup
dimensionforashaftgroup,whicheverisgreater,shouldbeobtainedtoensurethattheboringhadnotbeen
terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical properties of rock within the zone of foundation
influencefordesign.

(g) The depth, to which weathering process affects the deposit, shall be regarded as the minimum depth of
explorationforasite.However,innocaseshallthisdepthbelessthan2m,butwhereindustrialprocesses
affectthesoilcharacteristics,thisdepthmaybemore.

(h) Itisgoodpracticetohaveatleastoneboringcarriedtobedrock,ortowellbelowtheanticipatedlevelof
influenceofthebuilding.Bedrockshouldbeprovedbycoringintoittoaminimumdepthof3m.

6158 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

3.4.2.4 SoundingandPenetrationTests
Subsurface soundings are used for exploring soil strata of an erratic nature. They are useful to determine the
presenceofanysoftpocketsbetweendrillholesandalsotodeterminethedensityindexofcohesionlesssoilsandthe
consistency of cohesive soils at desired depths. A field test called Vane Shear Test may be used to determine the
shearingstrengthofthesoillocatedatadepthbelowtheground.

Penetrationtestsconsistofdrivingor pushingastandardsamplingtubeora cone.Thedevicesarealsotermed as

penetrometers,sincetheypenetratethesubsoilwithaviewtomeasuringtheresistancetopenetratethesoilstrata.
Ifasamplingtubeisusedtopenetratethesoil,thetestisreferredtoasStandardPenetrationTest(orsimplySPT).Ifa
cone is used, the test is called a Cone Penetration Test. If the penetrometer is pushed steadily into the soil, the
procedureisknownasStaticPenetrationTest.Ifdrivenintothesoil,itisknownasDynamicPenetrationTest.Details
ofsoundingandpenetrationstestsarepresentedinAPPENDIX6.3.A.

3.4.2.5 GeotechnicalInvestigationReport

The results of a geotechnical investigationshall be compiled in the Geotechnical Investigation Reportwhichshall

formapartoftheGeotechnicalDesignReport.TheGeotechnicalInvestigationReportshallconsistofthefollowing:
(i) apresentationofallappropriategeotechnicalinformationonfieldandlaboratorytestsincluding
geologicalfeaturesandrelevantdata;
(ii) a geotechnical evaluation of the information, stating the assumptions made in the
interpretationofthetestresults.

TheGeotechnicalInvestigationReportshallstateknownlimitationsoftheresults,ifappropriate.TheGeotechnical
InvestigationReportshouldproposenecessaryfurtherfieldandlaboratoryinvestigations,withcommentsjustifying
the need for this further work. Such proposals should be accompanied by a detailed programme for the further
investigationstobecarriedout.

The presentation of geotechnical information shall include a factual account of all field and laboratory
investigations.Thefactualaccountshouldincludethefollowinginformation:

thepurposeandscopeofthegeotechnicalinvestigationincludingadescriptionofthesiteanditstopography,
oftheplannedstructureandthestageoftheplanningtheaccountisreferringto;

thenamesofallconsultantsandcontractors;

thedatesbetweenwhichfieldandlaboratoryinvestigationswereperformed;

thefieldreconnaissanceofthesiteoftheprojectandthesurroundingareanotingparticularly:

i) evidenceofgroundwater;

ii)behaviourofneighbouringstructures;

iii) exposuresinquarriesandborrowareas;

iv)areasofinstability;

v) difficultiesduringexcavation;

vi) historyofthesite;

vii)geologyofthesite,

viii)surveydatawithplansshowingthestructureandthelocationofallinvestigationpoints;

ix)localexperienceinthearea;

x) informationabouttheseismicityofthearea.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6159
Part6
StructuralDesign

The presentation of geotechnical information shall include documentation of the methods, procedures and
resultsincludingallrelevantreportsof:

deskstudies;

fieldinvestigations,suchassampling,fieldtestsandgroundwatermeasurements;

laboratorytests.

The results of the field and laboratoryinvestigations shall be presented and reported according to the
requirementsdefinedintheASTMorequivalentstandardsappliedintheinvestigations.

3.5 IDENTIFICATION,CLASSIFICATIONANDDESCRIPTIONOFSOILS

3.5.1 IdentificationofSoil
Samplesandtrialpitsshouldbeinspectedvisuallyandcomparedwithfieldlogsofthedrillingssothatthepreliminary
groundprofilecanbeestablished.Forsoilsamples,thevisualinspectionshouldbesupportedbysimplemanualtests
to identify the soil and to give a first impression of its consistency and mechanical behaviour. A standard visual
manualprocedureofdescribingandidentifyingsoilsmaybefollowed.

Soilclassificationtestsshouldbeperformedtodeterminethecompositionandindexpropertiesofeachstratum.Thesamplesfor
theclassificationtestsshouldbeselectedinsuchawaythatthetestsareapproximatelyequallydistributedoverthecomplete
areaandthefulldepthofthestratarelevantfordesign.

3.5.2 SoilClassification

3.5.2.1 ParticleSizeClassification
Dependingonparticlesizes,mainsoiltypesaregravel,sand,siltandclay.However,thelargergravelscanbefurther
classifiedascobbleandboulder.ThesoilparticlesizeshallbeclassifiedinaccordancewithTable6.3.1.

Table6.3.1:ParticleSizeRangesofSoils

SoilType ParticleSize RetainedonMesh

Range,mm Size/SieveNo.
Boulder >300 12
Cobble 30075 3
Gravel: Coarse 7519 3/4
Medium 199.5 3/8

Fine 9.54.75 No.4

Sand: Coarse 4.752.00 No.10
Medium 2.000.425 No.40
Fine 0.4250.075 No.200

Silt 0.0750.002
Clay <0.002

3.5.2.2 EngineeringClassification
Soilsaredividedintothreemajorgroups,coarsegrained,finegrainedandhighlyorganic.Theclassificationisbased
onclassificationtestresultsnamelygrainsizeanalysisandconsistencytest.Thecoarsegrainedsoilsshallbeclassified
usingTable6.3.2.OutlinesoforganicandinorganicsoilseparationsarealsoprovidedinTable6.3.2.Thefinegrained

6160 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

soils shall be classified using the plasticity chart shown in Fig. 6.3.1. For details, reference can be made to ASTM
D2487.Inadditiontotheseclassifications,asoilshallbedescribedbyitscolour,particleangularity(forcoarsegrained
soils)andconsistency.Furthertotheaboveclassificationsoilsexhibitingswellingorcollapsingcharacteristicshallbe
recorded.

For undisturbed soils information on stratification, degree of compactness, cementation, moisture conditions and
drainagecharacteristicsshallbeincluded.
3.5.2.2.1IdentificationandClassificationofOrganicSoils
Thepresenceoforganicmattercanhaveundesirableeffectsontheengineeringbehaviourofsoil.Forexample,the
bearing capacity is reduced, the compressibility is increased, swelling and shrinkage potential is increased due to
organiccontent.Organiccontenttestsareusedtoclassifythesoil.Insoilwithlittleornoclayparticlesandcarbonate
content,theorganiccontentisoftendeterminedfromthelossonignitionatacontrolledtemperature.Othersuitable
tests can also be used. For example, organic content can be determined from the mass loss on treatment with
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which provides a more specific measure of organics. Organic deposits are due to
decompositionoforganicmattersandfoundusuallyintopsoilandmarshyplace.Asoildepositinorganicoriginissaid
topeatifitisatthehigherendoftheorganiccontentscale(75%ormore),organicsoilatthelowend,andmuckin
between. Peat soil is usually formed of fossilized plant minerals and characterized by fiber content and lower
decomposition. The peats have certain characteristics that set them apart from moist mineral soils and required
special considerations for construction over them. This special characteristic includes, extremely high natural
moisture content, high compressibility including significant secondary and even tertiary compression and very low
undrainedshearstrengthatnaturalmoisturecontent.

However, there are many other criteria existed to classify the organic deposits and it remains still as controversial
issuewithnumerousapproachesavailableforvaryingpurposeofclassification.Soilfromorganicdepositsanditrefers
to a distinct mode of behavior different than traditional soil mechanics in certain respects. A possible approach is
beingconsideredbytheAmericansocietyforTestingandMaterialsforclassifyingorganicsoilshavingvaryingamount
oforganicmattercontents.TheclassificationisgiveninTable6.3.3.

3.5.2.2.2IdentificationandClassificationofExpansiveSoils

Expansive soils are those which swell considerably on absorption of water and shrink on the removal of water. In
monsoonseasons,expansivesoilsimbibewater,becomesoftandswell.Indrierseasons,thesesoilsshrinkorreduce
in volume due to evaporation of water and become harder. As such, the seasonal moisture variation in such soil
depositsaroundandbeneaththestructureresultsintosubsequentupwardanddownwardmovementsofstructures
leading to structural damage, in the form of wide cracks in the wall and distortion of floors. For identification and
classification of expansive soils parameters like free swell, free swell index, linear shrinkage, swelling potential,
swellingpressureandvolumechangeshouldbeevaluatedexperimentallyorfromavailablegeotechnicalcorrelation.

3.5.2.2.2IdentificationandClassificationofCollapsibleSoils
Soildepositsmostlikelytocollapseare;(i)loosefills,(ii)alteredwindblownsands,(iii)hillwashoflooseconsistency,
and(iv)decomposedgraniteorotheracidigneousrocks.

Averysimpletestforrecognizingcollapsiblesoilisthesaugestest.Twoundisturbedcylindricalsamples(sausages)
ofthesamediameterandlength(volume)arecarvedfromthesoil.Onesampleisthenwettedandkneadedtoforma
cylinderoftheoriginaldiameter.Adecreaseinlengthascomparedtotheoriginal,undisturbedcylinderwillconfirma
collapsiblegrainstructure.Collapseisprobablewhenthenaturalvoidratio,eiishigherthanacriticalvoidratio,ec
thatdependsonvoidratioseLandepatliquidlimitandplasticlimitsrespectively.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6161
 Part6
StructuralDesign

Table6.3.2: EngineeringClassificationofSoils(CriteriaforAssigningGroupSymbolsandGroupNamesusing
LaboratoryTestsA)
Classification(Forparticlessmaller Group GroupName B LaboratoryClassification
than75mmandbasedonestimated Symbol Percent OtherCriteria
weights) finer than
0.075mm
Wellgradedgravels,sandy
GW gravels,sandgravelmixture,
D Cu4and
littleornofines.
C
<5
E 1Cz3
Gravels Clean
Poorlygradedgravels,sandy
(Morethan gravels
GP gravels,Sandgravelmixture,
50%of D Cu<4and/or
littleornofines. C
coarse 1>Cz>3
fraction Siltygravels,siltysandy IP<4orthe For4>IP>7
retainedon D,F,G
gravels. limitvalues andlimit
No.4sieve below'A'lineof values
GM
(4.75mm) plasticitychart above

Clayeygravels,siltyclayey IP>7andthe 'A'line,dual
Gravel D,F,G >12
E
symbol
Coarse gravels.. limitvalues
withfines required*
grainedsoils GC above'A'lineof
PlasticityChart
(Morethan50%
Wellgradedsand,gravelly
ofthematerial H Cu6and
SW sand,littleornofines.
retainedonNo. <5 E
1Cz3C
200sieve(0.075
Clean
Sands Sands Poorlygradedsands,gravelly
mm) H Cu<6and/or
(over50%of SP sand,littleornofines.
1>Cz>3C
coarse
Siltysand,poorlygradedsand IP<4orthe For4>IP>7
fraction F,G,H
Sandswith SM siltmixtures. limitvalues andlimit
smallerthan below'A'lineof values
fines
4.75mm) Plasticitychart aboveA
IP>7andthe line,dual
SC Clayeysand,sandclay >12E limitvalues symbols
F,G,H required.
mixtures. above'A'lineof
plasticitychart

Siltoflowtomedium Limitvaluesonorbelow'A'lineofplasticity
ML compressibility,veryfine chart&IP<4
sands,rockflour,siltwith
K,L,M
Silts& sand.
Clays Inorganic Claysoflowtomedium
Finegrained CL Limitvaluesabove'A'lineof
plasticity,gravellyclay,sandy
wL<50 K,L,M plasticitychartand/orIP>4
soils clay,siltyclay,leanclay.
(Over K,L,M,N
Organicclay and
50%ofthe
Organic OL Organicsilt
K,L,M,O Liquidlimit(ovendried)
material Liquidlimit(undried) <0.75
smallerthan oflowtomediumplasticity
0.075mm) Siltofhighplasticity,
MH Limitvaluesonorbelow'A'lineofplasticity
micaceousfinesandyorsilty
K,L,M chart
Silts& Inorganic soil,elasticsilt.
Clays K,L, Limitvaluesabove'A'lineof
CH Highplasticclay,fatclay.
M plasticitychart
wL50

Organicclayofhighplasticity. Liquidlimit(ovendried)
Organic OH K,L,M,P
Liquidlimit(undried) <0.75

Peatandhighlyorganicsoils. Identifiedbycolour,odour,fibroustexture
Soilsofhighorganicorigin PT K,L,M,Q
andspongycharacteristics.

6162 Vol.2
 SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

NOTES:
A Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve
B If field sample contained cobbles or boulders, or both, add with cobbles or boulders, or both to group name.
C Cu = D60/D10, CZ = (D30)2 / (D10 D60)
D If soil contains 15 % sand, add with sand to group name.
E Gravels with 5 to 12 % fines require dual symbols:
GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt
GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay
GP-GM poorly graded gravel with silt
GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay

F If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol GC-GM, or SC-SM.

G If fines are organic, add with organic fines to group name.
H If soil contains 15 % gravel, add with gravel to group name.
I Sands with 5 to 12 % fines require dual symbols:
SW-SM well-graded sand with silt
SW-SC well-graded sand with clay
SP-SM poorly graded sand with silt
SP-SC poorly graded sand with clay.
J If Atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil is a CL-ML, silty clay.
K If soil contains 15 to 29 % plus No. 200, add with sand or with gravel, whichever is predominant.
L If soil contains 30 % plus No. 200, predominantly sand, add sand to group name.

M If soil contains 30 % plus No. 200, predominantly gravel, add gravelly to group name.

N PI 4 and plots on or above A line.

O PI < 4 or plots below A line.

P PI plots on or above A line.
Q PI plots below A line.

If desired, the percentages of gravel, sand, and fines may be stated in terms indicating a range of percentages, as follows:

Trace Particles are present but estimated to be less than 5 %

Few 5 to 10 %
Little 15 to 25 %
Some 30 to 45 %
Mostly 50 to 100 %

Fig.6.3.1:PlasticityChart(basedonmaterialspassing425mSieve)

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6163
Part6
StructuralDesign

Table6.3.3:ClassificationandDescriptionofOrganicSoils(afterEdil,1997)
OrganicContent
Description
(TestMethod:ASTMD2974)
<5% Littleeffectonbehavior;consideredinorganicsoil.
Effectspropertiesbutbehaviorisstilllikemineralsoils;organic
6~20%
siltsandclays.
Organicmattergovernsproperties;traditionalsoilmechanics
21~74%
maybeapplicable;siltyorclayeyorganicsoils.
Displaysbehaviordistinctfromtraditionalsoilmechanics
>75%
especiallyatlowstress.

Thefollowingformulashouldbeusedtoestimatethecriticalvoidratio.

ec = 0.85 e L + 015 e P (6.3.1)

Collapsiblesoils(withadegreeofsaturation,Sr0.6)shouldsatisfythefollowingcondition:

e L ei
0.10
1 + ei (6.3.2)

Aconsolidationtestistobeperformedonanundisturbedspecimenatnaturalmoisturecontentandtorecordthe
thickness,Honconsolidationunderapressurepequaltooverburdenpressureplustheexternalpressurelikelyto
beexertedonthesoil.ThespecimenisthensubmergedunderthesamepressureandthefinalthicknessHrecorded.
Relativesubsidence,Isubsisfoundas:
H H
I subs =
H (6.3.3)

SoilshavingIsubs0.02areconsideredtobecollapsible.

3.5.2.2.4IdentificationandClassificationofDispersiveSoils
Dispersivenatureofasoilisameasureoferosion.Dispersivesoilisduetothedispersedstructureofasoilmatrix.An
identificationofdispersivesoilscanbemadeonthebasisofpinholetest.

Thepinholetestwasdevelopedtodirectlymeasure dispersibilityof compactedfinegrainedsoilsinwhichwateris

madeto flow through a smallhole in a soil specimen, wherewater flow through the pinhole simulates waterflow
throughacrackorotherconcentratedleakagechannelintheimperviouscoreofadamorotherstructure.Thetestis
rununder50,180,380and1020mmheadsandthesoilisclassifiedasfollowsinTable6.3.4.

Table6.3.4:ClassificationofDispersiveSoilOntheBasisofPinholeTest(Sherardet.al.1976)
TestObservation TypeofSoil ClassofSoil

Failsrapidlyunder50mmhead. Dispersivesoils D1andD2

Erodeslowlyunder50mmor180mmhead Intermediatesoils ND4andND3
Nocolloidalerosionunder380mmor1020mm Nondispersivesoils ND2andND1
head

AnothermethodofidentificationistofirstdeterminethepHofa1:2.5soil/watersuspension.IfthepHisabove7.8,
thesoilmaycontainenoughsodiumtodispersethemass.Thendetermine:(i)totalexcahangablebases,thatis,K+,
Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ (milliequivalent per 100g of air dried soil) and (ii) cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil
(milliequivalentper100gofairdriedsoil).TheExchangeableSodiumPercentageESPiscalculatedfromtherelation:

6164 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

Na
ESP = 100(%)
CEC (6.3.4)

EmgPisgivenby:

Mg
EMgP = 100(%)
CEC (6.3.5)

IftheESPisabove8percentandESPplusEMgPisabove15,dispersionwilltakeplace.ThesoilswithESP=7to10are
moderatelydispersiveincombinationwithreservoirwatersoflowdissolvedsalts.SoilswithESPgreaterthan15have
serious piping potential. Dispersive soils do not actually present any problems with building structures. However,
dispersive soil can lead to catastrophic failures of earth embankment dams as well as severe distress of road
embankments.

3.5.2.2.5IdentificationandClassificationofSoftInorganicSoils
Nostandarddefinitionexistsforsoftclaysintermsofconventionalsoilparameters,mineralogyorgeologicalorigin.It
is, however, commonly understood that soft clays give shear strength, compressibility and severe time related
settlement problems. In near surface clays, where form a crust, partial saturation and overconsolidation occur
togetherandtheoverconsolidationisaresultofthedryingoutoftheclayduetochangesinthewatertable.

In below surface clays, overconsolidation may have taken place when the clay was previously at, or close to the
ground surface and above the water table, but due to subsequent deposition the strata may now be below the
surface, saturated and overconsolidated. Partial saturation does not in itself cause engineering problems, but may
leadtolaboratorytestingdifficulties.Softclayshaveundrainedshearstrengthsbetweenabout10kPaand40kPa,in
otherwords,fromexudingbetweenthefingerswhensqueezedtobeingeasilymouldedinthefingers.

Softclayspresentveryspecialproblemsofengineeringdesignandconstruction.Foundationfailuresinsoftclaysare
comparativelycommon.Theconstructionofbuildingsinsoftclayshasalwaysbeenassociatedwithstabilityproblems
andsettlement.Shallowfoundationsinevitablyresultsinlargesettlementswhichmustbeaccommodatedforinthe
design, and which invariably necessitate longterm maintenance of engineered facilities. The following relationship
amongNvaluesobtainedfromSPT,consistencyandundrainedshearstrengthofsoftclaysmaybeusedasguides.

Nvalue(blows/300mmofpenetration) Consistency UndrainedShearStrength(kN/m2)

Below2 Verysoft Lessthan20
24 Soft 2040

Undrainedshearstrengthishalfofunconfinedcompressivestrengthasdeterminedfromunconfinedcompression
testorhalfofthepeakdeviatorstressasobtainedfromunconsolidatedundrained(UU)triaxialcompressiontest.

3.6 MATERIALS

AllmaterialsfortheconstructionoffoundationsshallconformtotherequirementsofPart5:BuildingMaterials.

3.6.1 Concrete
All concrete materials and steel reinforcement used in foundations shall conform to the requirements specified in
Chapter 5 unless otherwise specified in this section. For different types of foundation the recommended concrete
properties are shown in Table 6.3.5. However, special considerations should be given for hostile environment
(salinity,acidicenvironment).

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6165
Part6
StructuralDesign

Table6.3.5:PropertiesofConcreteforDifferentTypesofFoundations

FoundationType Minimumcement SpecifiedMin. Slump Remarks

content 28daysCylinder (mm)
3
(kg/m ) Strength(MPa)
Footing/raft 350 20 25to125
Retarderand
Drilledshaft/Castinsitupile
400 18 125to200 plasticizer
(tremieconcrete)
recommended.
Drivenpile 350 25 25to125

3.6.2 Steel

3.7.2.1General
Corrosion in soil, water or moist outdoor environment is caused by electrochemical processes. The process takes
placeincorrosioncellsonthesteelsurface,whichconsistsofananodicsurface(wherethecorrosiontakesplace),a
cathodic surface (where oxygen is reduced) and the electrolyte, which reacts with these surfaces. In the case of
general corrosion, the surface erosion is relatively even across the entire surface. Local corrosion however is
concentratedtoalimitedsurfacearea.Pronouncedcavityerosionisratherunusualonunprotectedcarbonsteelin
soilorwater.

In many circumstances, steel corrosion rates are low and steel piles may be used for permanent works in an
unprotected condition. The degree of corrosion and whether protection is required depend upon the working
environmentwhichcanbevariable,evenwithinasingleinstallation.Undergroundcorrosionofsteelpilesdriveninto
undisturbed soils is negligible irrespective of the soi1 type and characteristics. The insignificant corrosion attack is
attributedtothelowoxygenlevelspresentinundisturbedsoil.Forthepurposeofcalculations,amaximumcorrosion
rateof0.015mmpersideperyearmaybeused.Inrecentfillsoilsorindustrialwastesoils,wherecorrosionrates
maybehigher,protectionsystemsshouldbeconsidered.

3.7.2.2AtmosphericCorrosion

AtmosphericcorrosionofsteelintheUKaveragesapproximately0035mm/sideperyearandthisvaluemaybeused
formostatmosphericenvironments.

3.7.2.3CorrosioninFreshWaters

Corrosionlossesinfreshwaterimmersionzonesaregenerallylowerthanforseawatersotheeffectivelifeofsteel
piles is normally proportionately longer. However, fresh waters arevariable and no general advice can begiven to
quantifytheincreaseinthelengthoflife.

3.7.2.4CorrosioninMarineEnvironments

Marine environments may include several exposure zones with different aggressivity and different corrosion
performance.

(a) Belowthebedlevel:Wherepilesarebelowthebedlevellittlecorrosionoccursandthecorrosionrategiven
forundergroundcorrosionisapplicable,thatis,0.015mm/sideperyear.

(b) Seawaterimmersionzone:Corrosionofsteelpi111nginimmersionconditionsisnormallylow,withamean
corrosionrateof0035mm/sideperyear.

(c) Tidalzones:Marinegrowthsinthiszonegivesignificantprotectiontothepiling,byshelteringthesteelfrom
waveactionbetweentidesandbylimitingtheoxygensupplytothesteelsurface.Thecorrosionrateofsteels

6166 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

in the tidal zone is similar to that of immersion zone corrosion, i.e. 0 035 mm/side per year. Protection
shouldbeprovidedwherenecessary,tothesteelsurfacestopreventtheremovalordamageofthemarine
growth.

(d) Lowwaterzone:Intidalwaters,thelowwaterlevelandthesplashzonearereasonsofhighestthickness
losses,whereameancorrosionrateof0075mm/sideperyearoccurs.Occasionallyhighercorrosionrates
areencounteredatthelowerwaterlevelbecauseofspecificlocalconditions.

(e) Splash and atmospheric zones: In the splash zone, which is a more aggressive environment than the
atmosphericzone,corrosionratesaresimilartothelowwaterlevel,i.e.0.075mm/sideperyear.Inthiszone
thickstratifiedrustlayersmaydevelopandatthicknessesgreaterthan10mmthesetendtospallfromthe
steelespeciallyoncurvedpartsofthepilessuchastheshouldersandtheclutches.Rusthasamuchgreater
volumethanthesteelfromwhichitisderivedsothatthesteelcorrosionlossesarerepresentedbysome10
%to20%oftherustthickness.

The boundary between the splash and atmospheric zones is not well defined, however, corrosion rates
diminishrapidlywithdistance above peakwave heightand themean atmosphericcorrosion rateof 0.035
mm/sideperyearcanbeusedforthiszone.

3.7.2.5MethodsofIncreasingEffectiveLife

Theeffectivelifeofunpaintedorotherwiseunprotectedsteelpilingdependsuponthecombinedeffectsofimposed
stressesandcorrosion.Wheremeasuresforincreasingtheeffectivelifeofastructurearenecessary,thefollowing
shouldbeconsidered;introductionofacorrosionallowance(i.e.oversizedcrosssectionsofpiles,highyieldsteeletc),
anticorrosionpainting,applicationofapolyethylene(PE)coating(onsteeltubepiles),zinccoating,electrochemical
(cathodic)protection,castingincementmortarorconcrete,anduseofatmosphericcorrosionresistantsteelproducts
insteadofordinarycarbonsteelinanyfoundationworkinvolvingsteel.

(a) Use of a heavier section: Effective life may be increased by the use of additional steel thickness as a
corrosion allowance. Maximum corrosion seldom occurs at the same position as the maximum bending
moment.Accordingly,theuseofacorrosionallowanceisacosteffectivemethodofincreasingeffectivelife.
Itispreferabletouseatmosphericcorrosionresistanthighstrengthlowalloysteel.

(b) Useofahighyieldsteel:Analternativetousingmildsteelinaheaviersectionistouseahigheryieldsteel
andretainthesamesection.

(c) Zinccoatings:Steelpilesshouldnormallybecoatedundershopconditions.Paintsshouldbeappliedtothe
cleaned surfaceby airless spraying and then cured rapidly to produce the required coatingthickness in as
few coats as possible. Hot zinccoating of steel piles in soil can achieve normally longlasting protection,
providedthatthezinclayerhassufficientthickness.Insomesoils,especiallythosewithlowpHvalues,the
corrosionofzinccanbehigh,therebyshorteningtheprotectionduration.LowpHvaluesoccurnormallyin
theaeratedzoneabovethelowestgroundwaterlevel.Insuchacase,itisrecommendedtoapplyprotection
paintontopofthezinclayer.

(d) Concreteencasement:Concreteencasementmaybeusedtoprotectsteelpilesinmarineenvironment.The
useofconcretemayberestrictedtothesplashzonebyextendingtheconcretecopetobelowthemeanhigh
waterlevel,bothsplashandtidalzonesmaybeprotectedbyextendingthecopetobelowthelowestwater
level.Theconcreteitselfshouldbeaquantitysufficienttoresistseawaterattack.

(e) Cathodicprotection:Thedesignandapplicationofcathodicprotectionsystemstomarinepilesstructuresisa
complex operation requiring the experience of specialist firms. Cathodic protection with electric current
applied to steel sheet pile wall. Rodtype anodes are connected directly with steel sheet pile Cathodic
protection is considered to be fully effective only up to the halftide mark. For zones above this level,

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6167
Part6
StructuralDesign

including the splash zone, alternative methods of protection may be required, in addition to cathodic
protection.Wherecathodicprotectionisusedonmarinestructures,provisionshouldbemadeforearthing
shipsandburiedservicestothequay.

(f) Polyetheline coating: Steel tube piles can be protected effectively by application of a PEcover of a few
millimeter thickness. This cover can be applied in the factory and is usually placed on a coating of epoxy.
Steel tube piles in water, where the mechanical wear is low, can in this way be protected for long time
periods. When the steel tube piles with the PEcover are driven into coarsegrained soil, the effect of
damagingtheprotectionlayermustbetakenintoconsideration.

(g) Properly executed anticorrosion measures, using highquality methods can protect steel piles in soil or
wateroverperiodsof15to20years.PEcoverincombinationwithepoxycoatingcanachieveevenlonger
protectiontimes.

3.6.3 Timber

TimbermaybeusedonlyforfoundationoftemporarystructureandshallconformtothestandardsspecifiedinSec
2.9ofPart5.Wheretimberisexposedtosoilorusedasloadbearingpileabovegroundwaterlevel,itshallbetreated
inaccordancewithBDS819:1975.

3.7 TYPESOFFOUNDATION

3.7.1 ShallowFoundation
Shallow foundations spread the load to the ground at shallow depth. Generally, the capacity of this foundation is
derivedfrombearing.

3.7.1.1 Footing
Footings are foundations that spread the load to the ground at shallow depths. These include individual column
footings,continuouswallfootings,andcombinedfootings.Footingsshallbeprovidedunderwalls,pilasters,columns,
piers,chimneysetc.bearingonsoilorrock,exceptthatfootingsmaybeomittedunderpierormonolithicconcrete
wallsifsafebearingcapacityofthesoilorrockisnotexceeded.

3.7.1.2 Raft/Mat
Afoundationconsistingofcontinuousslabthatcoverstheentireareabeneaththestructureandsupportsallwalls
andcolumnsisconsideredasaraftormatfoundation.Araftfoundationmaybeoneofthefollowingtypes:

(a) Flatplateorconcreteslabofuniformthicknessusuallysupportingcolumnsspaceduniformlyandrestingon
soilsoflowcompressibility.

(b) Flatplatesasin(a)butthickenedundercolumnstoprovideadequateshearandmomentresistance.

(c) Twowayslabandbeamsystemsupportinglargelyspacedcolumnsoncompressiblesoil.

(d) Cellularraftorrigidframesconsistingofslabsandbasementwalls,usuallyusedforheavystructures.

3.7.2 DeepFoundation
Acylindrical/boxfoundationhavingaratioofdepthtobasewidthgreaterthan5isconsideredaDeepFoundation.
Generally,itscapacityisderivedfromfrictionandendbearing.

6168 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

3.7.2.1 Drivenpiles

A slender deep foundation unit made of materials such as steel, concrete, wood, or combination thereof, which is
premanufacturedandplacedbydriving,jacking,jettingorscrewinganddisplacingthesoil.

(a)Driven Precast Concrete Piles: Pile structure capable of being driven into the ground and able to resist
handlingstressesshallbeusedforthiscategoryofpiles.

(b) DrivenCastinsituConcretePiles:Apileformedbydrivingasteelcasingorconcreteshellinoneormore
pieces,whichmayremaininplaceafterdrivingorwithdrawn,withtheinsidefilledwithconcrete,fallsinthis
categoryofpiles.Sometimesanenlargedbasemaybeformedbydrivingoutaconcreteplug.

(c) Driven Prestressed Concrete Pile: A pile constructed in prestressed concrete in a casting yard and
subsequentlydriveninthegroundwhenithasattainedsufficientstrength.

(d) Timber Piles: structural timber (see Sec 2.9 of Part 5) shall be used as piles for temporary structures for
directlytransmittingtheimposedloadtosoil.Whendriventimberpolesareusedtocompactandimprove
thedeposit.

3.8.2.2 Boredpiles/castinsitupiles

A deep foundation of generally small diameter, usually less than 600 mm, constructed using percussion or rotary
drillingintothesoil.Theseareconstructedbyconcretingboreholesformedbyauguring,rotarydrillingorpercussion
drillingwithorwithoutusingbentonitemudcirculation.Excavationordrillingshallbecarriedoutinamannerthat
will not impair the carrying capacity of the foundations already in place or will not damage adjacent foundations.
Thesefoundationsmaybetestedforcapacitybyloadtestorforintegritybysonicresponseorothersuitablemethod.
Underreamingdrilledpierscanbeconstructedincohesivesoilstoincreasetheendbearing.

3.8.2.3 Drilledpier/drilledshafts

Thedrilledpierisatypeofboredpilehavingalargerdiameter(morethan600mm)constructedbyexcavatingthesoil
orsinkingthefoundation.

3.8.2.4 Caisson/well

Acaissonorwellfoundation isadeepfoundationoflargediameterrelativetoitslengththatisgenerallyahollow
shaftorboxwhichissunktoposition.Itdiffersfromothertypesofdeepfoundationinthesensethatitundergoes
rigidbodymovementunderlateralload,whereastheothersareflexiblelikeabeamundersuchloads.Thistypeof
foundationisusuallyusedforbridgesandmassivestructures.

PARTB:SERVICELOADDESIGNMETHODOFFOUNDATIONS(SECTIONS3.9to3.12)

3.8 SHALLOWFOUNDATION

ShallbeapplicabletoisolatedFootings,CombinedFootingsandRaft/Mats.

3.8.1 DistributionofBearingPressure
Footing shall be designed to keep the maximum imposed load within the safe bearing values of soil and rock. To
preventunequalsettlementfootingshallbedesignedtokeepthebearingpressureasnearlyuniformaspractical.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6169
Part6
StructuralDesign

For raft design, distribution of soil pressures should be consistent with the properties of the foundation materials
(subsoil) and the structure (raft thickness) and with the principles of geotechnical engineering. Mat or raft and
floatingfoundationsshallonlybeusedwhentheappliedloadofbuildingorstructureissoarrangedastoresultin
practicallyuniformlybalancedloading,andthesoilimmediatelybelowthematisofuniformbearingcapacity.

3.8.2 FootingsinFillSoil
Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing capacity, settlement, and dynamic ground stability
considerationsasfootingsinnaturalsoil.Thebehaviorofbothfillandunderlyingnaturalsoilshouldbeconsidered.

3.8.3 SoilandRockPropertySelection
Soilandrockpropertiesdefiningthestrengthandcompressibilitycharacteristicsoffoundationmaterialsarerequired
for footing design. Foundation stability and settlement analysis for design shall be conducted using soil and rock
propertiesbasedontheresultsoffieldandlaboratorytesting.

3.8.4 MinimumDepthofFoundation
Theminimumdepthoffoundationshallbe1.5mforexteriorfootingofpermanentstructuresincohesivesoilsand2
mincohesionlesssoils.Fortemporarystructurestheminimumdepthofexteriorfootingshallbe400mm.Incaseof
expansiveandsoilssusceptibletoweatheringeffects,theabovementionedminimumdepthswillbenotapplicable
andmayhavetobeincreased.

3.8.5 Scour
Footingssupportedonsoilshallbeembeddedsufficientlybelowthemaximumcomputedscourdepthorprotected
withascourcountermeasure.

3.8.6 MassMovementofGroundinUnstableAreas
In certain areas mass movement of ground may occur from causes independent of the loads applied to the
foundation. These include mining subsidence, landslides on unstable slopes and creep on clay slopes. In areas of
groundsubsidence,foundationsandstructuresshouldbemadesufficientlyrigidandstrongtowithstandtheprobable
worstloadingconditions.Theconstructionofstructuresonslopeswhicharesuspectedofbeingunstableandsubject
to landslip shall be avoided. Spread foundations on such slopes shall be on a horizontal bearing and stepped. For
foundationsonclayslopes,thestabilityofthefoundationshouldbeinvestigated.

3.8.7 FoundationExcavation
Foundationexcavationbelowgroundwatertableparticularlyinsandshallbemadesuchthatthehydraulicgradient
atthebottomoftheexcavationisnotincreasedtoamagnitudethatwouldcasethefoundationsoilstoloosendueto
upwardflowofwater.Further,footingexcavationsshallbemadesuchthathydraulicgradientsandmaterialremoval
do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seepage forces and gradients may be evaluated by standard flow net
procedures.Dewateringorcutoffmethodstocontrolseepageshallbeusedwhennecessary.

Incaseofsoilexcavationforraftfoundations,thefollowingissuesshouldbeadditionallytakenintoconsideration:

(a) Protectionfortheexcavationusingshoreorsheetpilesand/orretainingsystemwithorwithoutbracing,
anchorsetc.
(b) Considerationoftheadditionalbearingcapacityoftheraftforthedepthofthesoilexcavated.
(c) Considerationofthereductionofbearingcapacityforanyupwardbuoyancypressureofwater.

6170 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

3.9 GEOTECHNICALDESIGNOFSHALLOWFOUNDATIONS

3.9.1 General
Shallow foundations on soil shall be designed to support the design loads with adequate bearing and structural
capacityandwithtolerablesettlements.Inaddition,thecapacityoffootingssubjectedtoseismicanddynamicloads
shall be appropriately evaluated. The location of the resultant pressure on the base of the footings should be
maintainedpreferablywithinB/6ofthecentreofthefooting.

3.9.2 DesignLoad
Shallowfoundationdesign(consideringbearingcapacityduetoshearstrength)shallconsiderthemostunfavourable
effectofthefollowingcombinationsofloading:

(a) FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad

(b) FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad+WindLoadorSeismicLoad

(c) 0.9(FullDeadLoad)+BuoyancyPressure

Shallow foundation design (considering settlement) shall consider the most unfavourable effect of the following
combinationsofloading:

SAND

(a) FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad

(b) FullDeadLoad+NormalLiveLoad+WindLoadorSeismicLoad

CLAY

FullDeadLoad+0.5NormalLiveLoad

3.9.3 Bearingcapacity

When physical characteristics such as cohesion, angle of internal friction, density etc. are available, the bearing
capacity shall be calculated from stability considerations. Established bearing capacity equations shall be used for
calculating bearing capacity. A factor of safety of between 2.0 to 3.0 (depending on the extent of soil exploration,
qualitycontrolandmonitoringofconstruction)shallbeadoptedtoobtainallowablebearingpressurewhendeadload
andnormalliveloadisused.Thirtythreepercentoverstressingaboveallowablepressureshallbeallowedincaseof
designconsideringwindorseismicloading.Allowableloadshallalsolimitsettlementbetweensupportingelementsto
atolerablelimit.

3.9.4 PresumptiveBearingCapacityforPreliminaryDesign

Forlightlyloadedandsmallsizedstructures(twostoriedorlessinoccupancycategoryA,B,C&D)andforpreliminary
design of any structure, the presumptive bearing values (allowable) as given in Table 6.3.6 may be assumed for
uniformsoilintheabsenceoftestresults.

Table6.3.6:PresumptiveValuesofBearingCapacityforLightlyLoadedStructures*

SoilType SoilDescription SafeBearingCapacity,kPa

1 SoftRockorShale 440
Gravel,sandygravel,siltysandygravel;verydenseandofferhighresistanceto
2
penetrationduringexcavation(soilshallincludethegroupsGW,GP,GM,GC) 400**

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6171
Part6
StructuralDesign

SoilType SoilDescription SafeBearingCapacity,kPa

Sand(otherthanfinesand),gravellysand,siltysand;dry(soilshallincludethe
3
groupsSW,SP,SM,SC) 200**

4 Finesand;loose&dry(soilshallincludethegroupsSW,SP) 100**
Silt,clayey silt,clayeysand;drylumpswhichcanbeeasilycrushedbyfinger(soil
5 150
shallincludethegroupsML,,SC,&MH)
Clay,sandyclay;canbeindentedwithstrongthumbpressure(soilshallincludethe
6 150
groupsCL,&CH)
Softclay;canbeindentedwithmodestthumbpressure(soilshallincludethe
7 100
groupsCL,&CH)
Very soft clay; can be penetrated several centimeters with thumb pressure (soil
8 50
shallincludethegroupsCL&CH)
Organicclay&Peat(soilshallincludethegroupsOH,OL,Pt) Tobedeterminedafter
9
investigation.
Fills Tobedeterminedafter
10
investigation.
* Twostoriesorless(OccupancycategoryA,B,CandDasperBNBC)
** 50%ofthesevaluesshallbeusedwherewatertableisabovethebase,orbelowitwithinadistanceequaltothe
leastdimensionoffoundation

3.9.5 AllowableIncreaseofBearingPressureduetoWindandEarthquakeForces

Theallowablebearingpressureofthesoildeterminedinaccordancewiththissectionmayaybeincreasedby33per
centwhenlateralforcesduetowindorearthquakeactsimultaneouslywithgravityloads.Noincreaseinallowable
bearingpressureshallbepermittedforgravityloadsactingalone.Inazonewhereseismicforcesexist,possibilityof
liquefactioninloosesand,siltandsandysoilsshallbeinvestigated.

3.9.6 SettlementofFoundation

Foundationshallbeso designedthattheallowable bearingcapacity is notexceeded,andthetotal anddifferential

settlementarewithinpermissiblevalues.Foundationscansettleinvariouswaysandeachaffectstheperformanceof
thestructure.Thesimplestmodeconsistsoftheentirestructuresettlinguniformly.Thismodedoesnotdistortthe
structure. Any damage done is related to the interface between the structure and adjacent ground or adjacent
structures. Shearing of utility lines could be a problem. Another possibility is that one side of the structure settles
muchmorethantheoppositesideandtheportionsinbetweensettleproportionately.Thiscausesthestructureto
tilt,butitstilldoesnotdistort.Anominaltiltwillnotaffecttheperformanceofthestructure,althoughitmaycreate
aestheticandpublicconfidenceproblems.However,asaresultofdifferenceinfoundationsettlementthestructure
maysettleanddistortcausingcracksinwallsandfloors,jammingofdoorsandwindowsandoverloadingofstructural
members.

3.9.7 TotalSettlement

Totalsettlement()istheabsoluteverticalmovementofthefoundationfromitsasconstructedpositiontoitsloaded
position.Totalsettlementoffoundationduetonetimposedloadshallbeestimatedinaccordancewithestablished
engineeringprinciple.Anestimateofsettlementwithrespecttothefollowingshallbemadewhereapplicable:

(i) Elasticcompressionoftheunderlyingsoilbelowthefoundationandofthefoundation.

(ii) Consolidationsettlement.

(iii) Secondaryconsolidation/compressionoftheunderlyingsoil.

6172 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

(iv) Compression and volume changedue to change ineffective stress or soil migration associatedwith
loweringormovementofgroundwater.

(v) Seasonalswellingandshrinkageofexpansiveclays.

(vi) Groundmovementonearthslopes,suchassurfaceerosion,creeporlandslide.

(vii) Settlementduetoadjacentexcavation,miningsubsidenceandundergrounderosion.

Innormalcircumstancesofinorganicandorganicsoildepositsthetotalsettlementisattributedduetothefirstthree
factorsasmentionedabove.Theotherfactorsareregardedasspecialcases.Becausesoilsettlementcanhaveboth
timedepended and noontimedependent components, it is often categorized in terms shortterm settlement (or
immediate settlement) which occurs as quickly as the load is applied, and longterm settlement (or delayed
settlement), whichoccurs over some longer period. Many engineersassociate consolidation settlement solelywith
thelongtermsettlementofclay.However,thisisnotstrictlytrue.Consolidationisrelatedtovolumechangedueto
changeineffectivestressregardlessofthetypeofsoilorthetimerequiredforthevolumechange.

3.9.7.1 Elastic/DistortionSettlement

Elastic Settlement (d) of foundation soils results from lateral movements of the soil without volume change in
responsetochangesineffectiveverticalstress.ThisisnontimedependentphenomenonandsimilartothePoissons
effectwhereanobjectisloadedintheverticaldirectionexpandslaterally.Elasticordistortionsettlementsprimarily
occurwhentheloadisconfinedtoasmallarea,suchasastructuralfoundation,orneartheedgesoflargeloaded
areasuchasembankments.

3.9.7.2 ImmediateSettlement/ShortTermSettlement

Thisverticalcompressionoccursimmediatelyaftertheapplicationofloadingeitheronaccountofelasticbehaviour
thatproducesdistortionatconstantvolumeandonaccountofcompressionofairvoid.Thisissometimesdesignated
asi.forsandysoils,eventheconsolidationcomponentisimmediate.

3.9.7.3 PrimaryConsolidationSettlement

Primaryconsolidationsettlementorsimplytheconsolidationsettlement(c)offoundationisduetoconsolidationof
theunderlyingsaturated or nearly saturated soil especially cohesivesiltor clay. The full deal load and 50%of the
totalliveloadshouldbeconsideredwhencomputingtheconsolidationsettlementoffoundationsonclaysoils.

3.9.7.4 SecondaryConsolidationSettlement

Secondaryconsolidationsettlement(s)ofthefoundationisduetosecondarycompressionorconsolidationofthe
underlyingsaturatedornearlysaturatedcohesivesiltorclay.Thisisprimarilyduetoparticlereorientation,creep,and
decompositionoforganicmaterials.Secondarycompressionisalwaystimedependentandcanbesignificantinhighly
plasticclays,organicsoils,andsanitarylandfills,butitisnegligibleinsandsandgravels.

3.9.7.5 DifferentialSettlementanditsEffectontheStructure

Differential settlement is the difference in total settlement between two foundations or two points in the same
foundation.Itoccursasaresultofrelativemovementbetweentwopartsofabuilding.Therelatedtermsdescribing
the effects of differential settlement on the structural as a whole or on parts of it are tilt, rotation and angular
distortion/relativerotationwhicharedefinedbelow.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6173
Part6
StructuralDesign

3.9.7.6 Tilt

It is rotation of the entire superstructure or a well defined part of it as a result of nonuniform or differential
settlementoffoundationasaresultofwhichonesideofthebuildingsettlesmorethantheotherthusaffectingthe
verticalityofthebuilding.

3.9.7.7 Rotation

It is the angle between the horizontal line and an imaginary straight line connecting any two foundations or two
pointsinasinglefoundation.

3.9.7.8 AngularDistortion/RelativeRotation

Angular distortion or relative rotation is the angle between imaginary straight line indicating the overall tilt of a
structureandtheimaginaryconnectinglineindicatingtheinclinationofaspecificpartofit.Itismeasuredastheratio
ofdifferentialsettlementtothedistancebetweenthetwopoints..

3.9.8 CausesofDifferentialSettlement

Dueconsiderationshallbegiventoestimatethedifferentialsettlementthatmayoccurunderthebuildingstructure
underthefollowingcircumstances:

(i) Nonuniformityinsubsoilformationwithintheareacoveredbythebuildingduetogeologicorman
madecauses,oranomaliesintype,structure,thicknessanddensityoftheformation.
(ii) Nonuniformpressuredistributionduetononuniformandincompleteloading.
(iii) Groundwaterconditionduringandafterconstruction.
(iv) Loadinginfluenceofadjacentstructures.
(v) Unevenexpansionandcontractionduetomoisturemigration,unevendrying,wettingorsoftening.

3.9.9 TolerableSettlement,TiltandRotation

Allowableorlimitingsettlementofabuildingstructurewilldependonthenatureofthestructure,thefoundationand
the soil. Different types of structures have varying degrees of tolerance to settlements and distortions. These
variations depend on the type of construction, use of the structure, rigidity of the structure and the presence of
sensitive finishes. As a general rule, a total settlement of 25 mm and a differential settlement of 20 mm between
columns in most buildings shall be considered safe for buildings on isolated pad footings on sand for workingload
(unfactored). A total settlement of 40 mm and a differential settlement of 20 mm between columns shall be
considered safe for buildings on isolated pad footings on clay soil for working load. Buildings on raft can usually
tolerate greater total settlements. Limiting tolerance for distortion and deflections introduced in a structure is
necessarily a subjective process, depending on the status of the building and any specific requirements for
serviceability.Thelimitingvalues,giveninTable6.3.7maybefollowedasguidelines.

3.9.10 DynamicGroundStabilityorLiquefactionAnalysis

Soilliquefactionisaphenomenoninwhichasaturatedsoildepositloosesmost,ifnotall,ofitsstrengthandstiffness
duetothegenerationofexcessporewaterpressureduringearthquakeinducedgroundshaking.Ithasbeenamajor
cause for damage of structures during past earthquakes (e.g., 1964 Niigata Earthquake). Current knowledge of
liquefactionissignificantlyadvancedandseveralevaluationmethodsareavailable.Hazardsduetoliquefactionare
routinelyevaluatedandmitigatedinseismicallyactivedevelopedpartsoftheworld.

6174 Vol.2
 Table6.3.7:PermissibleTotalSettlement,DifferentialSettlementandAngularDistortion(tilt)forShallowFoundationsinSoils(AdaptedfromNBCI,2005)

TypeofStructure IsolatedFoundations RaftFoundation
SandandHardClay PlasticClay SandandHardClay PlasticClay
Maximum Differential Angular Maximum Differential Angular Maximum Differential Angular Maximum Differential Angular
Settlement Settlement Distortion Settlement Settlement Distortion Settlement Settlement Distortion Settlement Settlement Distortion
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

SteelStructure 50 0.0033L 1/300 50 0.0033L 1/300 75 0.0033L 1/300 100 0.0033L 1/300

RCCStructures 50 0.0015L 1/666 75 0.0015L 1/666 75 0.0021L 1/500 100 0.002L 1/500

MultistoriedBuilding

(a)RCCorsteelframed
buildingwithpanel 60 0.002L 1/500 75 0.002L 1/500 75 0.0025L 1/400 125 0.0033L 1/300
walls

(b)Loadbearingwalls

(i)L/H=2* 60 0.0002L 1/5000 60 0.0002L 1/5000 Notlikelytobeencountered

(ii)L/H=7* 60 0.0004L 1/2500 60 0.0004L 1/2500 Notlikelytobeencountered

Silos 50 0.0015L 1/666 75 0.0015L 1/666 100 0.0025L 1/400 125 0.0025L 1/400

WaterTank 50 0.0015L 1/666 75 0.0015L 1/666 100 0.0025L 1/400 125 0.0025L 1/400

Note:ThevaluesgivenintheTablemaybetakenonlyasaguideandthepermissibletotalsettlement,differentialsettlementandtilt(angulardistortion)ineachcaseshouldbedecidedasper
requirementsofthedesigner.
Ldenotesthelengthofdeflectedpartofwall/raftorcentretocentredistancebetweencolumns.
Hdenotestheheightofwallfromfoundationfooting.
*ForintermediateratiosofL/H,thevaluescanbeinterpolated.

Part6
StructuralDesign 6175
LiquefactionAnalysis

Liquefaction can be analyzed by a simple comparison of the seismically induced shear stress with the similarly
expressedshearstressrequiredtocauseinitialliquefactionorwhateverlevelofshearstrainamplitudeisdeemed
intolerableindesign.Usually,theoccurrenceof5%doubleamplitude(DA)axialstrainisadoptedtodefinethecyclic
strengthconsistentwith100%porewaterpressurebuildup.Thecorrespondingstrength(CRR)canbeobtainedby
severalprocedures.

Thus,theliquefactionpotentialofasanddepositisevaluatedintermsoffactorofsafetyFL,definedasinEquation
(6.3.6).Theexternallyappliedcyclicstressratio(CSR)canbeevaluatedbyEquations(6.3.7a,6.3.7band6.3.8).
CRR
FL = (6.3.6)
CSR
IfthefactorofsafetyFLis<1,liquefactionissaidtotakeplace.Otherwise,liquefactiondoesnotoccur.Thefactorof
safetyobtainedinthiswayisgenerallyusedtoidentify thedepthtowhichliquefactionisexpectedtooccurina
futureearthquake.Thisinformationisnecessaryifsomecountermeasureistobeimplementedinaninsitudeposit
ofsands.

Thecyclicshearstressinducedatanypointinlevelgroundduringanearthquakeduetotheupwardpropagationof
shearwavescanbeassessedbymeansofasimpleprocedureproposed.Ifasoilcolumntoadepthzisassumedto
movehorizontallyandifthepeakhorizontalaccelerationonthegroundsurfaceis amax ,themaximumshearstress
max actingatthebottomofthesoilcolumnisgivenby
max = amax rd ( t )(z / g ) (6.3.7a)

and, rd = 1 0.015z (6.3.7b)

Wheretisunitweightofthesoil,gisthegravitationalaccelerationandrdisastressreductioncoefficienttoallow
forthedeformabilityofthesoilcolumn(rd<1).ItisrecommendedtousetheempiricalformulagiveninEquation
(6.3.7b)tocomputestressreductioncoefficientrd,wherezisinmeters.DivisionofbothsidesofEquation(6.3.7a)
bytheeffectiveverticalstress v gives

max a max v
CSR = = rd ' (6.3.8)
v' g v
Where,v=tz isthe total vertical stress. Equation (6.3.8) has been used widelyto assessthe magnitude of shear
stressinducedinasoilelementduringanearthquake.OneoftheadvantagesofEquation(6.3.8)isthatallthevast
amountofinformationonthehorizontalaccelerationsthathaseverbeenrecordedonthegroundsurfacecanbe
useddirectlytoassesstheshearstressinducedbyseismicshakinginthehorizontalplanewithintheground.

The second step is to determine the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of the in situ soil. The cyclic resistance ratio
represents the liquefaction resistance of the in situ soil. The most commonly used method for determining the
liquefactionresistanceistousethedataobtainedfromthestandardpenetrationtest.Acyclictriaxialtestmayalso
beusedtoestimateCRRmoreaccurately.

SiteAmplificationFactor

Site response analysis of a site may be carried out to estimate the site amplification factor. For this purpose,
dynamic parameters such as shear modulus and damping factors need to be estimated. The site amplification
factorisrequiredtoestimatetheamaxforagivensiteproperly.

Part6
StructuralDesign 6176
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

3.9.11 PrinciplesofStructuralDesignofFoundations

3.9.11.1 LoadsandReactions

3.9.11.1.1 DeterminationofLoadsandReactions
Footingsshallbeconsideredasundertheactionofdownwardforces,duetothesuperimposedloads,resistedbyan
upwardpressureexertedbythefoundationmaterialsanddistributedovertheareaofthefootingsasdetermined
by the eccentricity of the resultant of the downward forces. Where piles are used under footings, the upward
reactionofthefoundationshallbeconsideredasaseriesofconcentratedloadsappliedatthepilecenters,eachpile
beingassumedtocarrythecomputedportionofthetotalfootingload.

3.9.11.1.2 IsolatedandMultipleFootingReactions
Whenasingleisolatedfootingsupportsacolumn,pierorwall,thefootingshallbeassumedtoactasacantilever
element. When footings support more than one column, pier, or wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the
actualconditionsofcontinuityandrestraint.

3.9.11.1.3 RaftFoundationReactions

Fordeterminingthedistributionofcontactpressurebelowaraftitisanalysedeitherasarigidorflexiblefoundation
consideringtherigidityoftheraft,andtherigidityofthesuperstructureandthesupportingsoil.Considerationshall
begiventotheincreasedcontactpressuredevelopedalongtheedgesofraftoncohesivesoilsandthedecreasein
contact pressure along the edges on granular soils. Any appropriate analytical method reasonably valid for the
conditionmaybeused.Choiceofaparticularmethodshallbegovernedbythevalidityoftheassumptionsinthe
particularcase.Numericalanalysisofraftsusingappropriatesoftwaremaybeusedfordeterminationofreactions,
shearsandmoments.

Analyticalmethods(basedonbeamsonelasticfoundation)andnumericalmethodsrequirevaluesofthemodulus
of subgrade reaction of the soil. For use in preliminary analysis and design, indicative values of the modulus of
subgradereactionforcohesionlesssoilsandcohesivesoilsishowninTable6.3.7andTable6.3.8,respectively.

. (6.3.9)

Table6.3.7:ModulusofSubgradeReaction(k)forCohesionlessSoils

SoilCharacteristic *ModulusofSubgradeReaction(k)Soil
3
Characteristic(kN/m )

Relative StandardPenetrationTest ForDryorMoistState ForSubmergedState

Density Value(N)(Blowsper300
mm)

Loose <10 15000 9000

Medium 10to30 15000to47000 9000to29000
Dense 30andover 47000to180000 29000to108000

*Theabovevaluesapplytoasquareplate300mmx300mmorbeams300mmwide.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012 6177
Part6
StructuralDesign

Table6.3.8ModulusofSubgradeReaction(k)forCohesiveSoils

SoilCharacteristic ModulusofSubgradeReaction,k
Consistency UnconfinedCompressiveStrength (kN/m3)
2
(kN/m )
Stiff 100to200 27000
VeryStiff 200to400 27000to54000
Hard 400andover 54000to108000

*Thevaluesapplytoasquareplate300mmx300mm.Theabovevaluesarebasedontheassumption
thattheaverageloadingintensitydoesnotexceedhalftheultimatebearingcapacity.

3.9.11.2 Moment

3.9.11.2.1 CriticalSection
Externalmomentonanysectionofafootingshallbedeterminedbypassingaverticalplanethroughthefootingand
computingthemomentoftheforcesactingovertheentireareaofthefootingononesideofthatverticalplane.
Thecriticalsectionforbendingshallbetakenatthefaceofthecolumn,pier,orwall.Inthecaseofcolumnsthatare
not square or rectangular, the section shall be taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent area. For
footingsundermasonrywalls,thecriticalsectionshallbetakenhalfwaybetweenthemiddleandedgeofthewall.
Forfootingsundermetalliccolumnbases,thecriticalsectionshallbetakenhalfwaybetweenthecolumnfaceand
theedgeofthemetallicbase.

3.9.11.2.2 DistributionofReinforcement
Reinforcementofsquarefootingsshallbedistributeduniformlyacrosstheentirewidthoffooting.Reinforcementof
rectangular footings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing in the long direction. In the
shortdirection,theportionofthetotalreinforcementgivenbythefollowingequationshallbedistributeduniformly
overabandwidth(centeredoncenterlineofcolumnorpier)equaltothelengthoftheshortsideofthefooting.

(6.3.10)

Here,istheratioofthefootinglengthtowidth.Theremainderofreinforcementrequiredintheshortdirection
shallbedistributeduniformlyoutsidethecenterbandwidthoffooting.

3.9.11.2.3 Shear

3.9.11.2.4 CriticalSection
Computationofshearinfootings,andlocationofcriticalsectionshallbeinaccordancewithrelevantsectionsofthe
structuraldesignpartofthecode.Locationofcriticalsectionshall be measuredfromthefaceof column,pieror
wall, for footings supporting a column, pier, or wall. For footings supporting a column or pier with metallic base
plates, the critical section shall be measured from the location defined in the critical section for moments for
footings.

3.9.11.2.5 CriticalSectionforFootingsonDrivenPiles/BoredPiles/DrilledPiers
Shearonthecriticalsectionshallbeinaccordancewiththefollowing.Entirereactionfromanydrivenpileorbored
piles,anddrilledpierwhosecenterislocateddP/2(dP=diameterofthepile)ormoreoutsidethecriticalsectionshall
be considered as producing shear on that section. Reaction from any driven pile or drilled shaft whose center is
locateddP/2ormoreinsidethecriticalsectionshallbeconsideredasproducingnoshearonthatsection.Forthe
intermediate position of driven pile or drilled shaft centers, the portion ofthe driven pile or shaft reactionto be

6178 Vol.2
SoilsandFoundations Chapter3

considered as producing shear on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at
dP/2outsidethesectionandzerovalueatdP/2insidethesection.

3.9.11.3 ReinforcementandDevelopmentLength

3.9.11.3.1 DevelopmentLength
Computationofdevelopmentlengthofreinforcementinfootingsshallbeinaccordancewiththerelevantsections
ofthestructuraldesignpartofthecode.

3.9.11.3.2 CriticalSection
Criticalsectionsfordevelopmentlengthofreinforcementshallbeassumedatthesamelocationsasdefinedabove
asthecriticalsectionformomentsandatallotherverticalplaneswherechangesinsectionorreinforcementoccur.

3.9.11.4 TransferofForceatBaseofColumn

3.9.11.4.1 TransferofForce
All forces and moments applied at base of column or pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
concreteandbyreinforcement.

3.9.11.4.2 LateralForce
Lateralforcesshallbetransferredtosupportingfootinginaccordancewithsheartransferprovisionsoftherelevant
sectionsofthestructuraldesignpartofthecode.

3.9.11.4.3 BearingStrengthofConcrete
Bearing on concrete at contact surface between supporting and supported member shall not exceed concrete
bearingstrengthforeithersurface.

3.9.11.4.4 Reinforcement
Reinforcementshallbeprovidedacrossinterfacebetweensupportingandsupportedmembereitherbyextending
main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be sufficient to
satisfyallofthefollowing:

(i) Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force that exceeds concrete bearing strength in
supportingandsupportedmember.

(ii) If it is required that loading conditions include uplift, total tensile force shall be resisted by
reinforcement.

(iii) Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005 times gross area of supported member, with a
minimumof4bars.

3.9.11.4.5 DowelSize
Diameterofdowels,ifused,shallnotexceedthediameteroflongitudinalreinforcements.

3.9.11.4.6 DevelopmentLengthandSplicing
Fortransferofforcebyreinforcement,developmentlengthofreinforcementinsupportingandsupportedmember,
requiredsplicingshallbeinaccordancewiththerelevantsections(Part.6,Chapter6)ofthestructuraldesignpartof
thecode.

BangladeshNationalBuildingCode2012