Internal Combustion Engine

The internal combustion (IC) engine is a heat engine that converts

chemical energy stored in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually made
available on a rotating output shaft.

History of IC engines:

1700s - Steam engines (external combustion engines)

1860 - Lenoir engine ( = 5%)
1867 - Otto-Langen engine ( = 11%, 90 RPM max.)
1876 - Otto four-stroke spark ignition engine ( = 14%, 160 RPM
max.)
1880s - Modern two-stroke engine
1892 - Diesel four-stroke compression ignition engine
1957 - Wenkel rotary engine

1
 Atmospheric Engine

Process 1-2: Fuel air mixture introduced into cylinder at

atmospheric pressure - valve open (VO)
Process 2-3: Constant pressure combustion (cylinder open
to atmosphere)
Process 3-4: Constant volume cooling (produces vacuum)
Process 4-5: Isentropic compression (atmosphere pushes piston)
Process 5-1: Exhaust process

VALVE
Patm

2
Po 3 FLYWHEEL
1 (VC)
(VO) 5
(VO)
Pressure
4

Volume
2
Historical IC Engines

FLYWHEEL

3
 Two-stroke Lenoir Engine

Process 1-2: Fuel air mixture introduced into cylinder at

atmospheric pressure
Process 2-3: At half-stroke inlet valve closed and combustion
initiated constant volume due to heavy piston
producing high pressure products
Process 3-4: Products expand producing work
Process 4-5: At the end of the first stroke exhaust valve opens and
blowdown occurs
Process 5-1: Exhaust stroke

3
P

4(VO)

Po
1(VO) 2 (VC) 5
V 4
 Two-stroke Otto-Langen Engine

Process 1-2: Fuel air mixture introduced into cylinder at

atmospheric pressure
Process 2-3: Early in the stroke inlet valve closed and combustion
initiated constant volume due to heavy piston
producing high pressure products
Process 3-4: Products expand accelerating a free piston
momentum generates a vacuum in the tube
Process 4-5: Atmospheric pressure pushes piston back, piston
rack engaged through clutch to output shaft
Process 5-1: Valve opens gas exhausted

Disengaged
output shaft

Engaged
output shaft
5
 Modern Engine Components

Spark plug for SI engine

Fuel injector for CI engine
Valves
Cylinder head

Top Clearance
crank angles(CA) Center volume
time = (TC)
crank speed
Cylinder
s 1 rev Stroke wall
= CA
rev 360 CA Bottom
Pressure and
oil rings
Center
(BC) Piston
Connecting
TC rod
0o
Crank shaft

270o 90o

180o
6
BC
 Four-stroke Spark Ignition (SI) Engine

Stroke 1: Fuel-air mixture introduced into cylinder through intake

valve
Stroke 2: Fuel-air mixture compressed
Stroke 3: Combustion (roughly constant volume) occurs and
product gases expand doing work
Stroke 4: Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve
FUEL
A
I Ignition
R

Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

7
 Pressure-Volume Graph 4-stroke SI engine

One power stroke for every two crank shaft revolutions

Cylinder Spark
Pressure
Exhaust valve
Exhaust opens
valve
closes

1 atm Intake valve

closes
Intake
valve
opens

TC BC

Cylinder volume 8
 Four-stroke engine valve timing

Valve overlap

IVO EVC IVC EVO IVO

BC

TC

Intake Exhaust

IVO - intake valve opens, IVC intake valve closes

EVO exhaust valve opens, EVC exhaust valve opens

9
 Cylinder pressure for motored four-stroke engine
Pressure (bar)
100

10

BC

TC

Intake Exhaust

IVO - intake valve opens, IVC intake valve closes

EVO exhaust valve opens, EVC exhaust valve opens

10
 Four-Stroke SI Engine
Pressure (bar)
100

10

Intake Exhaust

IVO - intake valve opens, IVC intake valve closes

EVO exhaust valve opens, EVC exhaust valve opens
Xb burned gas mole fraction
11
 Four stroke Compression Ignition (CI) Engine

Stroke 1: Air is introduced into cylinder through intake valve

Stroke 2: Air is compressed
Stroke 3: Combustion (roughly constant pressure) occurs and
product gases expand doing work
Stroke 4: Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve
A
I Fuel Injector
R

Air Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

12
 Four-Stroke CI Engine

Cylinder
volume

Fuel mass
flow rate

SOI start of injection

EOI end of injection
Cylinder SOC start of combustion
pressure EOC end of combustion

Fuel mass
burn rate

13
 Engine Anatomy

Air cleaner

Carburetor Camshaft

Rocker arm

Intake valve
Cam sprocket Exhaust valve
Piston

Connecting rod
Timing belt

Timing belt Crankshaft

tensor

Oil pump
Crank sprocket Oil pickup 14
Fords inline 4-cylinder Duratec 2.3 Liter (SAE Automotive Engineering, Oct. 2005)
15
Poppet Valve Actuation with Overhead Camshaft

Camshaft

Spring
Spark
plug Guide
Stem
Air manifold
Valve head
Valve seat

Piston

16
 Modern Two-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

Stroke 1: Fuel-air mixture is introduced into the cylinder and

is then compressed

*combustion initiated at the end of the first stroke

Stroke 2: Combustion products expand doing work and then

exhausted from the cylinder

* Power delivered to the crankshaft every revolution

17
 Traditional two-stroke SI engine
Spark
plug
Exhaust
port*
Transfer
port*
Fuel-air-oil
mixture

Reed
valve
Expansion Exhaust Intake (Scavenging)
Crank
shaft

* No valves and
thus no camshaft

Fuel-air-oil
mixture
Compression Ignition 18
 Two-Stroke CI Engine

P V
Vc EPO exhaust port open
Cylinder Vol. (V) EPC exhaust port closed
IPO intake port open
IPC intake port closed
Cylinder Press (P) scavenging
110 CA

Exhaust area (Ae) Ae

Intake area (Ai) Ai

Intake Press (Pi) Pi

Pe

Exhaust Press (Pe)

19
Scavenging in Two-Stroke Engine

Cross Loop Uniflow

20
Advantages of the two stroke engine:

Power to weight ratio is higher than the four stroke engine since there
is one power stroke per crank shaft revolution.
No valves or camshaft, just ports

Most often used for low cost, small engine applications such as lawn
mowers, marine outboard engines, motorcycles.

Disadvantages of the two-stroke engine:

Incomplete scavenging limits power

Fuel-air short circuiting low fuel efficiency, high HC emission
Burns oil mixed in with the fuel high HC emission

21
(2005)

22
 Single Cylinder Engine

Single-cylinder engine gives one power stroke per crank revolution

(360 CA) for 2 stroke, or every two revolutions for 4 stroke.

The torque pulses on the crank shaft are widely spaced, and engine
vibration and smoothness are significant problems.

4-stroke

2-stroke

0 CA 180 CA 360 CA 540 CA 720 CA 180 CA

(TC) (TC) (TC)

Single cylinder engine used in applications where engine size is

more important
23
 Multi-cylinder Engines

Multi-cylinder engines spread out the displacement volume amongst

multiple smaller cylinders. Increased frequency of power strokes
produces smoother torque characteristics.

Most common cylinder arrangements are in-line 4, 6 and V-6,-8:

Engine balance (inertia forces associated with accelerating and

decelerating piston) better for in-line versus V configuration.

24
 V-6 Engine

Inlet
runner
Air intake
manifold

25
 Power Regulation

For proper combustion the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel
in the cylinder must be roughly 15.

An IC engine is basically an air engine, the more air that enters the
cylinder, the more fuel can be burned, the more energy (power) output.

Vary throttle position - Maximum intake pressure (and power) achieved

at wide-open-throttle (WOT) minimum at idle

Fuel

Patm Air Pint < Patm

Idle
Air Throttle
filter
Intake
manifold
WOT

26
 Power Regulation Methods
Basic methods:

1) Manifold pressure
2) Air mass flow rate
3) Throttle position

Engine Control Unit (ECU) activates the fuel injector solenoid for a
duration corresponding to measurement of air flow or pressure

Pressure
Air mass transducer
flow meter Fuel

Patm Pint < Patm

Throttle
position
sensor Intake
manifold

27
 Fuel-Air Mixing

In spark ignition engines the air and fuel are usually mixed prior to entry
into the cylinder.

Initially a purely mechanical device known as a carburetor was used to

mix the fuel and the air

Most modern cars use electronic fuel-injection systems:

- 1980s single injector used to spray fuel continuously into the air manifold
- 1990s one injector per cylinder used to spray fuel intermittently into the
intake port

28
 Basic Carburetor

Air Flow

close for start-up to inc P

Venturi

Fuel
Throttle

29
Mixture to manifold
 SI Engine Fuel Injection System
Air intake
manifold
Pref

Throttle

Fuel tank
200 KPa

Injector fuel pressure varied relative to manifold pressure (engine load).

During start-up additional fuel is added through a second injector.
30
 Port fuel injector

Fuel line

Battery and
ECU

Intake port

31
 Diesel Fuel Injection System

With diesel engines fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinders

power is varied by metering the amount of fuel added (no throttle)

Diesel fuel injection systems operate at high-pressure, > 100 MPa

fuel pressure must be greater than the compression pressure
need high fuel jet speed to atomize droplets small enough for rapid
evaporation

Fuel system includes fuel pump, lines and nozzles

In traditional systems the pump is used to raise the pressure of the

fuel, as well as meter and distribute the fuel to each cylinder.

The pressure is raised by individual barrel-plunger for each nozzle

(in-line type) or a single barrel plunger (distributor type).

Nozzle is a passive device that actuates (spindle rises) when the

fuel pressure increases. The spindle is normally held closed by a 32
spring.
 In-line Diesel Fuel Injection System

Filter Nozzle

Fuel tank

Fuel injector nozzle

cam

Distribution fuel injector pump (compresses and meters) Fuel injector pump
33
 Common Rail Diesel Fuel Injection System

Latest Diesels use high pressure (2000 bar) common rail with solenoid
or piezoelectric actuated injectors.

Multiple injections per stroke possible.

Bosch diesel pump (2000 bar)

and piezoelectric injector

34
 Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Engine

GDI engine combines the best features of SI and CI engines:

Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder during the intake stroke or the
compression stroke (high pressure injector)

`Operate at optimum compression ratio (12-15) for efficiency by

injecting fuel directly into engine during compression (avoiding knock
associated with SI engines with premixed charge)

Control engine power by fuel added (no throttle no pumping work)

During intake stroke fuel cools the cylinder wall allowing more air into
the cylinder due to higher density

35
 Two types of GDI Engines

Injector

Injected fuel swirls

around when it hits
the piston face

Trough-shaped
piston face
Wall-guided

Injector

Hollow-cone
spray pattern

Flat piston
face
Spray-guided
36
Wall-guided GDI BMW spray-guided GDI

37
 Port and Direct Fuel Injector

Stoichiometric mixture created by

combination of fuel port and direct
fuel injection

Low rpm use 30-40% DI to produce

extra in-cylinder turbulence

High RPM and load use 100% DI

to reduce air temp (increase density)

2006 Lexus 3.5 L V6 engine (SAE Automotive

Engineering Dec 2005)

38
 GDI stratified-charge mode

Create easily ignitable fuel-air mixture at the spark plug and a

leaner
fuel-air mixture in the rest of the cylinder.

Lean burn results in lower emissions and higher energy efficiency

Example:

Mitsubishi GDI engine achieves complete combustion with an air-fuel

ratio of 40:1 compared to 15:1 for conventional engines

This results in a 20% improvement in overall fuel efficiency and CO2

production (greenhouse gas), and reduces NOx emissions
(responsible for ozone production - smog) by 95% with special
catalyst
39
 Stratified Charge Engine

During intake stroke air enters the cylinder

Near the end of the compression stroke fuel is injected and directed
by the piston head bowl towards the spark plug

The mixture at the spark plug is rich in fuel thus easy to ignite but
the amount of fuel injected results in an overall lean fuel-air mixture

Lowers heat transfer to the walls but increases thermal cyclic load on
the spark plug, and standard catalytic converter doesnt work

40
Mitsubishi Two-Stage Ignition GDI Engine

41
 Two-Chamber Torch or Jet Ignition Engine

Rich
intake

Lean
intake

42
 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)

Premixed lean fuel-air mixture is created in the cylinder like a SI engine

but ignition occurs spontaneously at the end of compression like a
Diesel engine

Get the efficiency of a Diesel with low temperature, flameless release of

energy throughout the cylinder no need for expensive low-NOx emission
After-treatment

Can use multiple fuel types: gasoline, diesel, ethanol, etc.

Fuel-air mixture is preheated by either heating the air or mixing with

combustion products from previous cycle

Challenge: control the ignition timing for different load and engine speeds,
need spark ignition for cold start up

43
 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)

GM demonstrated the first HCCI engine in a 2007 Saturn Aura

Vehicle gets 15% better fuel economy compared to port injected engine
while meeting current emission standards

Engine uses direct injection, variable valve timing and lift

44
 Electric Motor Powered Vehicles

Electric motor driven from battery pack that is recharged via

electric outlet

In 1996 800 GM EV-1 were made available for lease in California

All the leased vehicles were crushed at the end of the 3 year
lease, chronicled in the movie Who Killed the Electric Car?

GM re-entry into electric vehicle is the Chevy Volt plug-in due out
in 2010, actually a hybrid since it has a small IC engine that
charges the batteries once they are depleted after 40 mile range

45
 Electric Motor Powered Vehicles

Biggest asset: no emissions, low end torque, no gears

Problems:
- vehicle range dictated by battery storage
- batteries need to be recharged which takes several hours
- cost of batteries
- weight of batteries

Alternative is gas-electric hybrid:

- Toyota Prius (1997), Honda Insight (2000)
- Over 100,000 units sold in 2005

46
 Gasoline-Electric Hybrid Vehicles

Parallel hybrid uses a combination of a small IC engine (1-1.5 L) and

an electric motor driven off batteries, in a series hybrid IC engine only
charges the batteries (GM Volt).

Electric motor is used exclusively during cruise and idle when the
vehicle is stationary.

IC engine kicks in when additional power is needed during

acceleration and up hills.

Vehicles use regenerative braking - during braking the electric motor

acts like a generator recharging the batteries, so never need to recharge.

Disadvantage: premium price ($4000 Government subsidy ) and cost to

replace batteries after 8 year 160,000 km warranty period is expensive

47
48
 Supercharger and Turbocharger

These devices are used to increase the power of an IC engine by raising

the intake pressure and thus allowing more fuel to be burned per cycle.

Allows the use of a 4 cyl instead of 6 cyl engines cost effective

Superchargers are compressors that are mechanically driven by the engine

crankshaft and thus represents a parasitic load.

Compressor
Pint > Patm

Patm

Win
49
 Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors: piston, Roots, and screw

Most common is the Roots compressor pushes air forward without

pressurizing it internally.

P1 P2

Pressurization occurs in the manifold when the air flow rate supplied
is larger than that ingested by the cylinders.

Produces constant flow rate independent of boost pressure (P2)

50
 Performance of Positive Displacement Compressors

s/co = rotor tip Mach#

~ pump speed

Screw

Roots

c = compressor efficiency: actual work/isentropic work

Extra energy goes to heat up air leading to a reduction in density

51
 Dynamic Compressors

Dynamic compressor has a rotating element that adds tangential

velocity to the flow which is converted to pressure in a diffuser.

Most common is the radial (or centrifugal) type

Produces a constant boost pressure independent of the mass flow rate

52
 To the left of surge line the flow is
unstable (boundary layer separation
and flow reversal)

To the right of 65% line the compressor

becomes very inefficient:
a) air is heated excessively
b) takes excess power from the crank
shaft

Mass flow rate (Pounds of air per minute)

53
Turbochargers couple a compressor with a turbine driven by the exhaust
gas. The compressor pressure is proportional to the engine speed

Compressor also raises the gas temperature, so after-coolers are used

after the compressor to drop the temperature and thus increase the air
density.

54
The peak pressure in the exhaust system is only slightly greater than
atmospheric small P across turbine

In order to produce enough power to run compressor the turbine speed

must be very fast (100k-200k rev/min) long term reliability an issue

Takes time for turbine to spool up to speed, so when the throttle is opened
suddenly there is a delay in achieving peak power - Turbo lag

EXHAUST
FLOW

INTAKE
AIR 55
Waste gate valve used to bypass exhaust gas flow from the turbine

It is used as a full-load boost limiter and in new engines used to control

the boost level by controlling the amount of bypass using proportional
control to improve drivability

Engine

WASTE GATE
Proportional
valve

Exhaust AIR
Patm Patm

Turbine Compressor

56
 Turbo Lag Reduction: Twin Turbo

Two turbochargers:
Smaller turbo for low rpm low load and a larger one for high load
Smaller turbo gets up to speed faster so reduction in turbo lag

Supercharger/turbo:
Supercharger used at low speed to eliminate turbo lag
At higher rpm turbo charger used exclusively to eliminate parasitic load

2006 Volkswagen Golf GT 1.4 L GDI uses twin turbo:

0-2400 rpm roots blower
>3500 rpm turbo charger

57
BMW 2.0L I4 turbo diesel surpasses 100 hp/L (75 kW/L)

58
 Turbo Lag Reduction: Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT)
Variable guide vanes direct the flow of exhaust gas from the engine in
exactly the direction required on to the turbine wheel of the turbocharger.
Good response and high torque at low engine speeds as well as superior
output and high performance at high engine speeds
VGT used on diesel engines with exhaust temps (700-800 C) not
normally used in SI engine due to high exhaust temp (950 C)

Guide vane

59
2006 Porche 911 Variable Turbine Geometry uses temperature-resistant materials
Low rpm:
Vanes are partially closed accelerating the exhaust
gas flow. The exhaust flow hits the turbine blades at
right angle. Both make the turbine spin faster

High rpm:
The vanes are fully opened to take advantage of the
high exhaust flow. This also releases the exhaust
pressure in the turbocharger, saving the need for
waste gate.

60
 Variable Geometry Turbo

Holset VGT
61