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SAE - Spring Design Manual PDF

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1K views339 pages

SAE - Spring Design Manual PDF

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gandalf500
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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AE-11 Spring Design Manual Prepared under the auspices of the SAE Spring Committee Published by: Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. < 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 san ao) Preface It was in 1678 that an English scientist, Robert Hooke, stated that, within certain limits, deflection is proportional toload. His work on flexible members is still the basis for spring design today. The wide use of springs to store and release energy can easily be observed by looking at the tools, appliances, and vehicles, that we use in our daily lives. While there are several basic types of spring forms, the variations within each ‘category are endless. The processes which are used to manufacture these items may also vary, further ‘compounding and enlarging the subject. In 1943, at the behest of the U.S. Ordinance Department, the first spring manual was published under the itle “Manual on Design and Application of Helical Springs for Ordinance.” The manual found wide distribution, and revised editions were issued in 1945, 1958, 1962, 1973, 1980, and 1989. In 1944 the manual “Design and Application of Leaf Springs” was published with revised editions being issued in 1962, 1970, and 1982. The manual “Design and Manufacture of Torsion Bar Springs” was first published in 1947 and revisions were made in 1966 and 1981. The manual “Design and Manufacture of Coned Disk Springs and Spring Washers” was first published in 1950 with revisions in 1955 and 1989. The newest manual “Incorporating Pneumatic Springsin Vehicle Suspension Designs” was published in 1989. The publication of this manual on pneumatic springs, along with all the recent revisions to the other manuals, reflect the addition of new technologies and industry practices for automotive applications. ‘The incorporation ofthese five manuals into one volume represents the most comprehensive reference work available today. The Spring Committee wishes to note that these manuals should not be regarded as a compilation of design or manufacturing specifications; instead, they should be considered as reference ‘works which contain essential information which may be helpful to the engineer and designer on a broad range of topics — material selection, tolerances, end configurations, fatigue life, load and tress calculations, and processing information. All of the manuals employ SI Units in accordance with SAE 916, “Rules For Use of SI (Metric) Units.” ‘The Spring Committee recognizes the generous measure of time, effort, and dedication which the respective Subcommittees put forth in the preparation of these manuals for publication, EH. Judd Table of Contents (Part 1 ‘Design and Application of Leaf Springs SAE HS 788 Part 2 Design and Application of Helical and Spiral Springs} SAE HS 795 Pant 3 Design and Manufacture of Torsion Bar Springs SAE HS 796 Part 4 Incorporating Pneumatic Springs in Vehicle Suspension Designs SAE HS 1576 Part 5 Design and Manufacture of Coned Disk Springs (Belleville Springs) and Spring Washers! ‘SAE HS 1582 Part 1 Design and Application of Leaf Springs SAE HS 788 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1__ GENERAL DATA| 1. Introduction 2. General Characteristics of Leaf Springs 3. Leaf Springs for Vehicle Suspension Chapter 2 NOMENCLATURE AND SPECIFICATIONS I. Nomenclature - 2. Specification Requirements 3. Spring Eye Tolerances Chapter 3 DESIGN ELEMENTS T. Leaf Sections 2. Leaf Ends 3. Spring Eyes and Spring Ends 4. Spring Bye Bearings 5. Shackles: 6. Center Bolt and Cup Center 7. Center Clamp 8. Alignment Clips 9. Rebound Leaves .. 0. Variable Rate Springs Chapter 4 GEOMETRY 1. Detection Theory 2. Cantilever Spring . 3, Semi-Elliptc Spring 4. Center Link Extension Method... 5. Two-Point Deflection Method... 6 Layouts and Nomenclature Chapter 5 DESIGN CALCULATIONS]. T. Rate, Load and Stress 2. Stiffening Factor 3. Preliminary Calculations 4. Stress Distribution 5. Sample Calculation 6. Variable or Progressive Rate Springs 7. Strength of Spring Eyes Chapter 6 INSTALLATION EFFECTS| 1. Characteristics of Shackles 2, Windup of Springs 3. Twist of Springs ..... Chapter 7 INTERLEAF FRICTION 1. Characteristics 2. Measurement ...- 3. Control Chapter 8 OPERATING STRESS AND FATIGUE LIFE|.. 1. Operating Stress 2. Fatigue Life 3. Evaluation of Fatigue Test Results . 228 12 2 1s 1s 16 16 "7 19 22 24 4 7 2 n 8 231 37 37 39 3 38 6 a B n al 81 al - 8 33 83 85 Chapter 9 MATERIAL AND PROCESSING] ......... 1. Steel . FBpsbonco00 Mechanical Properties ‘Surface Decarburization ... |. Mechanical Prestressing . .. 5. Surface Finishes and Protecting Coatings 2. 3. 4 5. Chapter 10 DESIGN DATA FOR SINGLE LEAF SPRINGS Single Leaf Types Rate Calculations Rate Factors Stress Calculations Practical Details ....... Camber of Single Leaf Spring Sample Calculations ‘Appendix A Conversion Table ‘Appendix B Derivation of Formulae for the Tabulated Values in Tables 5.2 and 5.3). 97 297 297 101 e108 --101 108 1108 3 cd 14 121 12 Chapter 1 General Data 1, Introduction This Manual is written asa guide for the designer of leaf spring installations. It contains information which will make it possible to caleulate the space required for a leaf spring, to provide suitable attachments, and to determine the elastic and geometric properties of the assembly. The detail design of the spring itself also is described, but it was not the intention of the Committee to lay down fixed rules for this. The choice of leaf lengths, leaf thick- nesses, and leaf curvatures depends upon the type of in- stallation and upon the kind of service. Only an ex- perienced spring engineer can make the best choice of these factors. It is therefore recommended that the de- signer of a leaf spring installation consult a spring maker before the design is finalized. For standards and practices not covered in this Manual, see the current SAE Handbook. No attempt has been made to investigate or consider patents which may apply to subject matter presented in this Manual. Those who intend to use any of the construc- tions described herein should make their own investiga- (© tions and arrangements in order to avoid liability for in- fringements ‘The term multiceaf has generally been applied to springs of constant width and with stepped leaves, each of | ‘constant thickness, except where leaf ends may be tapered in thickness. More recently, the term has been extended to include an assembly of stacked “single” leaves, each of which is characterized by tapering either in width or in thickness or by a combination of both. Chapter 10 includes design data for single leaf springs which may be of variable width and constant thickness, constant width and variable thickness, or a combination of variable width and variable thickness. 2. General Characteristics of Leaf Springs The leaf spring, like all other springs, serves to absorb and store energy and then to release it, During this cycle the stress in the spring must not exceed a certain maxi- ‘mum in order to avoid settling or premature failure. This consideration limits the amount of energy which can be stored in any spring. For leaf springs based on a maximum stress of 1100 MPa, the energy listed in Table 1.1 may be stored in the Active part of the spring. If consideration of the inactive (© partof the spring required for axle anchorage, spring eyes, 14 ENERGY STORAGE OF STEEL SPRINGS AT 1100 MPa es Saf aoa nares tg ft eect et |e | ete ty | saat wrod 038 % eee esse Porett:) “For dszrpton of Type sae Caper 10 etc is included, the energy per kg ofthe total spring mass will be less than shown. For comparison, the stored energy inthe active material ‘ofa helical spring of round bar section is S10 J/kg at 1100 MPa, and for a torsion bar of round section is 390 J/kg at 965 MPa. This comparison shows that a leaf spring is heavier in mass than other types of springs. Balancing this disadvantage of mass, the leaf spring possesses the advantage that it can also be used as an attaching linkage or structural member. In order to be economically competitive, the leaf spring must therefore bbe so designed that this advantage is fully utilized. ‘Also, a leaf spring made entirely of full length leaves of constant thickness (see type F-1) is very much heavier and less efficient than a leaf spring made of properly stepped leaves (see type F-2) or single leaf springs (see types F-4, P22, T-1, and T-2) The maximum permissible leaf thickness for a given deflection is proportional to the square of the spring length. By choosing too short a length, the designer often ‘makes it impractical for the spring maker to build a satis- factory spring, although the requirements for normal load, deflection, and stress can be fulilled For example: A cube of steel, weighing 44 kg and mea- suring about 178 mm on each side, can be made into a spring carrying a load of 16 000 N at 125 mm deflection with a stress of 480 MPa. If 1500 mm is allowed for the length, the spring will look like Fig. 1.1. It will consist of 10 leaves, each 75.0 mm wide and 10.00 mm thick. fonly 750 mm is allowed for the length, the spring will look like Fig. 1.2. It will consist of 80 leaves, each 75.0 mm wide and only 2.50 mm thick. ‘When springs are made with stepped leaf lengths of type F-2, itis desirable to choose a length so thatthe spring will hhave no less than three leaves. Springs with many leaves A 1500 mm. Fig. K1—-Leat spring of Fengin — 760 mm — En 250mm 80 Leaves Fig. 1.2—Leat spring of type F-2: impractical design with inade- ‘quate length ‘te sometimes used for heavy loads, but they are economi« only where the shortening of the spring leads to def nite savings in the supporting structure. In addition, als Jowance will have to be made for increased spring rate and Breater eye stress, assuming the same load and width are used. In most installations the spring is also subject to windup loads. A typical example is that of the suspension spring (ina vehicle with Hotchkiss drive) which must withstand both driving and braking torque. The stresses under such loads are inversely proportional to the spring length; and the windup stifiness is proportional to the square of the length for the spring of given load rate (see Chapter 6) This is another reason why itis important to make the spring long enough and to check the resulting stresses and deflections. When a leaf springiis used as an attaching linkage, it will tend to guide the supported members in a certain geomet- tical path (see Chapter 4). Ifno other guiding members are used, the desired geometry must be obtained by properly placing the supporting parts on the structure which car. Fics the spring. If other guiding members are used, theit ‘eometry must fit that of the spring, or forces may be set up that will cause failure, ~ Leaf Springs for Vehicle Suspension Leaf springs are most frequently used in suspensions. This Manval, therefore, contains information which is 12 10.00 mm __j 10 LEAVES ‘type F-2:Practical design with adequate most useful in the design of suspension springs, bu it is also applicable to leaf springs for other installations. The characteristic of a spring suspension are affected chiely by the spring rate and the static deflection of the spring. The rate oa spring is the change of load per unit of deflection (N/mm). This is not the same amount at all Positions of the spring, and is diferent for the spring a8 installed. Static deflection of a spring equals the static load divided by the rate at static load it determines the stifines of the suspension and the ride frequency ofthe vehicle. In ‘Most cases the static deffection differs from the actual deflection of the spring between zero load and static load, due to influences of spring camber and shackle effet, AA soft ride generally requires a large static deflection of the suspension, There are, however, other considerations and limits, among them the following: 1. A more flexible spring will have a larger total deflection and will be heavier. 2. In mest applications a more flexible spring will cause more severe striking through or will require a larger “ride clearance” (the spring travel on the vehicle from the design load positon to the metal-to-metal contact pos tion), disregarding rubber bumpers. 3. The change of standing height of the vehicle due to variation of load is larger with a more flexible spring, The static deflection to be used also depends upon the available ride clearance. Further, the permissible static defection depends upon the sizeof the vehicle because of considerations of stability in braking, accelerating, commer- ing, ete. Table 12 shows typical static deflections and ride clear- ances for various types of vehicles. These values are ap. roximate and are meant to be used only as a general indication of current practice in suspension system design, The mass ofa spring subject toa given maximum stress is determined by the energy which isto be stored (sce Table 1.1). This energy is represented by the area under the load-deflection diagram, which therefore is also. mes. sure of the required spring mass. The following considera. tion will indicate what effect some changes in either rate or clearance will have on the required spring mass and therefore on the load-defection diagram NM | | i | ssangr asoncoies ‘0-0 res ‘neengoe) ser conene voo0 sours ‘atre ao) Fern to B08 faves Concerning changes in rate, Fig. 1.3 shows a theoretical oad-deflection diagram of a stiff (high rate) spring, and Fig. 1.4 that of a very flexible (low rate) spring, both for the same design load and clearance. The energy stored in zach, when fully deflected, is the same (1125 J), and the two springs will have almost the same mass if made of the same kind of material 15 000|N LOAD 100mm 60mm 0 50mm 100mm Set camer | Fig. 13-Theoretlealload-dfiecton dlagram of soring igh rate In the case of the stiff spring, energy and mass will be decreased by making the spring more flexible. In the case of the very flexible spring, energy and mass will be de- creased by making the spring stiffer. The dividing point ‘between these two cases is defined by "static deflector clearance”, The load-deflection diagram of this * ‘mum energy” or “minimum mass” spring is shown by a dashed line in both figures; it indicates a stored energy of 1000 J Concerning changes in clearance, Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 bring out the fact that a change in clearance by a given distance will affect the stored energy and therefore the required mass of the stif spring, much more than that of the very flexible spring. ? 1 100 m0 01mm 100% [STATIC DEFLECTION—-}CLEARANCE} Fig. 14 Theoretical load-detlection diagram of 2 low rate spring 13 Chapter 2 Nomenclature And Specifications - 1, Nomenclature ‘The following terms are recommended for use on draw: ings and in specifications to avoid misunderstandings. The terms apply mainly to semi-lliptic springs. Datum Line—Most of the dimensions defined here refer to a datum line. In Figs, 2.1 and 2.2 (where the springs are shown inverted as in a machine for load and rate checking) itis shown as the line X-X. On springs with eyes, the datum line passes through the centers of the eyes. On other springs it passes through the points where the load is applied near the ends of the spring. These points ‘must be indicated on the drawing Seat Angle Base Line—(see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2.) Refer- ence line drawn through the terminal points of the active spring length at each eye, taken along the tension surface of the main leaf. For a Berlin type eye (sce Fig. 3.3 E, F, G in Chapter 3), the terminal point is the intersection of an extension to the contour of the tension surface with a perpendicular line through the center of the eye. On springs without eyes, the seat angle base line is coincident with the datum line. Loaded Length—(see Figs. 2.4-2.8,) Distance between he spring eye centers when the spring is deflected 10 the specified load position. On springs without eyes, it is the distance between the lines where load is applied under the specified conditions. Tolerance, + 3.0 mm. Loaded Fixed End Length—(see Figs. 2.4-2.8.) Dis- tance from the center of the fixed end eye to the projection on the datum line of the point where the centerline of the ‘center bolt intersects the spring surface in contact with the spring seat. Tolerance, + 1.5 mm. Straight Length—Distance between spring eye centers when the tension surface of the main leaf at the center bolt centerline is in the plane of the seat angle base line. The distance is measured parallel to the seat angle base line. Tolerance, + 3.0 mm. Seat Length— Length of spring that isin actual engage- ment with the spring seat when installed on a vehicle at design height. Its always greater than the inactive length. Inactive Length—Length of the spring rendered inac- tive by the action of the U-bolts or clamping bolts. For metal-to-metal type spring seats, this length is usually assumed to be equal to the distance between the insides of | the U-bolts, except for some curved seats where itis apt to be slightly shorter. For soft seats (using rubber type isolation, as in many passenger car installations) the inac- tive length may approach zero Ne Seat Angle—(see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2.) Angle between the tangent to the center of the spring seat and the seat angle 15 base line. When the spring is viewed with the fixed end of the spring to the left as shown, and the load is applied to the shortest leaf from above, the seat angle may be spe- cified as either positive (counterclockwise) or negative (clockwise), depending upon the angular direction in Which the tangent to the center of the spring seat is dis- posed from the seat angle base line Consequently, with the spring in normal vehicle posi tion so that the load is applied to the shortest leaf from below as shown in Figs. 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, and 2.9, and again with the fixed end of the spring to the left of the ‘drawing, the seat angle is defined as positive when that tangent is disposed clockwise, and as negative when the tangent is disposed counterclockwise For suspension layout purposes, the seat angle is usually established with themain leaf straigh (see Straight Length). In this position (in which the center of the spring seat lies ‘on the seat angle baseline), the suspension layout specifies the contour of the main leaf, namely either: + flat, so that the seat angle is zero; or else + with front and rear segments being approximately circular arcs tangent to each other at the spring seat (“S- shaped” main leaf). This is then the tangent ofa seat angle defined as other-than-zero. Tolerance is usually held within + 0.5 deg, of as re quired for a particular application. For production checking purposes itis sometimes con- venient to deflect the spring to the position specified for load checking, and there measure the angle between the tangent to the spring seat and the datum line (instead of the seat angle baseline). For correct angle evaluation, the following relations between this “checked angle” and the seat angle in the straight-main-leaf (or any other) position must be considered: . 1. the two angles differ according to the distance by which the spring is deflected between any two positions, and according to the spring control (®, see Chapter 4). 2. The angles also differ according to the distance at cach end between the seat angle base line and the datum line. With the spring inverted as shown in Fig. 2.1, the terminal point of the seat angle base line is: 1) Higher by ID/2 than the datum line of the up- turned eye. ’b) Lower by 1/2 than the datum line of the Berlin eye. ©) Lower by (t + 1D/2) than the datum line of the downtured eye. 4) Identical with the datum line when there are no eyes. Finished Width—Width to which the spring leaves are ground or milled to give the edges a flat bearing surface. ‘SHACKLED END FIXED END SEAT ANGLE Positive (POSITIVE AS SHOWN) OVERALL HEIGHT REBOUND LEAF HO. 1 DATUM LINE SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE OVERSLUNG SPRING WITH POSITIVE CAMBER Loa N02 ‘SEAT ANGLE No.1 (POSITIVE AS SHOWN) SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE POSITIVE OPENING DATUM LINE UNDERSLUNG SPRING WITH POSITIVE CAMBER FIXED END NEGATIVE Loa SHACKLED END OVERALL HEIGHT—4 SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE out Ra pres 10504, wo ap OB ay (NEGATIVE AS SHOWN) DATUM LINE TRESOUNO LEAF NO. 1 OVERSLUNG SPRING WITH NEGATIVE CAMBER FIXED END Loap SHACKLED END OATUM LINE Y SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE SEAT ANGLE (NEGATIVE AS SHOWN) CE vecative onenine esowo ver wo -———___] UNDERSLUNG SPRING WITH NEGATIVE CAMBER Fig. 2.1—Messurement of opening, overall height, and seat angle 16 “TENSION SURFACE OF MAIN LEAF SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE ‘ALSO DATUM LINE WITH NO EVES JATUM LINE FOR BERLIN EYE CENTER OFMAINLEAF ‘or x BS INTEAF er SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE {LEAF THICKNESS ee © CENTER OF EVE (0 TERMINAL POINT FOR SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE x DATUM LINE FOR DOWNTURNED EVE =x ROE OF MAIN LEAF ‘SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE Fig. 2.2—Datum line and seat angle baee line for upturned, Ber- Tin downtumed, and ne eyen ees 17 ‘ScRIBE LINE ‘AS0UT 00 DEEP (ON EACH SIDE LOADING HEAD OF TEST MACHINE 1 OPTIONAL FOR aerate Fo. 23-tpng oad sk FIXED END SHACKLE END LOADED LENGTH #30 | ats — wor ff F : SEAT LENGTH ~ OPENING ‘CENTER BOLT SIZE qr STACK THICKNESS 1 ay 7 pL d —1'- 10. eve TL = = Lo. EVE 260 7 160 SPRING SHOWN UNDER = —=«NLOAD-— MATERIAL CLEARANCE mm HARDNESS RANGE RATE + N/mm LEAVES SHOT PEENED Fig. 24—Minimum specification requirements for undersiung “springs with positive opening 18 t+ OVERALL FLAT LENGTH #3.2 LOADED LENGTH «3.9 —————___+| WIDTH c STACK THICKNESS _f OPENING —— SPRING SHOWN UNDER = + CLEARANCE = mm RATE + Nimm N LOAD j CENTER BOLT SIZE SEAT LENGTH MATERIAL HARDNESS RANGE LEAVES SHOT PEENED Fig. 25—Minimum specitication requirements for springs with, plain ends If the spring ends have a finished width, the required length of the finished edge must also be indicated (see distance A, Fig. 2.6.) The usual tolerances for finished width are: al Width Tolerance from "To and Nominal Width Over Including +000 ° 50 0.25 50 6 035 3 150 =050 Assembled Spring Width—Where more than one leaf constitutes a spring assembly, the overall width tolerance of the assembly within the spring seat length shall be as, follows: Tolerance from Nominal Width Ictuding 00, ° ey +25 63 100 30 100 125 $35 125 150 245 19 Stack Thickness—Aggregate of the nominal thick- nesses of all leaves of the spring including any liners and spacer plates which are part of the spring at the seat. Leaf Numbers—(see Fig. 2.1.) Leaves are designated by numbers, starting with the main leaf which is No. 1. The adjoining leaf is No. 2, and so on. If rebound leaves are used, the rebound leaf adjoining the main leaf is rebound leaf No. 1, the next one is rebound leaf No. 2, and so on (Rebound leaves are assembled adjacent to the main leaf on the side opposite. the load bearing leaves.) Helper springs are considered as separate units Opening And Overall Height—(see Fig, 2.1.) Distance from the datum line to the point where the center bolt centerline intersects the surface of the spring that isin contact with the spring seat I the surface in contact with the seat ison the main leat ‘or a rebound leaf (as on underslung springs), this distance is called “opening.” If the surface in contact with the seat is on the shortest leaf (as on overslung springs), this distance is called “over- all height.” “Opening” and “overall height” may be positive or neg- ative (see Fig. 2.1) They are specified dimensions not subject toa tolerance (see paragraph on Load in this chap- ter) FINISH WIDTH DISTANCE “A” {(IF REQUIRED) ! STOCK WIDTH LESS [ALLOWANCE FOR CLEARANCE = [WIDTH \ 7 : oy i #18 ——— -— i —____"____|_Loae LENGTH #3. BUSHING | +]-1.D. BUSHING | I FINISHED CENTER BOLT SIZE A —p- —-—-— fp f = | ll ' i —s— Nerack | ‘one natr oF FRoir poe | SEAT ernexe| |eve pushinco. 0. HEIGHT | "LENGTH eee |FOR TEST PURPOSES i 460+. 26.0 — = +60 __ 160... ——-i SPRING SHOWN UNDER = yioap ~~ MATERIAL CLEARANCE = mm HARDNESS RANGE RATE 9 N/mm LEAVES SHOT PEENED Fig, 26—Minimum spectication requirements for sprigs with ‘one eye and one plan end jWIOTH Tay of 1 FIXED END SHACKLE END — os LOADED LENGTH +3.0 ——| po + = SEAT LENGTH i CENTER BOLT SIZE 4 NEGATIVE OPENING rp] LD. EVE | i THICKNESS Lens6.0 — 26.0 J 7 260-0 46,0 --——- ——+ ‘SPRING SHOWN UNDER + NLOAD MATERIAL, CLEARANCE mm HARDNESS RANGE RATE = Nimm LEAVES SHOT PEENED INTERLINERS BETWEEN LEAVES Fig. 2.7—Minimum specication requirements for undersung ‘springs with negative opening 1.10 FIXED END HELPER SPRING 260 LOADED LENGTH CENTER TO CENTER OF CONTACT PADS. STACK THICKNESS. HELPER SPRING SHACKLE END +30 WIDTH VERTICAL DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF FIXED SPRING EYE TO LOWEST POINT OF CONTACT PADS L 1D. EVE OVERALL HEIGHT MAIN SPRING MAIN SPRING roeve—| seacen as | 17 ZS neauine | cenren|pour size _stace esas 17, | + SEAT| LENGTH OF MAIN SPRING Joo *4 ao SPRINGSHOWNUNDER = ——~N LOAD HELPER TO CONTACT AT CLEARANCE ram RATEOFMAINSPRING = + N/mm RATEOFHELPER SPRING = N/mm Fig. 2.8—Minimum specification ‘commercial vehicle springs Clearance—Difference in opening, or overall height, between the design load position and the extreme position (of maximum stress) to which the spring can be deflected on the vehicle. Camber—Camber is not strictly defined and should therefore not be used in specifications, but it is sometimes convenient as a descriptive term. It is usually defined as the arc height of the main leaf. Camber is positive or negative analogous to opening, but this should not be confused with the fact that zero camber may be equivalent to either positive or negative opening, depending upon Whether the spring has upturned or downturned eyes. ‘Curvature—Curvature (1/R) is the reciprocal of radius (R). The curvature of a flat leaf is zero. Curvature is considered positive in the direction in which it increases With added load. Positive curvature corresponds with neg- ative camber. Load and Rate—Terms which are usually employed to describe the basic characteristics ofa leaf spring. As spe- «ified on the spring drawing, they refer to quantities mea- sured on the spring without center clamp and without N_ LOAD ON MAIN SPRING MATERIAL HARDNESS RANGE LEAVES SHOT PEENED quirements for overstung shackles. They are not the same as those of the installed spring. If it is necessary to specify load and rate as, clamped, this should be clearly shown on the drawing with full particulars of the clamp. Load is the force in newtons (N) exerted by the spring at the specified opening, or overall height. This force is greater during loading ofthe spring (“compression load”) than during unloading of the spring (“release load”). The specified load shall be the average of the compression load and the release load. For practical reasons, load as well as rate shall be measured in terms of compression loads only, but the compression loadin any positon shal be read only after the spring has been thoroughly rapped in that posi- tion with a plastic or soft metal hammer. ‘The tolerance on load at the specified overall height or ‘opening is usually expressed as a load range (N) which is equivalent 10 @ defection (mm) at the nominal rate (N/mm). This deflection may be as small as 6.0 mm for 4 passenger car spring and as large as 13.0 mm for a heavy truck spring Rate is the change of load per unit of spring deflection (N/mm). For leaf springs itis determined as one fiftieth (2%) of the difference between the loads measured 25 mm above and 25 mm below the specified position, unless otherwise specified (see Fig. 2.9.) The tolerance is usually hheld within -+ $% on low rate springs and within -+ 7% on high rate springs. ‘Measuring Methods—Instead of measuring loads at the specified position and 25 mm above and below, some users, measure loads at more than three positions during com- pression and release and plot a complete load-deflection diagram with a friction loop, similar to Fig. 7.1. This method requires more time but provides additional infor- ration, Such a diagram is preferably obtained by loading and unloading continuously and recording the data with an X-Y plotter. Load and rate are then obtained from the diagram. ‘When the load is measured, the spring ends shall be free to move in the direction of the datum line. The ends are usually mounted on carriages with rollers. The spring shall be supported on its ends, and the load shall be ap- plied from above to the shortest leaf It shall be transmitted from the testing machine head through a standard SAE loading block shown in Fig. 2.3 ‘The loading block shall be centered over the center bolt with the legs of the V resting on the spring. It is under- stood that the load specified on the spring drawing does rot inciude the force of gravity (usually called “weight” and equalling-mass times acceleration of gravity) on either the spring or the loading block. Just before the spring is checked for load or rate, it shall undergo a preloading operation. During the initial pre- loading by the spring maker, the spring shall be deflected at least to the position defined under the paragraph on Clearance. During any subsequent preloading, the spring shall be deflected only to and not beyond this “clearance position" in order to remove any temporary recovery from the set incurred during the initial preloading. After the spring has been preloaded, it shall be released to the free position before the load is applied for load and rate check- ing. Specification Requirements Minimum specification requirements are given in Figs. 24-29. They illustrate what information should be given to the spring maker for working out the detail design of| the spring ‘The spring shown in Fig, 24 is designed for underslung mounting. Therefore, the center bolt head is on the main leaf side and the height is dimensioned by specifying the opening. On an overslung spring, the center bolt head ‘would be on the opposite side and the overall height would be specified ‘The type of spring shown in Fig. 2.5 is often used on truck rear suspensions mounted in the position shown and with the center bolt head located as shown. In this case the ‘opening should be specified. Fig. 26 shows a spring which has a main leaf con- structed with an eye at one end and the other end plain; 4 construetion frequently used for truck suspensions. Fig. 2.7 shows the details of an underslung rear spring designed with considerable negative opening. The combination of main spring and helper spring shown in Fig. 2.8 is frequently used for truck rear suspen- sions and is mounted as an oversiung spring, Fig. 2.9 shows an overslung variable rate spring of the multistage type. The graph indicates the method of mea- suring rates of such springs, where rate (1) is usually measured at “curb load” (that i, at the load on the spring which is due to the mass of the vehicle without any pay- load), while rate 2) is measured at “design load” (that is, at the load on the spring which is due to the mass of the vehicle plus the payload) 3, Spring Eye Tolerances Spring Eyes and Bushings For round eyes with specified inside diameter, the size and roundness of the eye should be checked by means of 1 round plug gage from which two opposite seginents of 60 deg have been removed. The gage shall be tapered by 0.05 mm in diameter per 25.0 mm of length (see Fig. 2.10.) ‘The gage shall be inserted into the eye three times from cach side at angular positions differing by about 60 deg. ‘The eye is acceptable only if the gage reading on the side of the eye from which the gage is inserted is within the specified diametral limts at each of the six checks. ‘Also, the round eye should be checked with a round plug, GO/NO-GO gage, to determine if the eye is cone shaped or tapered. The GO diameter must pass com- pletely through the eye, and the NO-GO diameter must not enter the eye from either side. ‘The total tolerance shall be 19% of the nominal diameter of the eye, except for large diameter eyes (40 mm or more), where bushing retention may require a smaller tolerance of 0.75% of the nominal eye diameter, For eye diameters of less than 25 mm, the minimum tolerance is 0.25 mm. Where the ID of a bushing may have been affected by pressing into the spring eye, it should be checked with a round plug gage. Total tolerance is to be 0.13 mm unless otherwise specified Oval eyes (see Fig. 3.3H) consist of two lialf circle ends joined by flat sections. One method of cinecking their sizes is by using a GO/NO-GO plug gage system. This consists of: 1. An oblong GO gage to the minimum inside dimen- sions. 2. An-oblong NO-GO gage to the maximum inside dimensions for the half circle ends only, with the flat sides of the gage undercut 3.A rectangular NO-GO gage forthe inside dimensions between the fat sides only. 112 LOAD AT METAL, ‘TO METAL POSITION (MEASURE RATE ‘OVER 25 mm DEFLECTION LOAD (2) RANGE SECOND STAGE LOAD IN) CLEARANCE LOAD (i) RANGE DEFLECTION FROM CURB LOAD (1) TO DESIGN LOAD (2) FIRST STAGE OVERALL HEIGHT {rmm) FIXED END MATERIAL HARDNESS RANGE LEAVES SHOT PEENED. CLEARANCE BEYOND DESIGN LOAD (2) mm CURBLOADI) = ¢ Nat OAH. DESIGNLOAD(2) + Nat OAH. FIRST STAGE RATE = + N/mm SECONDSTAGERATE = N/mm SHACKLE END 15 LOADED LENGTH AT DESIGN LOAD (2) T t t Cnr +! b-1D. EVE | = reese sracKes i 7 Ty THICKNESS-| a OVERALL FIRST STAGE HEIGHT ——= TeAveE 1 if CENTER BOLT SIZE SEAT LENGTH Fig. 2—Minimum specification requirements for variable r SECOND STAGE LEAVES (SHOWN HERE AT A LOAD BEFORE REACHING INITIAL CONTACT WITH FIRST STAGE LEAVES) oF progressive rate springs (oversiung type shown) 113 ‘THESE LINES TO BE 0.25 DEEP AND 0.25 WIDE AFTER FINISH GRIND ~__ OTHER LINES TO BE 0.13 DEEP AND 0.13 WIDE AFTER FINISH GRIND SO / >. = = 12.0 TYPICAL ~ | t "EEE EEE X x x x x x] 60° FLAT 4 I r FEE 4 6 | | | | 6.0 WALL | 60.0 o + 60.0 + 60.0 + 600 oie 60 0.05 PER 25.0 CONSTANT TAPER FOR THIS ~ DIST. 300.0 ————— 400.0 X-STAMP GAGE DIAMETERS AT THESE STATIONS MATERIAL: STEEL - G40270 (SAE 4027) OR EQUIVALENT PROCESS: CARBURIZED AND HARDENED; CASE DEPTH 0.50 MIN. SURFACE HARDNESS: Re 58 MIN. Fig. 2.10—Gage—teat soring eye plug Parallelism and Squareness of Spring Eyes Eyes of the main leafin the assembled spring, measured in the unloaded condition, shall be parallel to the surface at the spring seat, and square with a tangent to either edge of the main leaf at the spring seat, within + 1 deg. Chapter 3 Design Elements 1, Leaf Sections! For automotive springs, round edge flat steel was adopted as the SAE standard in 1938. The bars shall be of flat rolled steel having two flat surfaces and two rounded (convex) edges. The cross section tolerances per- mit the two flat surfaces to be slightly concave. When that ‘occurs, the radii of the arcs of the two concave surfaces, shall be of approximately equal length. The rounding of the convex edges shall be an arc with a radius of curvature that may vary from 65-85% of the thickness of the bar. Bars shall be substantially straight and free from physi- cal characteristics known as “kinks” or “twists” which render them unsatisfactory for spring manufacturing pur- poses. Distortions due to a bar being bent about either major axis of section shall be measured with the bar against a fiat checking surface so as to make contact with this surface near both bar ends. Gaps between the bar and the check- ing surface shall not exceed 4.0 mm/I m of bar length out of contact with the checking surface when this bar length is greater than 1 m, Also, a gap between the bar and a straight edge 1 m long applied along any portion of the surface or edge of the bar shall not exceed 4.0 mm. It is recommended that all leaf spring bars which have been cold straightened be identified by the steel mill so that the spring manufacturer can use them selectively ‘The bar sections, which are generally provided in alloy steel, shall be specified and rolled in the widths and thick- nesses shown in Table 3.1. These sections are subject tothe tolerances given in Table 3.2. TABLE 31 ine) With soo | soo} se] aco | i120 | teoo | Zao | aro Tables showing the mass per meter length and the ac- tual moment of inertia for each size of these bars are provided in Chapter 5. Ref, SAE 11123, ‘TABLE 32-€R0SS SECTION TOLERANCES inn) vam |ronee | meine, in Teknees™ ek 0 sia | atzo soo | tom |ou| ors | = | sos [oo | — seo | tors ore | ors | = | 00s | cos | = 300 | fias | ois | 020 | 030 | oos | oro | ors woo | +20 | - | ox | os | - ors | 02s “Phe mena lS ae te we at Sin terre rears rematch tna centr ct br ray etna an ne chnoe eae cacao tay ever ered eines ae ope. ‘Miura otoorc eines een eto 056 of ech Ba It is well known that fatigue failures in spring leaves usually start on the tension side of the leaf. Taking advan- tage of this fact, special sections shown in Fig 3.1. have been developed which place the neutral axis nearer to the FLAT SECTION (SEE SAE STANDARD) - TENSION SURFACE GROOVED SECTION = TENSION SURFACE PARABOLIC EDGE SECTION Fig. 3.1—Sections of spring steet tension surfaces, Springs made of such sections are $-10% lower in mass than those made of conventional section. When grooved sections are used, special precautions should be taken to prevent corrosion caused by the mois- ture which tends to become trapped within the grooves. It is suggested that spring users interested in these special sections contact the manufacturers who produce such springs 2, Leaf Ends ‘Square End (Blunt End) (Fig. 3.2) This is the cheapest end to produce but i often unsatis- factory. It eauses concentration of interleaf pressure, re- sulting in more friction and galling than tapered ends. It isa very poor approximation of the theoretical triangular leaf uniform stress spring, and is therefére heavier thant necessary. Diamond Point (Spear End) (Fig. 3.2B ) This end makes a better approximation of the uniform stress spring by omitting excess material. The pressure distribution between leaves is slightly improved. Tapered End-(Fig. 3.2C) 7 This end can be formed to approximate very closely the {deal uniform stress shape. The plan view contour is con- ‘A. END SQUARE AS SHEARED trolled by trimming or edge squeezing as part ofthe taper- ing operation. Due to the flexibility of the leaf end, the pressure distribution in the bearing area is improved and interleaf friction is generally reduced. ‘Tapered And Trimmed End (Fig. 32D) This end is similar to Fig 3.2C, except that the plan view contour is controlled by trimming after the tapering oper- ation, and thus has the added advantage of the maximum obtainable area of contact. 3. Spring Eyes and Spring Ends Upturned Eye (Fig. 3.3A) This construction is most commonly used. If required, the second leaf can be extended to give support to the eye. Military Wrapper (Fig. 3.3B) In this design no attempt is made to use the second leaf ‘wrapper as an eye under design loads; but it may come into action on rebound and thus assist the main leaf. It also provides an emergency support if the main leaf breaks, The design has beer widely used on military vehi- cles and trucks where the service is severe. C. END TAPERED D. END TAPERED, THEN TRIMMED BURRS AWAY FROM BEARING SURFACE - = > Fig. 82—Leat ends 1.16 ee sss @ ‘A. UPTURNED EYE —= o— €= D. DOWNTURNED EYE S 7 MELO G. WELDED EYE E. BERLIN EVE 8. MILITARY WRAPPER, ©. PLAIN END MOUNTING F. BERLIN EVE WITH MILITARY WRAPPER a. H. OVAL EVE Fig. 3.8-Spring eyes and spring ends Plain End Mounting (Fig. 3.3C ) This construction can be built as a flat leaf on a curved spring pad, or as a curved leaf on either a lat or a curved. spring pad. The leaf ends used with the rubber insulators shown in Fig. 3.11 are similar, but are sometimes provided with a T end or a circular hole for the transmission of lengthwise forces, Downturned Eye (Fig, 3.3D) This is sometimes used because it produces a desired spring geometry (or suspension motion) which may im= prove steering or axle control. If support to the eye by the second leaf is required, this construction is not recom- mended Berlin Eye (Fig. 3.3E) Longitudinal loads are applied centrally to the main leaf, thereby reducing the tendency of the eye to unwrap, Berlin Eye With Military Wrapper (Fig. 3.3F ) This construction is a variation of Figure 3.3B. Welded Eye (Fig. 3.36) This construction is used predominantly in applications such as torque rods where the horizontal force is high. The welding must be performed before heat treatment, using appropriate technique. Oval Eye (Fig. 33H) This eye construction permits the use of rubber bush- ings which have different rates in the vertical and horizon- tal directions. This eye was developed specifically to re- duce the magnitude of the horizontal force inputs in suspension applications 4. Spring Eye Bearings Threaded Bushings (Figs. 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6) This type of construction has the following advantages: It takes side thrust as well as vertical load, retains lubri- ‘cant, and excludes dirt better than a plain bushing, thus requiring less frequent lubrication. Spring eyes need not be finished in width, 447 Fig. 2.4—Spring eye bearing: Threaded bushings in one piece C snackle Fig. 3.5Spring eye bearing: Threaded bushings and pins in fone piece Y shackle ‘The bushing has @ 60 deg V thread on the inside which fits the pin loosely. The outside is either plain or provided with a very flat angle thread. It is forced into the spring. eye or bracket ‘The bushings and pins are made of carbon or alloy steel, ‘carburized and hardened. | ‘Thread sizes generally used are M14X2 to M364 Load pressures up to 7.00 MPa on the projected area at normal load are used. Figs. 3.4 and 3.6 show seals. Self-Lubricated Bushings (Fig. 3.7) — Various designs and materials have been introduced on passenger cars and light trucks. They do not require lu- Fig. 3.7—Spring eye besring: Selt4ubricated bushings in double bolted shackle brication and are noiseless. The design shown in Fig. 3.7 takes side thrust on rounded citcular grooves and ridges. Spring eyes are not finished in width. Some types will stand pressures up to 8.40 MPa on the projected area at normal load. Plain Bushings (Fig. 3.8) This type bearing, usually bronze, is used on heavy trucks, It is simple (0 manufacture and service, and will sive satisfactory life if it is regularly lubricated. Side thrust is taken on the finished faces of the spring eyes. The wall thickness is usually 3.0 mm. Load pressures used are be- tween 3.50-7.00 MPa on the projected area at normal load. 118 SECTION A-A Fig. 2.8—Spring eye bearing: Plain bushings, periodically lu- bricated, in double bolted shackle Rubber Bushings (Figs, 3.9 and 3.10) Various types are used successfully. Their flexibility is aan added insulation against noise, but the effect of the flexibility on road holding ability, steering control, and increase in spring rate must be considered. Rubber Cushion (“Shock Insulator”) (Fig. 3.11) This bearing is used on heavy vehicles. The design per- mits a limited amount of longitudinal motion of the spring ends. It is, therefore, successful only with fairly long springs which are approximately flat at design load. 5. Shackles ‘One Piece C-Shackle (Fig. 3.4) Used on passenger cars and light trucks. Fig. 3.8-Spring eye bearing: Rubber bushing in fixed eye pivot 119 One Piece Y-Shackle (Fig. 3.5) Has more load capacity than one piece C-shackle. ‘Taper Pin Shackle (Fig. 3.6) Double Bolted Shackle (Figs. 3.7 and 3.8) ‘These constructions kave been used where they must resist forces transverse to the spring (that is, in the direc- tion of the spring eye axis). Careful design with close fits ‘must be used to avoid loosening in service. Fig. 8.10—Spring eye bearing: Rubber bushings In shackle Fig. 3.11—Spring end bearing: Rubber cushion (“Shock insula ph Riveted Bolted Shackle (Fig. 3.10) Well suited to rubber bushings, and therefore, in gen- ‘eral use on passenger cars and light trucks. 6. Center Bolt And Cup Center ‘The center bolt is required to hold the spring leaves together, and the center bolt head is used as a locating dowel during installation to the vehicle. For underslung springs, the head should be adjacent to the main leaf; and for overslung springs, the head should be adjacent to the short leaf. In most cases, center bolts are highly stressed in the ‘handling of the spring and in service. Therefore, it is nec- essary to use bolts and nuts of high mechanical properties. ‘The diameter of the center bolt hole in the spring leaves should be at Jeast equal to the thickness of the heaviest leaf in order to permit cold punching. If the diameter of the center bolt hole should be less than the thickness of the leaf, it may require heating the leaf in the area to be punched. However, itis not recommended to cold punch leaves which are thicker than 14 mm, (See Table 3.3 for sizes.) Generally, the spring leaf material at the center bolt area is inoperative when assembled to the vehicle. How- ‘ever, the diameter of the center bolt hole should not be too large in relation to the width of the leaf. When itis not desirable to use a center bolt and hole in the spring leaves, @ nib or cup, for nesting the adjacent leaves, is forged from the leaf material itself by forming a depression on one side and a corresponding projection on TABLE 3-RECOMMENDED CENTER BOLT ANO MUT DIMENSIONS (rm) _ tenate ‘ase * 15 | as | 100 | 700 | 1500 12 [138] 30 | treo | 00 | se0o | 207 | sor the other side, The leaves are then held together with clamps. ‘Cup centers are often used in heavy duty springs which may not safely depend on clamps and center bolts to prevent shifting of the spring on the axle seat due to driving and braking forces (See Fig. 3.14.) ‘When the main leaf is assembled adjacent to the axle seat as in underslung springs, the cup is hot forged in the ‘main leaf only, (away from the No. 2 leaf), When the shortest leaf is mounted above the axle seat as in overslung springs, all the leaves must be cupped toward the shortest leaf. ‘This method of cupping locks the main leaf to the axle seat. The horizontal forces which are applied to the main leaf will be resisted by the cup rather than the clamp and the center bolt. ‘ ‘There are many types of cup centers in general use, one ‘of which is shown in Fig. 3.12. The cup dimensions are listed according to center bolt diameter; however, the cup diameter should not exceed one-half the leaf width and the cup depth should not exceed one-half the leaf thickness. & 45086 Leo — Fig. 3.12—Dimensioning of typical cup center i Darerer® 7. Center Clamp The center clamp provides the permanent tie between the leaves, and between the spring and the spring seat. Figs. 3.13, 3.14, and 3.15 show some typical designs 1.20 Fig. 3.19—Typical center clamping of oversiung spring Fig. 2.14~Center bolt assisted by cup centers Fig. 9.15—Center clamping of undersiung spring with rubber pads The functions of the clamp are to attach the spring firmly to its seat to prevent leaf breakage through the center bolt section, and to prevent center bolt breakage due to horizontal forces. It therefore must remain tight in service. Excessive clamp length reduces the active length of the spring and wastes metal. The clamp length is usually be- tween 8-159 of the spring length. The ends of steel clamps should be well rounded to avoid sharp edges in contact with the spring leaves. Clamps with rubber pads (Fig. 3.15) are frequently used on passenger car rear axles because of their important influence on reduction of noise transmission. Similar to the rubber shackle bushings mentioned in Section 4 ofthis chapter, considerations of road holding, axle control, and steering control set a limit to the amount of softness which it is permissible to use at the center clamp. The center clamp has an effect on load rate and on loaded height of the spring. This is discussed in Chapter § Section 2 8. Alignment Clips Alignment clips are used to limit sidewise spread and vertical separation of the individual leaves in the spring. Bolt Clip (Fig. 3.164) ‘This lip is used for most heavy springs. The clearance between the bolt and the main leaf must be suficient to permit the main leaf to twist longitudinally so that this twist will not be concentrated in the free ends near the eyes. A spacer tube is recommended to prevent the sides 122 of the clip from binding the main leaf. For heavy duty applications, a double rivet construction may be used in springs 100 mm wide and over. Material is hot rolled steel strip of the following sizes: 4.5 x 20, 6.025, 6.0% 30, 8.0 35, 10x40. Clinch Clip (Fig. 3.168) This is used on springs where the clearances are limited. ‘The material is usually hot rolled steel strip 4.520 and 6.0x25 size. Single Piece Box Clip (Fig. 3.16C) ‘This clip is manufactured from hot rolled steel strip 2.5 X25. Its used with and without a rubber liner. Bolt sizes are M8X 1.25 and MIOX ‘Two Piece Box Clip (Fig. 3.16D) This clip is also made from 2.5%25 hot rolled steel strip, Note thatthe side ofthis clip, as in Fig 3.16C, are straight and provide a clearance forall leaves. Bolt sizes are MB 1.25 and MIOX 15. ‘Tab Lock Clip (Fig. 3.16E) ‘This clip is also made of 2.525 hot rolled stel strip. It is used with and without a rubber liner cn the main leaf only. ‘Tab Lock Clip With Locating Tang (Fig. 3.16F ) ‘This clip is similar to Fig. 3.16E except that it has a tang. for retaining it on the spring leaf. 4119 G3LU3ANI “H Th fh ag ‘dy wwawuBny—1'e “Bis di19 dvuLs °D — £ st , ano wooT av 3 wr S : | ==. oa ef ve X09 393Id JIONIS: gees 5 Weer eee an SSS) Strap Clip (Fig, 3.16G) This clip has a rubber liner on all four sides of the spring, The strap is 0.5 X 16 stainless steel. The ends are ‘overlapped and secured by means of a fastener which is ‘crimped at assembly. Inverted Clip (Fig. 3.16H) This clip is used on heavy springs where there is a clearance problem. Itis usually made from 30 or 35 x 8.0 stock 9, Rebound Leaves Figure 2.1 shows an example of a spring with rebound leaf. There ae two principal objectives for the application ‘of one or several rebound leaves. One of these concerns the spring subject to very high and frequent windup loads which tend to distort the main leaf by separating it from the shorter leaves. The rebound leaf or leaves serving to prevent these excessive windup stresses in the main leaf act substantially like the other leaves and should be treated in the same manner as to length, free curvature, ete. They are loaded through the alignment clips, which must be properly placed and de- signed so as to maintain tip contact between rebound leaves and aiain leaf. “The other case is that of the truck spring which in extreme rebound will have to support the weight of the axle and of other unsprung components, thereby becom- ing subject to detrimental reverse bending stresses, partic- ularly in the main leaf, In this ease the rebound leaves are usually formed with less free curvature than the other leaves. When the leaves are bolted together in the spring assembly operation, assembly stresses are set up in the various leaves including rebound leaves, as described in Chapter 5, Section 4. The rebound leaf will protect the main leaf in the region between the eye and the nearest alignment clip from distortion in extreme rebound. ‘As long as rebound leaves are under load, they contrib- ute to the load rate in the same manner as other leaves, regardless of the free camber in the rebound leaves. 10, Variable Rate Springs Variable rate springs are used primarily on vehicles which operate with large variations in load, such as trucks and buses. Variable spring rates are generally required to provide desirable ride and handling characteristics under these conditions. There are several ways to obtain variable rates, some of which may be combined with others. The helper spring is one method of obtaining increased. rate with deflection. As shown in Fig, 2.8, the helper mounted above the main spring and has its own bearing pads. The helper spring does not support any load until contact is made with the bearing pads. The change in rate at contact is necessarily abrupt. Shackles may be used to obtain some variation in rate as described in Chapter 6, Section 1. Curved bearing pads or cams which shorten the effee- tive length of the spring as itis detected will provide a variable rate. Such a configuration is shown in Fig. 3.17A. ‘Another method to obtain variable rate is by means of A. VARIABLE EFFECTIVE LENGTH SPRING ne B. MULTI-STAGE SPRING Fig. 2.17—Variable rate springs 124 the multi-stage spring, shown in Fig. 2.9, and Fig. 3.17B. This spring has one or more leaves called “second stage” leaves, mounted adjacent to the shortest leaf of the main ‘or “first stage” portion of the spring. This spring gradually increases in rate with deflection as the contact between the stages increases. Load and rate for each stage are usually 125 specified as shown in Fig. 2.9. They are generally checked in the same manner as single stage multi-leaf springs. Combinations, such as the use of curved bearing pads in conjunction with a multi-stage spring, are sometimes used to provide a greater change of spring rate. Chapter 4 Geometry 1, Deflection Theory ‘As a spring with leaves of constant cross section prop- erly stepped to approach the condition of uniform strength is deflected, it will assume the shape of a circular arc at all loads between zero and maximum, provided it has acircular are shape or is lat at no load or at any given load. Most springs approximate these conditions closely ‘enough so that the circular arc shape can be used to calcu- late their geometric properties. The following relations have been derived analytically and found to agree closely g | L arc HEIGHT with a number of actual springs checked. (However, see Chapter 10, Section 6 concerning the contour of single leaf springs in the free camber.) 2, Cantilever Spring For a spring of this type the center of the eye of the Berlin type moves in a path with a radius of 0.758 central to the main leaf, as shown in Fig. 4.1A. Ifthe eye center is offset the distance “e” from the center of the main leaf, the center of arc will be offset by [Link] in the opposite

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