METALLURGY LAB
MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE
GUDLAVALLERU
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
HYPER EUCTECTOID STEEL
Metallography of Hyper Eutectoid Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF HYPER EUCTECTOID STEEL (1.2% C)
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the hyper eutectoid steel (1.2% c)
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
The microstructure of hyper eutectoid steel 1.2%c steel consists of 75% Pro
eutectoid Cementite (light areas) and 25% Pearlite dark areas. The dark areas in
the microstructure certainly do not look like a mixture which Pearlite is supposed to
be clearly seen at higher magnification it looks like a finger print
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
Metallography of Hyper Eutectoid Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of two types of grains Pearlite (dark areas) and
Proeutectoid Cementite network (light areas)
Metallography of Hyper Eutectoid Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF HYPER EUCTECTOID STEEL
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Hyper Eutectoid Steel
: Hyper Eutectoid Steel
Composition : C 1.2 %
Composition : C 1.2 %
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details :
Pearlite areas surrounded by a white
Proeutectoid Cementite network
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etching Time :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
Metallography of Hyper Eutectoid Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
HYPO EUTECTOID STEEL
Metallography of Hypo Eutectiod Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF HYPO EUTECTOID STEEL( 0.2%C)
AIM: Identification of micro constituents present in the Hypo eutectoid steel.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
The microstructure of hypo eutectoid0.2%c steel consists of 75% Proeutectoid
Ferrite (light areas) and 25% Pearlite dark areas.
The dark areas in the
microstructure certainly do not look like a mixture which Pearlite is supposed to be
clearly seen at higher magnification it looks like a finger print
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
Metallography of Hypo Eutectiod Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of two types of grains Pearlite (dark areas) and Pro
eutectoid Ferrite (light areas)
Metallography of Hypo Eutectiod Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF HYPO EUTECCTOID STEEL
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Hypo eutectoid steel
: Hypo eutectoid steel
Composition : C 0.2%
Composition : C 0.2%
S 0.06 %
S 0.06 %
P 0.06%
P 0.06%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details :
Pro Eutectoid Ferrite in Pearlite Matrix
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etching Time :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
Metallography of Hypo Eutectiod Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF WHITE CAST IRON
Metallography of White cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF WHITE CAST IRON
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the White Cast Iron.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
Cast irons are basically the alloys of Iron & Carbon in which carbon content varies
between 2.02 to 6.67% (Theoretically). Cast irons are brittle, and can not be forged,
rolled, drawn etc., but can only be cast into a desired shape and size, by pouring
the molten alloy of desired composition into mould of desired shape and allowing it
to solidify. As casting is the only and exclusively suitable process to shape these
alloys, these alloys are called cast irons. Carbon in cast iron may be in the form of
cementite, i.e., in the combined form or graphite, the free form, or both. White Cost
Irons have all the carbon in the combined cementite form. It can be recognized by
the characteristics white fracture, extremely hard and brittle.
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
10
Metallography of White cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Ferritic matrix with graphite flakes.
11
Metallography of White cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF WHITE CAST IRON
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: White cast Iron
Composition : C 3.2 to 3.7 %
: White cast Iron
Composition : C 2.3 to 3.0 %
Si 2.0 to 3.5%
Si 0.9 to 1.65%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details
:Cementite
present in pearlite matrix
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
Etching Time :
12
Metallography of White cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
MALLEABLE CAST IRON
13
Metallography of Malleable cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF MALLEABLE CAST IRON
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the Malleable cast iron.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
Cast irons are basically the alloys of Iron & Carbon in which carbon content varies
between 2.02 to 6.67% (Theoretically). Cast irons are brittle, and can not be forged,
rolled, drawn etc., but can only be cast into a desired shape and size, by pouring
the molten alloy of desired composition into mould of desired shape and allowing it
to solidify. As casting is the only and exclusively suitable process to shape these
alloys, these alloys are called cast irons. Carbon in cast iron may be in the form of
cementite, i.e., in the combined form or graphite, the free form, or both. Malleable
cast iron is the one type in which carbon is in uncombined form (Tempered Carbon).
It is made by heating white cast Iron slowly to annealing temperatures of around
9000C and kept there for about 50 hours followed by slow cooling to room
temperature.
It can be hammer and rolled to obtained different shapes.
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
14
Metallography of Malleable cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Ferritic matrix with graphite flakes.
15
Metallography of Malleable cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF MALLEABLE CAST IRON
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Malleable cast Iron
: Malleable cast Iron
Composition : C 3.2 to 3.7 %
Composition : C 2.3 to 3.0 %
Si 2.0 to 3.5%
Si 0.9 to 1.6%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details
:Tempered
carbon present in Pearlite Matrix.
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etching Time :
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
16
Metallography of Malleable cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
GRAY CAST IRON
17
Metallography of Gray cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF GRAY CAST IRON
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the Gray cast iron.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
Cast irons are basically the alloys of Iron & Carbon in which carbon content varies
between 2.02 to 6.67% (Theoretically). Cast irons are brittle, and can not be forged,
rolled, drawn etc., but can only be cast into a desired shape and size, by pouring
the molten alloy of desired composition into mould of desired shape and allowing it
to solidify. As casting is the only and exclusively suitable process to shape these
alloys, these alloys are called cast irons. Carbon in cast iron may be in the form of
cementite, i.e., in the combined form or graphite, the free form, or both. Grey cast
iron is the one type in which carbon is in uncombined form as graphite flakes. It has
gray, blackish coloured fracture due to graphite. The strength of gray iron depends
on strength of steel matrix and size and character of graphite flakes in it. It has low
melting point with good fluidity and good machineability.
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
18
Metallography of Gray cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Ferritic matrix with graphite flakes.
19
Metallography of Gray cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF GRAY CAST IRON
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Gray cast Iron
: Gray cast Iron
Composition : C 3.2 to 3.7 %
Composition : C 3.2 to 3.7 %
Si 2.0 to 3.5%
Si 2.0 to 3.5%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details :
Graphite flakes in the Pearlite matrix
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time :
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
20
Metallography of Gray cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
NODULAR CAST IRON
21
Metallography of Nodular cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF NODULAR CAST IRON
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the Nodular cast iron.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
Cast irons are basically the alloys of Iron & Carbon in which carbon content varies
between 2.02 to 6.67% (Theoretically). Cast irons are brittle, and can not be forged,
rolled, drawn etc., but can only be cast into a desired shape and size, by pouring
the molten alloy of desired composition into mould of desired shape and allowing it
to solidify. As casting is the only and exclusively suitable process to shape these
alloys, these alloys are called cast irons. Carbon in cast iron may be in the form of
cementite, i.e., in the combined form or graphite, the free form, or both. Nodular
cast iron is the one type in which carbon is in uncombined form spheroids. Graphite
is formed in spherical or nodular shapes instead of the flakes form in Gray Cast Iron,
the formation of spherical graphite is due to the addition of Mg to the Gray Cast
Iron. It is also known as ductile / Nodular Cast Iron.
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
22
Metallography of Nodular cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Ferritic matrix with graphite flakes.
23
Metallography of Nodular cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF NODULAR CAST IRON
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Nodular cast Iron
: Nodular cast Iron
Composition : C 3.2 to 3.7 %
Composition : C 3.2 to 3.7 %
Si 2.0 to 3.5%
Si 2.0 to 3.5%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1
Mg - 0.10%
Mg - 0.10%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details :
Graphite
Nodules
in
the
Pearlite
matrix
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time :
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
24
Metallography of Nodular cast iron
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
ANNEALED STEEL
25
Metallography of Annealed Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF ANNEALED STEEL
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the Annealed steel.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
Heat treatment is defined as A combination of heating and cooling operations, timed
and applied to a metal or alloy in the solid state in a way that will produce desired
properties.
Annealing is the one of the basic heat treatment process. This process consists of
heating the steel just above upper critical temperature, holding at this temperature
for a definite period and slow cooling to room temperature usually in the furnace.
Annealing is very slow cooling Process and therefore similar equilibrium cooling.
Microstructural change in the specimen during annealing are as follows, on heating,
when the temp of the specimen reaches 30 - 50oC above the lower critical
temperature and soaking it for definite period all Pearlite transforms intofine
austenite , subsequent cooling in the furnace will result in small areas of fine Pearlite
surrounded by pro eutectoid ferrite
Annealing process refines grain structure, induces softness, and improves electrical
and magnetic properties.
.
26
Metallography of Annealed Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Pearlite surrounded by pro eutectoid ferrite.
27
Metallography of Annealed Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF ANNEALED STEEL
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Low carbon Steel
Composition : C 0.2 %
: Low carbon Steel
Composition : C 0.2 %
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure
Details:
Coarse
lamellar Pearlite surrounded by pro
eutectoid ferrite.
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Annealing
Etchant :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time :
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
28
Metallography of Annealed Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
HARDENED STEEL
33
Metallography of Hardened Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF HARDENED STEEL
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the Hardened steel.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (2% Nital).
THEORY:
Heat treatment is defined as A combination of heating and cooling operations, timed
and applied to a metal or alloy in the solid state in a way that will produce desired
properties.
Hardening is the one of the heat treatment Technique which involves heating the
steel to 30 -500C above upper critical temperature, austenizing for a sufficient time
and cooling with a rate just exceeding the critical cooling rate of that steel to room
temperature or below room temperature .Due to this, the usual diffusion
transformations are stopped and the austenite by a diffusion less process transforms
to martensite.
Microstructural change in the specimen during quench hardening are as follows, on
heating, the specimen to austenizing temperature then soaking at this temperature
(for rapid diffusion of carbon)
results in austenic grains of uniform composition
,cooling the specimen in circulated water (i.e. providing cooling rate grater than
critical cooling rate) result in hard martensite grains.
The martensite has body
centered tetragonal crystal structure.
34
Metallography of Hardened Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (2 % Nital
2 % HNO3 and 98 % Ethyl or Methyl Alcohol) to preferentially reveals the
microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Martensite with needle like structure.
35
Metallography of Hardened Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF HARDENED STEEL
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Low carbon Steel
Composition : C 0.2 %
: Low carbon Steel
Composition : C 0.2 %
S 0.06 to 0.1%
S 0.06 to 0.1%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
P 0.1 to 0.2%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details :
Martensite with needle like structure
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Hardening
Etchant :
Etchant
: 2% Niltal
Etching Time :
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
36
Metallography of Hardened Steel
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
ALUMINIUM
37
Metallography of Aluminium
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF ALUMINIUM
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the aluminum
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (Sodium hydroxide 10gm +
water 90ml).
THEORY:
The best known characteristic of aluminium is its light weight; Aluminium has good
malleability and formability, high corrosion resistance and high electrical and thermal
conductivity. Pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 13,000psi. One of the
important characteristic of aluminium is its machinability and workability.
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (Sodium
hydroxide 10gm + water 90ml).to preferentially reveals the microstructure
38
Metallography of Aluminium
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of
39
Metallography of Aluminium
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF ALUMINUM
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Aluminum
: Aluminum
Composition :
Composition : 99.9% Pure
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details : Al2O3
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
: Ferric chloride
Etching Time :
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
40
Metallography of Aluminium
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
PURE COPPER
41
Metallography of Pure Copper
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF PURE COPPER
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the copper
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit) Etchant (Sodium hydroxide 10gm +
water 90ml).
THEORY:
Copper is one of the non-ferrous metals, it has high electrical, and thermal
conductivity, good corrosion resistance, machinability, strength and ease to
fabrication. Certain properties can be improved by suitable alloying.
The main grades of raw copper commonly used are:
High conductivity copper:
99.9% Cu, 0.4% Pb, 0.005% Fe 0.02% Ag, 0.001% Br,
It used for electric purpose.
Arsenical copper
Free cutting copper, 99.9% Cu, 0.005%Pb, 0.004% Fe 0.001% Ni
Silver bearing copper contains 7-305 Ag and remaining as Cu
99.9% Cu, 0.04% Pb, 0.004% Fe 0.4% Ag,
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
42
Metallography of Pure Copper
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is Etched for specified time using a suitable etchant (Sodium
hydroxide 10gm + water 90ml).to preferentially reveals the microstructure
.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of
43
Metallography of Pure Copper
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF COPPER
BEFORE ETCHING
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Specimen
: Copper
: Copper
Composition :
Composition :
Microstructure Details :
Microstructure Details :
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
: Sodium Hydroxide
Etching Time :
Etching Time
: 15 seconds
44
Metallography of Pure Copper
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
- BRASS
45
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF - BRASS
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the -Brass.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit), Etchant (Ferric chloride).
THEORY:
Brasses are alloys of copper; contain zinc as a principal alloying element.
The equilibrium solubility of Zn in Cu is around 38% and is sharply influenced by
cooling rate. Under the conditions of usual cooling rates encountered in industrial
practice, the solubility limit may go down to 30%. With Zn additions exceeding the
solubility limit, a second phase is formed Beta intermediate phase exhibits orderdisorder transformation between 453 and 4700C. Below this temperature, the
structure of is ordered and above this is disordered. With more than 50 % Zn
another phase (intermediate phase) is formed Brasses are classified either on the
basis of structure i.e. brasses and Brasses or colour i.e red brasses and
yellow brasses.
- brasses are soft, ductile malleable and have fairly good corrosion
resistance. Commercial Brasses contain zinc between 32 to 40%. They are
hard and strong as compared to - brasses and are fabricated by hot working
process .these two phases alloys become single phase (disordered) alloys at
higher temperatures. Disordered has more ductility and malleability as compared
to and therefore, brasses are hot worked at a temperature of above 600 0C.
Since zinc is cheaper than copper, brasses are cheaper compared to
Brasses.
46
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is etched for specified time using a suitable etchant to
preferentially reveal the microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Brass.
47
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF - BRASS
BEFORE ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
: Brass
Composition : Zn 30%
Microstructure Details :
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
: Brass
Composition : Zn 30%
Microstructure Details: consists of
Brass.
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
Etching Time :
Etching Time
48
: Ferric Chloride
: 15 seconds
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF
BRASS
49
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF BRASS
AIM:
Identification of micro constituents present in the Brass.
EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS:
Specimen Cut off Machine, Specimen Mounting Press, Belt Grinder, Polishing
Stand, Disc Polishing Machine, Drier, Metallurgical Microscope, Bakelite Powder
Emery Papers (120, 220, 400, 600, 800 Grit), Etchant (Ferric chloride).
THEORY:
Brasses are alloys of copper; contain zinc as a principal alloying element.
The equilibrium solubility of Zn in Cu is around 38% and is sharply influenced by
cooling rate. Under the conditions of usual cooling rates encountered in industrial
practice, the solubility limit may go down to 30%. With Zn additions exceeding the
solubility limit, a second phase is formed Beta intermediate phase exhibits orderdisorder transformation between 453 and 4700C. Below this temperature, the
structure of is ordered and above this is disordered. With more than 50 % Zn
another phase (intermediate phase) is formed Brasses are classified either on the
basis of structure i.e. brasses and Brasses or colour i.e red brasses and
yellow brasses.
- brasses are soft, ductile malleable and have fairly good corrosion
resistance. Commercial Brasses contain zinc between 32 to 40%. They are
hard and strong as compared to - brasses and are fabricated by hot working
process .these two phases alloys become single phase (disordered) alloys at
higher temperatures. Disordered has more ductility and malleability as compared
to and therefore, brasses are hot worked at a temperature of above 600 0C.
Since zinc is cheaper than copper, brasses are cheaper compared to
Brasses.
50
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
PROCEDURE:
The specimen being small, is mounted on bakelite using mounting press.
The mounted specimen surface is ground until unevenness of surface is
eliminated using Belt Grinder (Linsher).
After the specimen surface is leveled it is polished on a successively fine
grades of emery papers (120, 220, 400, 600, and finally on 800 grit).
Fine Polishing is done on a disc Polisher (Rotating Polishing Wheel), the
wheel is fitted with a Polishing cloth and suspension of fine alumina powder in
water used as a polishing medium.
A Scratch free surface is obtained after fine polishing for sufficient period (15
minutes)
After fine polishing specimen is thoroughly washed with water and dried.
The specimen is etched for specified time using a suitable etchant to
preferentially reveal the microstructure.
PRECAUTIONS:
Grinding should be done on the emery papers only in one direction.
While polishing the specimen uniform pressure should be exerted on the
specimen.
While going to the next grade of emery papers, the specimen has to be
rotated through 900.
While switching over to new emery paper, specimen should be thoroughly
washed with water to remove all loose particles.
After etching the specimen should be washed away with in a few seconds.
Operate the Microscope Knobs gently (with out jerks)
OBSERVATION:
The microstructure of the given specimen observed at magnification 450 x
found to be consists of Brass.
51
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
METALLOGRAPHY OF - BRASS
BEFORE ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
Brass
Composition : Zn 32 40%
AFTER ETCHING
Magnification : 450 X
Specimen
: Brass
Composition : Zn 32 40%
Microstructure Details: consists of
Microstructure Details :
Brass and Brass.
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Heat Treatment (if any) : Nil
Etchant :
Etchant
Etching Time :
Etching Time
52
: Ferric Chloride
: 15 seconds
Metallography of
- Brass
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
JOMINY END QUENCH TEST
53
Jominey end quench test
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
JOMINY END QUENCH TEST
AIM:
To conduct the hardenability test on steel by end quench test and plotting graph
between distance from quenched end to Rockwell hardness.
APPARATUS:
Muffle Furnace, Fixture, Quick acting water valve, standard size orifice, Rockwell
Hardness Testing machine.
THEORY:
Hardenability is defined as susceptibility to hardening by Quenching. A material that
has high Hardenability is said to harden more uniformly throughout than one with
heir Hardenability.
A steel quenched to 100% martensite upto its centre may have a lower surface
hardness (as its carbon content is low), but it still has higher Hardenability as
compared to a steel having higher surface hardness due to 100% martensite there,
but lower Hardenability.
PROCEDURE:
The specimen (standard size) is heated to proper austenzing temperature
and soak it for required time till uniform temp is obtained throughout the cross
section of the specimen.
It is quickly placed in a fixture, water is impinged from below through standard
orifice allowed from a quick acting value.
The end Quenching continues, until the bar is cooled sufficiently (handling
temperature)
54
Jominey end quench test
GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
METALLURGY LAB
Flat edge is ground on the surface of the specimen (0.015) in deep Rockwell
hardness values are determined at every 1/16 inch along the length of the
specimen from the Quenched end.
PRECAUTIONS:
Proper soaking time is given to the specimen.
Proper care should be taken while hardening the specimen.
The specimen must be as per IS and BS specifications.
Keep the equipment dry and when not in use by draining the water
through water outlet.
OBSERVATION:
Graph is drawn between distances from quenched end to Rockwell hardness and
is found to be decreasing from the end.
55
Jominey end quench test
