Electrical Engineering Control Systems Comprehensive Theory with Solved Examples and Practice Questions reRE MADE EASY Publications Corporate Office: 44-44, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metto Station), New Delhi-110016 E-mail infomep@madeeasyin Contact 011-45124660, 8860378007 Visit us at: www madeeasypublicat n.0°9 Control Systems ‘© Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications. Alltights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retvieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the above mentioned publisher of this book. First Edition: 2015 Second Edition: (Revised and Updated): 2016 © Alig ‘wen persion reserve by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS No pr ofthis book maybe repro the blsher and any frm thou thePreface This look was motivated by the desire to further the evolution of a concise bbook on Control Systems. Keeping in focus the importance of this subject in GATE and ESE, we have done a proper study and thereafter developed the content of the book accordingly. This edition has an expanded discussion of all relevant topios in the subject. Inkially, we compiled the perceptions of our students on their problems In GATE and ESE while dealing with the questions from this subject. We B. Singh (f.1ES) Identified their various problems lke- lack of fundamentals of the subject, difficulty in solving simple questions, shortage of a complete study package, etc. These strengthened ‘our determination to resent a comolete edition of Control Systems textbox ‘The book addresses all the requirements of the students, i.e. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental concepts, objective type problems and conventional problems, articulated in a lucid language. The concise prosontation will help the readers grasp the concepts with clarty and apply them with ease to solve problems quickly. The book not only covers the entire syllabus of GATE and ESE, but also addresses the need of many other compettive examinations. Topics Ike ‘signal flow graphs, modelling of control systems, ime domain analysis controllers and compensators, Routh stably criteria, root locus, gain margin and phase margin, polarplots, Nyquist plot, Bode plot and state variable analysis’, are given full coverage in ine with our research on their importance in competitive examinations, We have put in our sincere efforts to present elaborate solutions for various problems, diferent problem solving methodology, some useful quick techniques to save time while attempting MCQs without compromising the accuracy of answers. A summary of important points to remember is added at the end of each topic. For the convenience of the readers, points to remember are specifically highlighted in the form of a note- both in theory as well as solved ‘examples, At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question are given with their keys, that wil allow the readers to evaluate their understanding o' the topics and sharpen their problem solving skil ur toam has made their best offorts to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing, calculation and conceptual error. Itis impossible to thank al the individuals who heloed us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the authors, editors land reviewers for pulting in thelr efforts to publish this book With Best Wishes B.Singh CMD, MADE EASYContents Control Systems Chapter 1 Introduction. 1.1 Open Loop Control Systems: 1 1.2 Close Loop Control Systems. 2 1.2 Comparison Between Open Loop and Close Loop Contol Systems 2 14 Laplace Transformation 3 Chapter 2 Transfer FUNCtiONwsssnssneneanenenssnd 2:1 Transfer Function and Impulse Response Function ° 22 Standard Test Signals 10 23 Poles and Zeros ofa Transfer FUNCOM snenneI2 24 Properties of Transfer Function 13 25. Methods of Analysis 15 26 0CGain 16 27 Interacting & Nominteracting System cnn25 Student Assignments- 28 Student Asslgnments-2. 29 Chapter 3 Block Diagrams .vjssssnentennnnsenin 33 311 Block Diagrams: Fundamentals, 33 32 BlockDiagram ofa Closed-loop System 34 33 BlockDiagram Transformation Theorems.....35 Student Assignments 59 Student Assignments2, 61 (iv) Chapter 4 Signal Flow Graphs. 41 Introduction 6s 42 Terminology of 6 6 43° Construction of Signal Flow Graphs. 6 ‘44 Mason's Gain Formula 69 Student Assignments 86 Student Assgnments-2 88 Chapter 5 Feedback Characteristics cies 95 5:1 Feedback and Non-Feedback Systems. onnon.95 52 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain 96 53 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity 97 54 effect of Feedback on Stability. 101 55 Control Over System Dynamics by the Us of Feedback. 102 5 Control on the Efects ofthe Disturbance Signals by the Use of Feedback. 103 57 Effect of Nose (Disturbance) Sighs 108 Student Assignments 105 Student Asslgnments-2. 107 Chapter 6 Modelling of Control Systems ....ue..110 51 Mechanica Systems. 110 62 Electrical Systems 12 63 Analogous Systems 12 54 Nodal Method for Writing Differential Equation of Complex Mechanical Sytem... 11365 Geartrain 66 Servomechanism. 67 Armature Controlled DC Servomotor. 68 Field Controlled DC Servonotor 68 TwoPhase AC Servomotor 6.10 Potentiometer 6.11 Tachometers. 6.12. Synchro. 6.13 Position Control System, Student Assignments-1 Student Assignments-2. Chapter 7 Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems..vesnesrs na ns 19 121 12 125 126 27 131 134 136 71 Introduction 142 72 Transient and Steady State Responses nn. 142 73 Steady State Eror 44 7A Static Eor Coefficients, 145 75 Dynamic or generalised) Eror Coefficient. 155 716 Relationship Between Static and Dynamic Err Constants 156 77 Transients State Analysis 160 18 Dominant Poles of Transfer FuNctioN$ 198 Student Assignments 208 Student Assignments2 217 Chapter 8 Stability Analysis of Linear Control Systems rset 222 81 The Concept of Stability 222 Student Assignments 244 Student Assignments? 246 Chapter 9 The Root Locus Technique 0251 8.1 Introduction 251 82 Angle and Magnitude Concitions. 252 93 Construction Rules ofRoot Locus 253 94 Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus Plt. 95 Effects of Adding Poles and Zeros to G(s) (9). 96 Complementary Root Locus (CRL) or Inverse Root Locus (IRL). Student Assignments. StudenAsignments2 Chapter 10 Frequency Domain Analysis of Control System: 101 Introduction 102 Advantages of Frequency Response 263 278 279 282 285 sevseerseerneee 29D 292 292 103 Frequency Response Analysis of Second Order Control System. 104 Frequency-Domain Specifications 293 295 105 Correlation Between Step Response & Frequency Response'in the Standard Order System. 106 Frequency Domain Analysis of Dead Time or ‘Transportation Lag Elements. 10.7 Relative Stability: Gain Margin and Phase Margin 108 Gain Margin and Phase Margin for Second Order Control System. 109 Graphical Methods of Frequency Domain Analysis 10.10 Polar Plots 10.11 Stability From Polar Pots 10.12 Effect of (Open Loop) Gain on Stability 1013 Gain Phase Plot 10.14 Theory of Nyquist Criterion 10.15 Bode Plots 10.16 Basic Factors of Gtjo) Hijo) 10.17 General Procedure for Constructing the Bode Plots Student Assignments-1 Student Assignments-2, 297 300 302 303 310 310 318 320 320 322 340 341 247 358 363Chapter 11 Industrial Controllers 11.13 Proportional Integral Derivative ?-FD) and Compensatol ...sssssscssesesenseeen 368 Controller, 386 11.14 Op-Amp Based Realisation of Controllers. 386 11.1 Introduction to Compensators. 368 112 Lead Compensator 369 Student Assignments-1 394 113 Lag compensator a0 Student Assignments-2 395 114 LageLead Compensator. 371 Chapter 12 11.5 Comparison of Lead and Lag Compensators..372, Variable Analysi 39) 116 Bode Pot for Lag Lead Compensstofwou373 State fe Analysis. 398 121 Introduction 398 1127 ndustril Controls 300 122 State Space Representation 118 Proportional (P) Contre. 00 ace ep of Control system, 388 119 Integra () Controller (Reset Mode) 381 123. Solution of State Equations an 11.0 Derivative (0) Controller Rate Mode)... 383 11.11 Proportional Integral P) Contrller xu 384 Has Sonirteb ity andi oeeenasity oe Student Asignment-1 29 1142 Proportional Derivative (PD) Contollern..385 Student Asignments-2 a (vi)CHAPTER Transfer Function 2.1. Transfer Function and Impulse Response Function 1 control theory, transfer functions are commonly used to characterise the input-output relationships of components or systems that can be described by lineay, time-invariant ciferental equations Transfer Function The transfer function of alinear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero. Linear Systems Asystem is called linearifthe principle of superposition and principle of homogeneity apply. The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two individual responses. Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated by transferring one input ata time and adding the results. Itis this principle that allows one to build up complicated solutions to the linear differential equations from simple solutions. in an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, ifcause and effect are proportional, thus implying that the principle of superposition holds, then the system can be considered. Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear-Time Varying Systems A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the independent variable, Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant kimped-parameter components may be described by linear time-invariant differential equations ie, constant-coefticient differential equations, Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systérms, Systems that are represented by differential ‘equations whose coetticients are function of time are called linear time varying systems. An example of a time- varying control systemis a space craft control system (the mass of a space craft changes due to fuel consumption). ‘The definition of transfer function is easily extended to a system with multiple inputs and outputs (Le. a multivariable system). In a multivariable system, a linear differential equation may be used to describe the relationship between a pair of input and output variables, when all other inputs are set to zero. Since the principle cof superposition is valid for linear systems, the otal effect (on any output) due to all the inputs acting simultaneously is obtained by adding up the outputs due to each input acting alone. — peppy © copyright MADE EASY wmadeeaspubistonsorg) Publlaations10 | Electrical Engineering ® Control Systems MADE EASY EEEEZEZI «When deriving the transfer function of a linear element (a) both initial conditions and loading are taken into account (b) initial conditions are taken into account but the element is assumed to be not loaded. (c) initial conditions are assumed to be zero but loading is taken into account. (d) initial conditions are assumed to be zero and the element is assumed to be not loaded. Solution: (c) While deriving the transfer function of a linear element only initial conditions are assumed to be zero, loading (or input) can't be assumed to be zero. EEEEZEZNE ‘the initial conditions fora system are inherently zero, what does it physically mean? (a) The system is at rest but stores energy. (b) The system is working but does not store energy. (c) The system is at rest or no energy is stored in any of its part. (d) The system is working with zero reference input. Solution: () Asystem with zero tial conditions is said to be at rest since there is no stored energy. EEEEEERY What are the properties of linear systems not valid for non-linear systems? Explain each briefly? ‘Solution: + Linear systems satisty properties of superposition and Rdmogeneity. Any system that does not satisfy these properties is non-linear Property of superposition: When the output corresponding to Vin Is You and the output corresponding to Vin is Vouts then the output corresponding to Vn, + BVin, iS AVoug, + BVoiy Property of homogeneity: |t states that for a given input.x in the domain of the function fand for any real number k i(k) = kits) * Linear systems have one equilibriumpoint at the origin. Non-linear systems may have many equilibrium points 2.2 Standard Test Signals 1.Step Signal Kt) = Au(t) “ 4, t20 where, u(t) = (oes A Laplace transform, Ris) = Als 7 { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © Copyright |MADE EASY TransferFunction | 44 2. Ramp Signal 0 At t>0 n= 0 { t<0 Laplace transform, Rls) = Ais? 4 3. Parabolic Signal at) 2 ny = (ACI2. t>0 osteo Laplace transform, R(s) = Als® 4, Impulse Signal ‘ tao - woe ice + Sane , Laplace transform, f &s) Transfer function, S18) = Fi) (s) = Fs) Ris) Let, As) = Impulse signal = 1 C(s) = Impulse response = G(s) x 1= TF - as) £ {Impulse Response} = TF = [3] NOTE = didt (Parabolic Response) = Ramp Response aS = didt (Ramp Response) = Step Response = didt (Step Response) = Impulse Response Consider, alinear time-invariant system has the input?) and dutput y(0).The system can be characterized by its impulse response g(t), which is defined as the output when the input is a unit-impulse function &(1). Once the impulse response of a linear system is known, the output of the system y(i), with any input u(9, can be found by Using the transfer function. Let G(s) denotes the transfer function of a system with input u(t), output y(t), and impulse response g{?) The transfer function G(s) is defined as él) Y¥(s) Gis) = clatni= - “8) (= LO Ol ascwsien ve” US) “Tememper’ Sometimes, students do a common mistake, they frst find AWAD and then take fs 9 Laplace transform to determine the ransferfunetion which is absolutely wrong, Because, Y(s) _ ctv) [@ G(s)= “= a) 9) ea) ciao) * “Lue, Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)12 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY 2.3 Poles and Zeros of a Transfer Function The transfer function of a linear control system can be expressed as Als) _ K(S = 81) (8 ~ 8) (8 = 8) © Bs) (8—8,)(8— 5). — Sp) where K is known as gain factor of the transfer function, n the transfer function expression, isis put equal to s,, §, .. §, then itis noted that the value of the transfer function is infinite. These s,, s,, ... §,, are called the poles of the transfer function. n the transfer function expression, Isis put equal to s,, $ .. then itis noted that the value of the transfer function is zero, These s,, s, ... , are called the zeros of the transfer function GIs) Multiple Poles and Multiple Zeros The polos s,, 5, .. 5, 0F the Zer08 5, §, .. $, are either real or complex and the complex poles or zeros always appear in conjugate paits. tis possible that either poles or zeros may coifeide; Such Poles OF ZerOS ate called multiple poles or multiple zeros. Simple Poles and Simple Zeros Non-coinciding poles or zeros are called simple poles or simple zeros, From the transfer function expression, itis observed that, + If n> m, then the value of transfer function is found to be infinity for s = «, Hence, itis concluded that there exists a pole of the transfer function at infinity (=) and the multiplicity order) of such apole being (n—m) + If- n). fm =n, the transfer function is called proper. The transfer function is improper if n> m. in the transfet function expression of a control system, the highest power of sin the numerator is generally either equal to or less than that of the denominator EEEELEZE = transfer function has two zeros at infinity. Then the relation between the numerator degree (N) and the denominator degree (M) of the transfer function is (a) N=M+2 (b) N=M-2 (c) N=M+1 (d) N=M-1 Solution: (6) 2.4 Properties of Transfer Function The properties of the transfer function are summarized as follows: 1. The transfer funetion is defined only fora linear time-invariant system, Itis not defined for non-linear or time variant systems. 2. The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of a system is defined as the Laplace transform of the impuise response. Alternately, the transfer function between a pair of input and output variables is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input Allintial conditions of the system are set to zero Transfer function is independent of the input of the system. The transfer function of a continuous-data system is expressed only as a function of the complex variables. It is Rot a function of the real variable, time, of any other variable that is used as the independent variable or discrete-data system modeled by difference equations, the transfer function is a function of Z, when the Z-transform is used. 6. If the system transfer function has no poles of zeros with positive real parts, the system is a minimum phase system. Non-minimum phase functions are the functions which have poles or zeros on right hand side of s-plane. 7. The stabilly ofa time-invariant linear system can be determined from its characteristic equation. Characteristic equation: The characteristic equation ofa linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the close loop transfer function to zero. State and explain imum phase transfer functions with examples. Solutio Minimum phase transfer function: = Transfer functions which have all poles and zeros in the left half of the s-plane ie. system having no poles and zeros in the RHS of the s-plane are minimum phase transfer functions. Coma MADE EASY vevumadeeasypubliationsor14 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY ——Publeations =+ Onthe otherhand, a transfer function which has one or more zeros in the right half of s-plane is known as “non-minimum phase transfer function’ t48h, t (sy = 18 et G(s) test 1+ joF, = G,(jo) = HHO io) = er “0 tir, and Bi = FS (iy The transfer function given by equation () represents the minimum-phase transfer function and equation (ii) represents the non-minimum phase transfer function = The pole-zero configuration of above transfer function as given by equation (i) and (ii) may be drawn as: Re. => The minimum phase function has unique relationship between its phase and magnitude cutves. Typical phase angle characteristics are shown below: U0) xia) 10" => Itwillbe seen that larger the phase lags present in a system, the more complex are its stabilization problems. Therefore in control systems, elements with non minimum phase transfer function are avoided as far as possible. = A common example of a non-minimum phase system is “transportation lag” which has the transfer funetion, Gljo) = eT = 1Z-0T rad = 12-873 oT degree a [womumadeeasypubliationsorg MADE ERSY © copytoht)CHAPTER Feedback Characteristics 5.1 Feedback and Non-Feedback Systems Feedback systems play an important ole in modern engineering practice because they have the possibilty for being adopted to perform their assigned tasks automatically. Anon-feedback (open-loop) system represented by the block diagram and signal flow graph in Fig. 5.1 (a), is activated by a single signal at the input (for single- input systems). There is no provision within this system for supervision of the output and no mechanism is provided to correct (or compensate) the system behaviour for any lack of proper performance of sy changing environment, loading ot ignorance of the exact value of process parameters. On the other hand, a feedback (closed-loop) system represented by the block diagram and signal flow graph in Fig. 5.1 (b) is driven by two signals (more signals could be employed), one is the input signal and the other is the feedback signal derived from the output of the system. The feedback signal gives this system the capability to act as selt- correcting mechanism, meomponents, ‘The output signal cis measured by a sensor H{s), which produces a feedback signal b. The compatator ‘compares the feedback signal b with the input (command) signal rgenerating the actuating signal ¢, whichis a measure of discrepancy between rand b. The actuating signal is applied to the process G(s) so as to influence the output cin a manner which tends to reduce the errors, Feedback as a means of automatic regulation and control is inherent in nature and can be noticed in many physical, biological and soft systems. For example, the body temperature of any living being is automatically regulated through a process Which Is essentially @ feedback process, only itis far more complex than the diagram of Fig. 5.1 (b) — peppy © copyright MADE EASY wmadeeaspubistonsorg) Publlaations96 | Electrical Engineering © Control Systems MADE EASY aw ao (tyne ec compar sessing want doy ite? Ee oupate ee) ats ao) P2860) comes cm) Re at oc) aes Lee} Yes = fo (o) Figure-5.1 (a)Anon-feedback(open-loop system (b)A feedback (closed-loop) system ‘The beneficial effects of feedback are enumerated below: 1. The controlled variable accurately follows the desired value 2. _ Effect on the controlled variable of external disturbances other than those associated with the feedback sensor are greatly reduced. 3. Effect of variation in controler and process parameters (the forward path) on system performance is reduced to acceptable levels. These variations occur duet wear, aging, environmental changes ete. Feedback in the control loop allows accurate control of the output even when process or controlled plant parameters are not known accurately. 4, Feedback ina control system greatly improves the speed of its response The costof achieving these improvements in system's performance through feedback are greater system complexity, need forimuch larger forward path gain and possibilty of system instability (undesired persistent oscillations of the output variable). NOTE Generally, negative feedback is so extensively used that closed loop control system are by defauit assumed with negative feedback untill itis specifically mentioned that positive feedbackis there. 5.2 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain -6. yee ° a+ ’ ° e e Feedback affects the gain Gofanonteedback system by a factor 1 + GH. The system of following figure is said to have negative feedback, since a minus sign is assigned to the feedback signal. The quantity GHmaytselfinclude a minus sign, so the general effect of feedback is that it may f° bal increase or decrease the gain G. be e+ Figure-5.2 . Re MADE EASY a)MADE EASY Feedback Characteristics | Q7 in practical control system, G and Hare functions of frequency, so the magnitude of 1 + GHmay be greater than 1 in one frequency range but less than 1 in another. Therefore, feedback could increase the gain of system in one frequency range but decrease it in another. NOTE Itis sometimes used to increase the overall gain of the system. in regenerative feedback, the output is fedback with positive sign as shown in the figure below. we) Say His) Figure-5.3 In this case, the transfer function is given by ol) __ a) Ris) GIs) His) 5.3 Effect of Feedback on Sen: y Let the variable in a control system which changes its value be A such as output and this change is considered dus to parameter variation of element K such as gain or feedback then the control system sensitivity is expressed as a se change in A enstiViY = = change in K [ie itis the relative variation in one parameter wt. other parameter]. gf - DAA « * OKIK The notation $f denotes sensitivity of variable A with respect to parameter K. itis preferable that the Sensitivity function S$ should be minimum, Sensitivity of Overall Transfer function T(s) With Respect to Forward Path Transfer Function G(s) The sensitivity function for the overall fUnction 7(s) with respect to variation in G(s) is written as aT(s)/T(s) 83 = aise) . ¢ _ G(s) aT(s) ° & = Tis) oats) 1. Open-loop control system: For the open-loop contral system shown in Fig. 5.1 (a). The overall transfer function is or differentiating T(s) w.rt. Gls) Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)gg | Electrical Engineering © Control systems MADE EASY Publletions arts) aGis) ~" GIs), aTIs) > = Ti 3a 2. Closed-loop control system: For the closed-loop control system shown in Fig, 6.1 (lb) the overall transfer function is. Gis) 19) = TaOAO Differentiating Ts) w.rt. G(s) aT(s) _ [1+ Q)H(s)]-[Gts)H(9)] G(s) [1+G6)H(s)P o Tis). 4 AGIs) ~ [1+ GsyHte) > gf = 28) aTts) Gis) 1 T(s) dG(s) Gis) [1+ aisyHis) 1+G(s)H(s) ¥ zt _ ° & * TeSHS) (On comparing the sensitivity functions, itis observed that the sensitivity of the overall transfer function wart. forward path transfer function in the case of closed-loop control system is reduced by a factor [14 G(s)H(s)] as compared to open-loop system Sen: ity of Overall Transfer Function T(s) With Respect to Feedback Path Transfer Function ‘The sensitivity function for the overall transfer function T(s) with respect to variations in the feedback path transfer function Hs) is writton as sre aT(s)/T(s) sh - H{(s)aT(s) 1 * OH(s)/H(s) 4 Ts) a(S) ‘The overall transfer function T(s) for the closed-loop control system Fig. 5.1 (b) is Gis) 18) = TG(s) He) differentiating Ts) w.rt. H{s) amis) __-[ate))? aH\s) — [1+G(s)His)] = si, = - GSS) 4 = “T4.G(s)H(s) (On comparing sensitivity functions, itis concluded that a closed-loop control system is more sensitive to variations in feedback path parameters than the variations in forward path parameters therefore, the specifications of feedback elements in a closed-loop control system should be more rigid as compared to that of forward path elements. aa | wmumadeeasypublicatios.org MADE EASHMADE EASY Feedback Characteristics | QQ Feedback control systems are (a) insensitive to both forward and feedback path parameter changes. to feedback path parameter changes than to forward path parameter changes. to forward path parameter changes than to feedback path parameter changes. (d) equally sensitive to forward and feedback path parameter change: Solution: (c) and +GH = Less sensitive to ‘change in G’ than ‘change in H Determine the sensitivity of the overall (closed-loop) transfer function for the system shown in following figure, at = 1 rad/sec wrt. (i) forward path transfer function and Ris) 25 os) (il) feedback path transfer function. a Solution: (i) The sensitivity of overall transfer function (7) wart. forward path transfer function (G) is given by st 1 1 $428 pet THOWHS) 4, 25 ong 7 +25 +6.25 aie+2) put jo a 1 + [20 8 + j20 +625 puto f 21+ ope Pret RMI _ 596 P+ j2x1+625 [525+ 2] (li) The sensitivity of overall transfer function (7) wert. feédback path transtet function (H)is given by 25 0.25 gi - SIH) s(s+2)* 6.25 HS TGGHS) 4, 75 ong 8+ 25+6.25 as+2) puts = jo 6.25 0 + j20 +625 putw= 1 radisee 6.25 6.25 Pa j2xt+6.25 [525+ j2 e copyright MADE ERSY woumadeeasypublcations.org100 | Electrical Engineering » Control Systems MADE EASY Consider the feedback control system shown in following figure. The normal value of process parameter K is 1. Evaluate the sensitivity of transfer function T(s) = C{s)/A(s) to in parameter K. Controller Controlled process K 66)= sera) is) Solution: Therefore, 55+ 25K Since the normal value of Kis 1, we have st = 98+5) KS 9455425 For the following block diagram, determine the sensitivity S{'"), T(s) = Aa fe) : aH ts) Solution: 11s) = S8+9 “eH (For unity feedback) settee ats) _ sis+ea-a __ sis+ da ~ [sis+D+a] ~ [Xe+)+a] gi - AIS) a __sis+t)__als(s+ +a « T(s) Oa [s(s+ 4) +a)” a s sil?) = s(s+1) Ss+}+a wwrwimadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © CopyrightMADE EASY Feedback Characteristics | 404 ‘A negative feedback control system has G(s) = yaa and H(s)= 5. Determine sensitivity of closed loop transfer function with respect to G and H, for w= 1 rad/sec. Solution: 10 OO" FEF as) CLIF = 1603) Hi) oF - GIS) aF(s)___ Gis) (te Seutelasieie)) si) Fs) aGis). GIs) (1+ G(s) His) 1+ G(s) HI) 14 44+ Gls) H{s) — 50 Ors CUTE 1 95 ote) leat ~ |i. 50 | 286% 0+) go _ His) (_ (Gis)? =G(s)H(s) His) GIs) [14+ G(s) H(S)] + G(s)H(s) 50 _ _©6+9 -50 7450” Sis¥ +50 olcen 50 2m t02 [iG+0+50] 5.4 Effect of Feedback on Stability Stability isa notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input command, that is Useful in general, In a nonrigorous manner, a system is said to be unstable iis output out of control To investigate the effect of feedback on stability, we can again refer to the expression g- GH =-1, the output of ype systems infinite for any finite input, and the system is said to be unstable. Therefore, we may state that feedback can cause a system that is originally stable to become unstable. Certainly, feedback is a double-edges sword ; when it is improperly used, it can be harmful. t should be pointed out, however, that we are only dealing with the static case here, and in general, GH = -1 is not the only condition for instability {ican be demonstrated that one of the advantages of incorporating feedback is that itcan stabilize an unstable system. Let us assume, that the feedback system in Fig. 5.4 (a) is unstable because GH =-1. if we introduce another feedback loop through a negative feedback gain of F, as shown in Fig. 5.4 (b), the input-output relation of the overall system is. e copyright MADE ERSY wonumadeeasypublcations.org102 | Elsctical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY c_ 6G ‘RO 1+GH+GF itis apparent that although the properties of G and Hare such that the inner-loop feedback system is, Unstable, because GH = -1, the overall syste can be stable by properly selecting the outer-loop feedback gain F. In practice, GHis a function of frequency, and the stability condition of the closed-loop system depends on the magnitude and phase of GH. The bottom line is thal feedback can improve stability or be harmful to stability if itis not properly applied, ret @ co Ra @ © 4 HW F @ ) Figure:5.4 Feedbacksystem with wo feedbackloops Consider the following statements in connection with the feedback of control systems: 1. Feedback can improve stability or be harmful to stability if itis not properly applied. 2. Feedback can always improve stability. 3. In many situations the feedback can reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on syste! performance. 4, In general the sensitivity of the system gain of a feedback system to a parameter variation depends on where the parameter is located. Which of these statements are correct? (a) 1, 2and 3 only (b) 1,3 and 4 only (c) 1,2 and 4 only (@) 1,2,3and4 Solution: (6) Negative feedback increases stability but not positive feedback REaseEa = Primary purpose of using feedback is to reduce the sensitivity of the system to a parameter variations, The parameters of system may vary with age, with changing envitonment etc. = The closed loop system has higher bandwidth than open loop system, this implies increased speed of response. = Theeffect of feedback on noise and disturbance depends greatly on those extraneous signals which occur in the system. No general conclusion can be reached, but in many situations feedback can reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on system performance. { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © Copyright |MADE EASY Feedback Characteristics | 403 5.5 Control Over System Dynamics By the Use of Feedback Ltus consider an elementary system shown K ea eis) Plant Unity Feedback Figures.5 |: The open loop transfer function of the system, K 89 = ea Ke Ts) sta G(s) has real pole at s=-in the s-plane. For impulse input A(s) = 1, output for non-feedback system. kK 8 = Sra By taking inverse Laplace Transformation oft) = Ke oat Case-II: In closed loop system ls) kK R(s) (s+a+K) For impulse input A(s) _K (ea+k) By taking loop inverse, ol!) = K- ele +t For positive value of K’ the effect of the feedback is to shift the pole negatively to s = (a+ K), and so the time constant reduces. As.K.increses system dynamics continuously becomes fac e. transient response decays more quickly. ls) = 5.6 Control on the Effects of the Disturbance Signals by the Use of Feedback. Tos) ) Disturbing Signal rt Rg, G . as) Input G(s) Gis) Output Signal Plant 1 Plant 2 Signal Hi) Feedback Sensor Figure-s.6 Coma MADE EASY vewumadeeasypubliationsor104 | Electrical Engineering © Control Systems MADE EASY ——— Fubllestions when Rls) = 0 GS) His) Figure-5.7 ‘There is one forward path with path gain, P, = G3) There is 1 individual loop with loop gain L, = -G\(s) Gs) His) A= 1+ G(s) G,(s) H(s) and A, = 1 Prav_ Co(s)___»-Ge(s)ft) A ~ Tp(s) > G(s)G2(s)A(S) It [G:(s)@e(s)H(s)]> > 1 Co(s) 1 then Tols) ~ “GS)ATS) Thus, if G,(s) is made sufficiently large, effect of disturbance can be decreased by feedback. 5.7 Effect of Noise (Disturbance) Signals and Where, C,, represents the effect of noise signal on output, so it must be minimised and best way to do this is to increase G, So the effect of noise can be reduced by increasing the forward path gain earlier to the noise. —————e (Wrwwimadeeasypublications.org mADE EASY © ears) )CHAPTER Stability Analysis of Linear Control Systems 8.1 The Concept of Stability ‘If oscillations set-up in a system in consequence to small changes in the system input, in initial conditions: or in system parameters are damped out with respect to time, the system is called stable’ Conversely, for unstable’ systems oscillations ate Increasing innmagnitude: If the magnitude of the oscillations is sustained, the system is called marginally stable A linear time invariant system is stable i the following two conditions of system stabilty are satisfied (a) When the system is excited by bounded input, the output is also bounded i.e. BIBO condition. Alternatively, systems stable fits impulse response approaches to zero as time approaches to infinity. (b) Inthe absence ofinput, output tends towards zero (the equilibrium state of the syst of intial conditions, This ) respective bly concept is known as asymptotic stability or zero input stability Eze If a step function is applied at the input of a continuous system and the ‘output remains below a certain level for all time, is the system stable? Solution: ‘The system is not necessariy stable since the output must be bounded for every bounded input. A bounded output to one specific bounded input does not ensure stability. Absolute and Relative Stability For analysis and design purposes, we can classify stability as absolute stability and relative stability. Absolute stability refers to the condition whether the system is stable or unstable; it is a YES or NO answer. Once the system is found to be stable, itis of interest to determine how stable it is, and this degree of stability is measure of relative stability The term absolute stability is used in relation to qualitative analysis of stability and the term relative stabilily is used in relation to comparalive analysis of stability. The absolute stabilly can be determined from the location of the roots of the characteristic equation in s-plane. The maximum overshoot, damping ratio and gain margin, phase margin are measures to relative stabilily. aa www.madeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY > “ —— Publentions © copyright)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinear Control Systems | 223 Location of the roots of characteristic equation in s-plane as related to time response and prediction of stability status therefro SLNo Roots in the s-plane Corresponding impulse response | Stability Status ® io Fora < stale » © Marginal stable © ie maed ma sir sry se * en 7) ons ots vrata pe — ; Table-8.1: Response terms contributed by various typesofroots Lis important to note that the words marginally stable, limitedly stable or eritically stable are synonyms of each other, Marginal stable represents the verge of stability/instabilty @ yy © Copyright MADE EASY wonumadeeasypublcations.org224 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY Remember ()_Ifallthe roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts, the system is an stable, (i) _Ifany toot of the characteristic equation has a positive real part, there is a repeated root on the ja-axis, the system is unstable. (ii) Ifthe condition (i)is satisfied except for the presence of one or more non repeated. roots on the j-ax's, the system is marginally stable. (iv) R is ota othe SS a ene = System 2 is relatively more stable than system 1 a ed ‘What do you mean by limitedly stable system, conditional stable system, absolute system and relative state system? Solution: { the output of a control system has sustained oscillations for a bounded input, the control system is limitedly (marginally) stable. ‘A systemis said to be conditionally stable with respect to a system parameter its stable only within a certain range of the values of the sald parameter. The term absolute stabilly is used in relation to qualitative analysis of stabilly. The absolute stability can be determined by identifying the presence of the roots of the characteristic equations in LHS of s-plane, The relative stability gives the stability of any system in compatisan to another system. Itis measured interms of gain margin, phase margin and location of t characteristic closed-loop poles (the reals of the equation) in s-plane EEZEEEN 6 system has poles at -1 and -5 and zeros at 1 and -2. Is the syste stable? Solution: The system is stable since the poles are the roots of the system characteristic equation which have negative real parts, The fact that the system has a zero with a positive real part does not affect its stability, If G(s) is a stable transter function, then F(s) = ae is always a stable transfer function. (True/False) { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © CopyrightMADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinear Control Systems | 225 Solution : (False) (6+Z)(6+Z,) TF. of G(s) (SF A)EHP) That rs) = St RVS+R) (s+2Z,)(s+ 25) The condition for stabilty is that none of the pole of G(s) should be on the right haifof s-plane, but G{s) may have zeros in the tight half of s-plane. These zeros become poles of As). Therefore, F(s) may not be stable EEEEZEERE The ditferential equation of an integrator may be written as follows: dy/dt= u Determine if an integrator is stable. Solution: ‘The characteristic equation of this system is az The ditferential equation 100% — 20% + y = x(t) describes a system with an input x(¢) and an output (2). The system, which is initially relaxed, The output {t) can be represented by the waveform. So, an integrator is marginally stable. excited by a unit step input. we) @ (o) (co) Solution: (a) PY yd toe 208 +y = xt) Taking Laplace transform on both sides 100 s? ¥(s) - 20 s¥(s) + ¥(s) = X(s) Yis) 1 1 = Ms) - X(8) 100s? = 208 +1 (108-17? ~44 * 40'70 AAs poles are on the right-hand side of s-plane so given system is unstable system. Only option (a) represents unstable system, Poles are at e copyright MADE ERSY woumadeeasypublcations.org226 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY Ean Consider the following stat 1. Asystem is said to be stable if its output is bounded for any input. 2. A system is stable if all the roots of the characteristic equation lie splane. 3. A system is stable if all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts. 4. A second order system is always stable for finite positive values of open loop gain. Which of the above statements is/are correct? ts: the left half of the (a) 2,3 and 4 (b) 1 only (c) 2 and 3 only (a) 3 and 4 only Solution:(a) A system is stable if its output is bounded for bounded input. Condition for Stability ‘The necessary (but not sufficient) condition for stability ofa linear system is that all the coefficients ofits characteristic equation, be real and have the same sign. Further, none of the coefficients should be zero, 1. The positiveness of the coetticient of the characteristic equation isnecessary and sufficient condition for the stability of the system of first and second order systems. The characteristic equation of a first order system is as+a,=0 which has a single root ala, Itis obvious that positiveness of a, and a, ensures @ negative root, ie. stability The characteristic equation of a second order system is a s?+a,s+a,=0 which has the roots 2a] 2a) It can be clearly seen that positiveness of a,, a, and a, ensures that the roots lie in the left half of s-plane. Which implies the stability of the system 2. The positiveness of the characteristic equation ensures the negativeness of the real roots but does not ensure the negativeness of the real parts of the complex roots for third and higher order systoms. So, its not the sufficient conaition for third and higher order systems Consider a third order system with the characteristic equation si+s4254+8-0 In factored form (o+2(2+05+48)(s.05-93) clearly, the real part of the complex roots is positive indicating instability of the system even though all the coefficients of the characteristic equation are positive. ‘Therefore, the first step in analyzing the stablity of he systemis to examine its characteristic equation. I some of the coefficients are zero or negative it can be concluded that the systemis not stable. On the other hand, if all the coefficients of the characteristic equation are positive, the possibilty of stability of system exists and one should proceed further to examine the sutticient conditions of stability oO . Re MADE EASY a)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinearControl Systems | 227 Relative Stability in practical systems, itis not sulficient to know that the system is stable but a stable system must meet the specifications on relative stability which is a quantitative measure of how fast the transients die out in the system, Relative stability may be measured by relative setting times of each root or pair of roots. The setting time of apair of complex conjugate poles is inversely proportional to the real part (negative) of the roots This result is equally valid for real roots. As a root (or a pair of roots) moves further away from the imaginary axis (as shown in following Figure), the relative stability of the system improves. Figure-8.1 Relative stability for variousroot locations inthes-plone The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion (Absolute Stability) ‘The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a method for determining continuous system stability, for systems with an order characteristic equation af the form: agx% a, pS Teas =O This criterion is based on ordering the coefficients of the characteristic equation into an array or table called Routh array or Routh table or Routh matrix and is defined as follows S| a app Ana ant S| any Ang Ans bbe by Gf Where a, @,. ~~ a, are the costticients of the characteristics equation and in- 1 An 2 — An p-: =1 An —4 ~ Ap Ap -: py = Meatdnca= Mendy Soot A= 8 BH-5 oie 4 ana An-3 — An-1 By ays — Ans by yg 81 Bo Bos —B a3 sg 5, b The table is continued horizontally and vertically untill only zeros are obtained. n the process of generating Routh array, the missing terms are regarded as zero. (©copyright MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)228 | Electrical Engineering © Control Systems MADE EASY The Routh Stability Criterion is stated as follows: Allthe roots of the characteristic equation (.¢. close loop poles) have negative real parts (Le. they lie in left half of s-plane) so that system becomes stable, ifand only if the elements ofthe frst column of Routh array have the same sign (2. no sign change in frst column). Otherwise, the number of roots of characteristic equation (6. close loop poles) with positive real parts (6. which lie in right haif of s-plane) are equal to the number of sign changes in first column of Routh array. ()_Allthe elements of any row can be divided by a positive constant during the process of simpiyfing the computational work because we are more interested to determine the sign of (first column) elements of Routh array notin their magnitudes, (i) Routh array gives only the number of roots in the right half of s-plane. It gives no information regarding the values of the roots and also does not distinguish between real and complex roots The following examples illustrate the applications of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion (when the tabulation terminates without complications) “The haat K—-(K +2) x + (2K + 5)x Find the values of K for which the system is (i) Stable (ii) Limitedly stable. (ii) Unstable equation of a system in differential equation form is Solution: R= (K 42) + (2K + 5)x ‘Taking the Laplace transtorm (assuming zero inti is conditions) the characteristic equation in s-domain 2 (K4 284 (2K 45) = Applying the Routh criterion sv | 1 (@k+5) s'|4K+2) 0 8 |(2K+5) 0 (i) For the system to be stable, there are two conditions (K+ 2) > Oand (2K +5)>0 or K<-2andK>-250r-2>K>-25 (li) For the system to be limitedly stable K=-2and K=-25 (ii) For the system to be unstable K<-2ork>-25 Example Consider the characteristic equatior 2st + s8+ 3st +584 10=0 Determine the stability. . Re MADE EASY ecoprishe)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinear Control Systems | 229 below: Solution: Since the equation has no missing terms and the coefficients are all of the same signit satisfies the necessary condition for not having roots in the right-half or on the imaginary axis of the s-plane. However, the sufficient condition must still be checked. Routh’s tabulation is made as follows: stl2 3 10 st 5 0 = [Qa 10 0 #1 |DO=009 543 0 0 s o 0 hn has two roots in Since there are two changes in sigh in the first column of the tabulation, the equat the right half of the s-plane ie. unstable. Consider the following characteristic equation: 8st + 105° + 5s? +58+2=0 Determine the stability. Solution: Routh array, s|3 5 2 3/10 5 st} 3 52 x5-3x s} 10 5 gt | 2X8=8%1_ 5 5 : 2 ost) 35 2 gi [| 95x1=2x2__ 08 si|-0714 0 re so 2 sl2 Itmay be noted that in order to simplity computational work, the s*-rowin the formation of the Routh array has been modified by dividing it by § throughout, The modified s*ow is then used to complete the process of array formation. There are two changes in sign first column i.e. two roots in RHS of s-plane. Determine the stability of a system whose overall transfer function is given es) | Re) +5s+10 If the system is found unstable, how many roots it has with positive real part? Solution: The characteristics equations + 15s! + 26h + 452+ 5s 4 10-0 @ayne MADE EASY vowmmadeeasypublications.org230 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY Routh array, s 1 20°65 st 15 4 10 Sign change ss 0.66 -1.66 0 Sign change s 0.227 10 0 st 274 0 ea 10 0 0 {As there are two changes in sign of the elements in the first column of Routh table, itis concluded that the system has two roots with positive real part and hence the system is unstable. Apply Routh criterion to determine the stability of the system having the 44x 108 st45x 104s +2x 10°=0 Solution: The calculations in the Routh table are simplified ly substituting s = 10°zin the characteristic equation thus the characteristic equation takes the following form: (102 2)8 + 4 x 102( 1082)? + 5 x 104 (10%2) + 2x 108 =0 o 2e4e+5z+2=0 Routh table, Pili 5 ze | 4 2 i ee) 2 |e 0 All the first column elements are of the same sign, therefore, the system is stable. ‘A feedback system with characteristic equation st + 20Ks? + 5s? + 105+ 15 =Ois (a) stable for all values of K {b) stable only for K2 0 (c) stable for e > K > 70 (a) Unstable for all values of K Solution:(d) The characteristic equation is st +20 Ks? + 5s? + 108+ 15 a wwwmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © Copyright |MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinear Control Systems | 234, 1 5 18 20k 10 300K ~10 100K =10 15 * | 20K 100K —10 }10-300K ( oe } 300 s 700 20K 3° |15 Consider, 100K -10 10 300K , ( 20K } 600K? + 100K = 10 T0OK=10 =~ —«TOK=1 20K We see that this term will always be negative for all values of Khence, system is unstable. EZEEGRSEM The characteristic equation of a system is give by 354+ 108+ 5s? +2 This system (a) stable (b) marginally stable (c) unstable (A) neither (a), (b) nor (c) Solution:(€) There is a missing coefficient so system is unstable, Often itis desirable to determine a range of values of particular system parameter for which the system ison the verge of stability. This can be accomplished by writing the inequalities that ensure that there is no sign change in the first column of the Routh array. These inequalities then specify the range of allowable values of the parameters, EZEEGESEM Using Routh-Hurwitz criterion, determine the relationship between K and T 0 that unity feedback control system whose open-loop transfer function given below, is stable kK s[s(s+ 10) +7] G(s) = ‘Solution: The characteristic equation for the system is s[s{s-+10)+T]+K -0 or st 410s 4 Ts4K=0 Routh array, 3 1 T 8 K s 0 s 0 @ayne MADE EASY vowmmadeeasypublications.org232 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY For the given system to be stable: (or =k) Oe eo o (10T-K) > 0 K <10T i) and K>0 (i) From equations (i) and (i) the relation for stability is given below: O 0, (72 9K) > 0. Therefore, range of gain K for the system to be stable is 0 < K< 8 EERE A unity negative feedback control system has an open-loop transfer function consisting of two poles, two zeros and a variable gain K. The zeros are located at -2 and -1; and the poles at-0.1 and +1. Using Routh stability criterion, determine the range of values of K for which the closed-loop system has 0, 1 or 2 poles in the right-half of s-plane. Solution: va . K(s+i(s+2) S8)= Cron s= 1) The characteristic equation of the system is given as 14 G{s)=0 or (s+0.1)(s-1)+Ki(s+ 1)(s+2)=0 (1 + Ks? + (8K-0.9) s+ (2K-0.1)=0 { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © Copyright |MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinearControl Systems | 233 Applying Routh criteria, (+k) K-04 (3K -0.9) oO (2K-0.9 ° (i) No poles in right half s-plane (system stable) K41>0 or Kot 3K-09>0 or K>03 2K-01>0 or K>0.05 Hence, K>03 (li) 1 pole in right half s-plane (= one change of sign in first column terms) 1 < K<005 (ii) 2 poles in right half s-plane (= two changes in sign in first column terms) 005 < K<03 2Special Cases ‘Case-1: The first element in any one row of Routh array is zero, but the other elements are not zero. in this case, if a Zero appear in the first element of a row, the elements in the next row will all become infinite and Routh array cant be continued. To remedy this situation, we replace the zero element in the first column by an arbitrary small positive number, and then proceed with Routh array. This is illustrated by following examples. EZEEGESEM Determine the stability of a system 844894 28?+ 2843=0 teristic equation: Solution: Since all the coefficients are non-zero and of the same sign, we nead to apply Routh-Hurwitz criterion Routh’s array. a ) st 200 vio 3 Since the first element ofthe s? row is zero, the elementin the s row would be infinite. To overcome this dificulty, we replace the zero in the s® row by a small positive number ¢, and then proceed with the tabulation. Starting with the s® row, the results are as follows: . 3 Sign change ges = o Sign change 3 0 Since there are two sign changes in the first column Routh's tabulation, the characteristic equation has wo roots in the right-halt of s-plane i.e. system is unstable. — a © copyright MADE EASY vwwmadeeasypublcations org)234 | Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY En TEM] Determine the stability of a system having following characteristic equatio (s-1) (s+ 1% (s+ 2) Solution: itis clear that the given system is unstable with one positive root at s = 1 (je, on right hand side of s- plane). Let us check this using Routh Hurwitz criterion Routh Array: std 12 si) 3 -3 ve) 2 -2 s' | Oe 0 ‘There is one sign change in the first column : The system is unstable, Note: the sign of the coefficient above the zero (I) element is same as that of element below it, it indicates that there is a pair of imaginary roots. Consider the following characteristic equation, (s + 1) (s + 2) (s* + 1) =0. Determine its stability status. Solution: As one pair of ror stable Alternatively, using Routh Array: (s+1)(s+2)(s*+1)=0 st 43s%+3s°+2=0 #8 of characteristic equation is lying on imaginary axis of s-plane, systems marginally No sign changes in adjacent elements to ¢ in first column, a pair of imaginary roots is there. Hence, the system is marginally stable, a { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © copyright)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinearControl Systems | 235 EEEEXZENEE «Determine the stability of a system having following characteristic equation: #-3s+2=(s-1P (s+2)=0 Solution: Routh array: el4 3 Se) 2 One sign cron > Ss 3- (One sign change| - s2 asc 90°, 3-2) a jie. large negative number, But here we are interested in finding only the sign of elements of first column not their magnitudes. So, there are 2 sign changes, je. characteristic equation has 2 roots on right side of splane, system is unstable ° +54 + 28° + 28° + 35 + 15, the number of roots: DEERE Forthe polynomial P(s) = which lie in the right half of the s-plane is. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 3 (dy 1 Solution: (6) Als) = s° +8" +259 425° 435415 Routh array 1 203 1 2 18 ale) =120 eve so 1a(2e+2)_, . C=) s 15 -» Two sign changes from s*to s' and s' to s° = 2roots on RHS of s plane. An alternate method for this case: Modify the original characteristic equation by replacing s by 2. Apply the Routh criterion on the modified equation in terms of z. The number of z-oots with positive real parts will be same as the number of s-roots with positive real parts. This method works in most but not in all the cases. Coma MADE EASY vevumadeeasypubliationsor236 | Electrical Engineering © Control Systems MADE EASY EZEEGESE The number of open loop poles lying in right half of s-plane for 10 SO) = Sy ae a as? + 65" (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3 Solution: (¢) Characteristic equation Pls) = 9 4 2s! + 39? + 65+ S843 ‘ Putting s= Pl2) = 82° + B24 + 624 3242241 Routh array is P13 6 2 216 34 Since sign changes twice in Routh-array, therefore there are two poles on right halt of s-plane. BELLE © Consider the characteristic equation 8 +544 25%4 257+ 358+5=0 Determine its stability status. Solution: TheRoutharayis s? | 4 23 sit 2 Sle 2 2/2 <2 5 ~4e-4-5e* -2 Bei As, there are two changes in sign and hence the system is unstable having two poles in the right half of s-plane, Now, consider the second method of overcoming the difficulty caused by a zero term in the first column of the Routh array. a { wormmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © copyright)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinearControl Systems | 237 Publiestlone Replacing s by 1/z in the characteristic equation and rearranging, we get 625432442244 2274241 The Routh array for this equation is Sl5 2 4 alg 1 ze -4 3 1 eli o4 s |e ela ‘There are two sign changes in the first column of the Routh array, which means that there are two z- roots in the right half of z-plane. Therefore, the number of s-oots in the right half of s-plane is also two. Case 2: When all the elements in any one row of the Routh array are zero. ‘This condition indicates that there are symmetrically located roots in the s-plane (pair of real roots with opposite sign and/or pair of conjugate roots on the imaginary axis and/or complex conjugate roots forming quadrates in the s plane). The polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of the row just above the row of zeros in the Routh array is called auxiliary polynomial Because of a zero row in the array, the Routh’s test breaks down. This situation is overcome by replacing the row of zeros in the Routh array by a row of coefficients of the polynomial generated by taking the first derivative of the auxiliary polynomial ‘The situation with the entire row of zeros can be remedied by using the auxiliary equation A(s) = 0, which is formed from the coefficients of the row just above the row of zeros in Routh’s tabulation. The auxiliary equation is always an even polynomial, thatis, only even powers of s appear. The roots of the auxiliary equation also satisty the original equation. Thus, by solving the auxiliary equation, we also got some of the symmetrically located pair of roots of the otiginal equation. To continue with Routh’s tabulation when a row of zero appears, we conduct the following steps: 1. Form the auxiliary eqation A(s) =0 by Usiiig the coefficients from the row just preceding the rows of zeros 2. Take the derivative of the auxiliary equation with respect to s; dA(s)/ds = 0 gives the pair of poles lying on imaginary axis. 8. Replace the row of zeros with the coefficients of dA(s)/ds = 0. 4. Continue with Routh’s tabulation in the usual manner with the newly formed row of coefficients replacing the row of zeros, 5. Interpret the change of signs, of usual manner. 1e coefficients in the first column of the Routh’s tabulation i ‘The statements mentioned above are verified as per the examples given below: F(s) = (s° + 1) (s+ 1) (s+ 2) (s + 3): Le. it has pair of conjugate root on imaginary axis s = = 5946s! + 6s + 1257+ 58+6 — peppy © copyright MADE EASY wmadeeaspubistonsorg) Publlaations238 | Electrical Engineering © Control Systems MADE EASY 6 12 S] 4 ev | 6 s' | ofay oo es | 6 Auxiliary equation A(s) = 6s? +6 aA(s) = 12s: it governs s'-row as sit governs s'-ro Since, there is no sign change in the first column, the system is marginally stable. Ris) = (s? + 2)? (s+ 1) (5 +2): Levit has pair of conjugate root on imaginary axis of multiplicity order two ie. s=+V2,s=4jN2 F(s) = 3° + 355+ 6st + 125° + 128? + 12548 slot 6 12 8 es) 3 12 12 st) 2 a 8 S| 08) 0116)" 0 s 4 8 s' | o@" 0 | 8 + Bs? 8 as? + 168, sit governs s!-row Als) = 43? 8 Als) ds There is no change of sign in the first column of Routh’s tabulation but existence of two rows having zero elements makes the overall system unstable. it governs s*-row BEE The first two rows of Routh’s table of a third-order characteristic equation are st/3 3 sia 4 It can be inferred that the system has (a) one real pole in the right-half of s-plane (b) a pair of complex conjugate poles in the right-half of s-plane (c) a pair of real poles symmetrically placed around s = 0 (d) a pair of complex conjugate poles on the imaginary axis of the s-plane a wwwmadeeasypublications.org MADE ERSY © Copyright |MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinearControl Systems | 239 Publiestlone Solution: (d) Given, Routh's table of a third order chara istic equation is This is the special case of Routh’s array because first two rows having same elements so it will produce a row of zeros prematurely. Since arow of zeros appear prematurely, we since arow eau tion using the form the auxiliary equation Using the coefficient s* row. Als) = 488 +4=0 dAls) “ds From which the coefficient 8 and O replace the zeros in the stow of the original table Since there are no sign changes in the first column of the entire Routh’s tabulation, the characteristic equation does nothave any root in the right-half's-plane. Solving the auxiliary equation, we get the two roots at s = j and s = -| which are also the roots of original characteristic equation. Thus, the equation has two roots on the jaraxis, and the system is marginally stable. = =8s=0 ea GI Consider a sixth-order system with s+ 255 + 85+ 125° + 205? + 168+ 16 = 0 Determine its stability status. Solution: ‘The Routh array is 2-12 16 1 6 8 2 12 16 1 6 8 an) Since the terms in the s*-row are all zero, the Routh’s test breaks down. Now the auxiliary polynomial is formed from the coefficients of the s*-row, which is given by As) = st + 65? +8 avs AD _ a 105 ds ‘The zeros in the s*-row are now replaced by the coelficients 4 and 12. The Routh array then becomes — ——— © copyright MADE EASY wmadeeaspubistonsorg) Publlaations240 system, also find the frequency of sustained oscillations. Electrical Engineering * Control Systems MADE EASY st 8 20 6 Se) 1 6 8 silt 6 sl) 4 12 1 3 sift 3 ele We see that there is no change of sign inthe first column of the new array. By solving for the roots of auxiliary polynomial s*#6s*+8=0 We find that the roots are s= +j/2ands These two pair of roots are also the roots of the original characteristic equation. Since there is no sign change in the new array formed with the help of the auxiaty polynomial, we conclude that no root of characteristic equation has positive real part. Therefore the system under consideration is limtedly stable EAA Determine the condition of sustained osci jons in Eze following contro! K ls) Solution: The closed-loop transfer function of the system is Os) K Ris) ss? +541) (s+4)+K Therefore, the characteristic equation is s(@+s41)(s+4)+K=0 or stebs?+5s?+4s+Kk Routh array, st 1 K s 5 0 K a [womumadeeasypubliationsorg MADE ERSY © copytoht)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinear Control Systems | 2441 Since for a stable system, the signs of elements of the first column of the Routh array should be all positive, the condition of system stability requires that K>o 4s ws (€£-s9)»0 Therefore for stably, Bo k>o correspond to the presence of a pair of symmetrical roots. Therefore K = 3 will cause self sustained- oscillations in the closed-loop system. 2 the auxiliary polynomial given by the coefficients of the third row, is 21) 2 , 84 21) 2484 9 (= “35 4 t Hence the frequeney of sustained self-oscillation at K Fork which gives the roots as J, 84 is (2) rad/sec 25 EEEEGEEO | Find the value of ‘a’ at which a unity feedback control system having open Kis +) loop transfer function G(s) = AiG +) Ss’ t+as’ +2s+1 will have sustained oscillations at w = 2 rad/sec. Solution: Characteristic equation: 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 5 te Kis S+as"+2s+1 = Ss ars(24k)s+ (+h) Routh array’ 8 1 2+K & a 14K al2-+K) = (14K) a si 1+K Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)242 | Electrical Engineering © Control Systems MADE EASY ——Publeations For sustained oscillations, “2+K) Now, and Relative Stabili Once a system is shown to be stable, we proceed to determine its relative stability quantitatively by finding the settling time of the dominant roots of its characteristic equation. The settling time being inversely proportional to the real part of the dominant roots, the relative stability can be specified by requiring that all the roots of the characteristic equation be more negative than a certain value ie. allthe roots must le to the left ofthe line s = -, (6, > 0). The characteristic equation of the system under study is then modified by shifting the origin of the s-plane to s=-o,, i@. by the substitution s= 5-9, srplane axi splane axis Figure-8.2 i the new characteristic equation in s, satisfies the Routh's criterion, it implies that all the roots of the original characteristic equation are more negative than -6, Difficulties involved in Routh Hurwitz Criterion () When the first term in any row of the Routh array is zero while rest of the row has atleast one non ze10 term, Because of this zero term, the terms in the next row become infinite and Roulh's test breaks down (ii) Substitute a small positive number for the zero and proceed to evaluate the rest of the Routh array. The examines the signs of the first column of Routh array by substituting § 0 (ii) When allthe elements in any one row of the Routh array are zero. This condition indicate that there are symmetrically located roots in the s-plane. ————ee [womumadeeasypubliationsorg MADE ERSY ©copytoht)MADE EASY Stability Analysis ofLinearControl Systems | 2.43 (iv) The polynomial whose coefficient are the element of the row just above the row of zero in the Routh array is called an auxiliary polynomial. This polynomial gives the number and location of ot pairs of characteristic equation which are symmetrically location s-plane. The order of auxiliary polynomial is always even. (v) _ Relative stability using Routh array is not feasible for higher order polynomial because it involves shifting of origin of s-plane more negatively. Limitation of Routh Hurwitz Criterion ()) Routh Hurwitz criterion can't be applicable for an infinite series such as the polynomial contain sine, cosine and exponential terms. (i) The characteristic equation of a polynomial should have real and positive coefficient. (ii) The sign changes in first column determines the roots lies in the right half of s-plane but not their locations (iv) When the system is marginally stable with oscillatory response to find frequency of oscillations ‘The auxiliary equation should be an even polynomial of order ‘2 Consider a third-order system with the characteristic equation s° +75? + 255 +39 =0 ‘Check whether all the close loop poles of this system lie to the left of s = -1 line or not. Solution: Shift the origin to $= 1 by substituting s=s,-1 inthe characteristic equation, The characteristic equation in the new variable s, is sf + 4s? +14s,+20 = a Forming the Routh array, we have ‘i 1 14 As the signs of all the elements of the first column of the Routharrayareposiive, S | 4 20 the roots of the characteristicequation in s; lie in the lefthalfof s,-plane which —s;'_ | 9 implies that allroots ofthe original characteristic equation n s-domainlietothe | 39 loft of s=—1 EXERGY Determine the value of K such that the roots of the characteristic equation A s+ 10s? + 188+K=0 given below lie to the left of line s Solution: Puts=s,-1 als, ~ 1)? + 10s, ~ 1)? + 18(s,~1) + K= 0 : § or sf +75? +5, +(K-9) =0 Z The Routh’s tabulation is given below: . For stabilty, K< 16andK>9 si K to have values between 9 and 16 © Coma MADE EASY worn madeeasypubliationsora)