» ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS JOHN BIRD SEVENTH EDITIONEngineering Mathematics Seventh Edition John Bird, Bse(Hons), CMath, CEng, C IMA, FIET, FColIT i Routledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK‘Seventh edition published 2014 by Routledge 2 Park Squate, Millon Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 7111 Thind Avenue, New York NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business ©2014 John Bind ‘The right of John Bird tobe identified as the author ofthis work has been asterted by him in accordance with secions 77 and 78 ofthe Copyright, Designs and Patens Act 1988 llrightsreserved. No part of this hook may be reprinted or reproduced or uilisedin ary form or by any electronic, mechanical, for other mears, now known er hereafier invented. inluding photocopying and recording. orn any information storage oF zeteeval ays, without persatin in weitig from the publisher ‘Trademark notice: Prodact or corporate names may be trademarks or tepistored trademarks, and ae used ony for identification ‘and explanation without intent to infringe. First ediion published by Newnes 1999 ‘lath exition published by Newnes 2010 Drbish Library Casatogsing-in Publication Date ‘A catalogue recon fortis book is availble from he British Library Library of Congress Causloging-in-Publication Data Bird, J.., author. Engineering mathematics /Jehn Bird. — Seventh pages em Includes bibliographical referonces and index. 1. Engineering mathematics. 2. Engineering mathematies-Problems, exercise, ete I, Tite. 7TAS30.0515 2018 510.2862-4a3 2013040519 ISBN13:978-0-415-6280-2 (pbk) SBN13 978-1-315-85883-8 (cbk) Typeset in Times by Servis Flmsetting Ld, Stockport, CheshireContents Preface xd 7 Pata fractions 7 7.1 Inoduetion o partial factions 7 7.2. Worked problems on partial fractions with linear factors 38 7 Worked problems on partial fractions with 1 Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 3 repented linear factors es HL” Rastoe 7 14 Worked problemson pata factions with 1.2. Ratio and proportion 6 quadratic factors or 13 Decimals 7 14 Percentages 9 8 Solving simple equations ot 8.1 Expressions equations and idemiies 6 2 Indices, standard form snd engineer 4 82 Worked problems on smplecquations 65 21 Indices " 8.3 Further worked problems on simple 2.2. Worked problems on indices 2 equations 66 24. Further worked rroblems on indices 8 84 Practical problems invelving simple 24 Standard form 15, equations 68 ast Wesel pa enon sina Rte 13 85 Further practical problems involving 2.6 Farther worked problems on standard form 16 simple equations o 2.7 Engineering notation and common prefixes 17 Revision Test2 2 3 Binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers v 3.1 Introdsetion 199 Solving simuttancous equations B 32 Binary numbert 20 9.1 Inioduction to simultaacousequations 73 3.3. Octal aumbers 2 9.2 Worked problems on simultaneous 34 Hlexadeeima numbers 24 equations in 40 unknowns 18 9.3 Furtherworked problems on simultaneous 4 Calcalations and evaluation of formulae » equations 5 4:1 Erorsand approximations 2» 9.4 More dificult worked problems on 4.2 Use ofealeeator 1 Simultaseous equtions n 43. Conversion tables and chars 33 9.5 Practical problems invelving imultanenus 44 Fvahustion of formulae a equations 7% 10 ‘Transposition of formulae 3 ovisien Tot 10. dono tenspostonof foie $3 10.2. Worked problemison wanspesition of S Aloehen 0 formulae 83 51 Basic operations % 103 Further worked problems on transposition 5.2 Laws of indices a of formatae 85 33. Brackets and factorisation 4 10.4 Harder worked problems on tansposiion 54 Fundamental laws and precedence 46 seems Pr 55 Direct and iavers proportionality 48 11 Solving quadratic equations 20 11.1" Inoduction t quadratic equations 90 6 Further alge 50 11.2. Solution of quadratic equations by 6.1 Polynomial vision 50 factorisation o 62. The ctor theorem 2 11.3. Sclution of quadati equations by 63° The remainder theorem 4 completing he quae” 92vi Contents Solution of quadratic equations by formula 94 115 Practical problems involving quadtatio ‘quations 95 116 ‘The solation of linear and quadratic ‘equations simultaneously 2 12 Inequalities 99 121 Introduction to inequalities 99 122. Simple inequalities 100 123 Inequalities involving a medulus 100 124 Inequalities ivalving quanta to 125 Inequalities involving square furetions 102 126 Quadiatie inequalities Los 18 Logarithms 10s TB Introduction to logarithms 10s 132. Lawsof logarithas or 133 Indicial equations Ho 134 Graphs of logarithmic functions nm Revision Test 3 a2 14 Exponential onetions uy HL Introduction to exponential functions 113, 14.2. The power series fore" Ms 143 Grapta of exponential functions 6 144 Napierian fogarithms us 145 Laws of growth and decay 120 15 Number sequences ws 15.1 Arithmetic progressions 125 152. Worked problems on arithmetic progressions 126 15.3. Further worked problems on arithmetic progressions 154 Geometric progressions 155. Worked problems on geometric progressions 120 156. Further wosked problems on geometric progressions 130 157 Combinations and permutations ioc 16 ‘The binomiat series 134 V6.1 Pasa’ triangle Be 162. The binomial eeies 126 163 Worked problems on the binomial seies 136 16.4 Further worked problems cn the binomial series 138 165. Practical problems involving the binomial theorem 10 17 Solving equations by iterative methods 18 17.1 Introduction o erative methods 3 17.2 The Newton-Raphson method Me 17.3. Worked problems on the Newton-Rephson method ma Revision Test 4 18 Areas of como 18 182 183 184 185 186 Is Introduction Properties of quadrlaterals Area of common shoes Worked problems on areas of common stapes Farther worked problems on areas of plane figures Worked problems on aroas of composite figures Aceas oF Sila shapes 19 The drele 19.1 192 193 194 193 195 Itroduction| Properties of circes Radians and degrees ‘Acc lerath and area of circles and sectors Worked problems on ae length and area of cireles and secs ‘The eqaation of acircle 20 Volunies and surface areas of common silids 2041 202 204 204 205 206 201 208 Innroduction Volumes and surfice eas of regular solids ‘Werked probes on volutes and surface areas of regular solids Further worked problems on volumes and ‘surface areas of tepula solids Volumes and surface areas f fasta of pyramide and cones ‘The frstum and zone of a sphere Pasmoidal ule Volumes of similar shapes 21 Irregular areas and volumes and mean values of waveforms 212 213. ‘Ace of iregularigures Volumes of regular solids ‘The mean or average value ofa wavefom Revision Tet 5 7 ass 155 136 156 137 160) 161 163, 164 6 od 166 167 167 170 m m v3 1 175 179 13 89 187 189 10 192 193 ws22 Introduction tv trigonometry 221 Trigonometry 222 The theorem of Pythagoras 223. Trigonometie ratios of acute angles 224 Fractional and sud forms of trigonometic ratios Evaluating trigonometric ratios of any angles Solution of ight angled triangles ‘Angle of elevation and depression Trigorometrie approximations for small angles 25 226 227 228 23 Trigenometsic waveforms 231. Graphs of wigonometic functions 232. Angler of any magniteds 233. The production of a sie and cosine wave 234 Sine and cosine curves 285 Sinusoidal form A siniox ka) 236. Waveform harmenies 24 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates DAL ntrodaction 242 Changing from Cartesian into polar co-ordinates (Changing from potar into Cartesian co-ordinates Use of PolRec fanctions on calclators 243, aa Revision Test 6 25 Triangles and some practical applieations 21 252 253 ‘Sie and cone vale! ‘Area of any tianale ‘Worked problems on the solution of twiangles and their areas Further worked problems on the solution of triangles and their eras Practical siations involving tvigonometry Further practical situations involving trigonometry 26 Trigenometric identities and squations 254 255 256 261 Tiigorometric dent 262 Worked problem on tigonmetic entnes 263. Trigorometie equations 264 Worked problems (i) on trigonometric coquations 265 Worked problems (i) on trigonometric ceuations 266 Worked problems (ion trigonemetric equations 267 Worked problem: (iv) on trigonometric cations Bee 205 207 212 213 215 216 216 27 219 220 24 226 220 229 230 2 24 ma 235 235 208 29 29 Contents vii 27 Compound angles 27.1. Compound angle formulae 27.2 Conversion of asinet + bees or into Rein(ot +0) Double angles ‘Changing produets of snes and cosines ino sums or differences (Changing sums or differences of sines and cosines in poocts 213 4 25 Revision Test 7 28 Straight ine graphs 269 28.1 Inoduction graphs 269 281. The stcght ine graph 270 28.3. Practical problems invlving straight ine graphs 2s 29 Reduction of non-linear laws i tinea frm 282 29.1, Determiaticn of aw 232 29.2. Detemninatica of aw iavolving fogatitans 28s 30 Graphs with logarithmic sees a1 30.1, Lopate sales 21 302 Graphs of the form y =ax" 292 203 Guaphsofhe form y =ab" 295 304 Giaphsof the form y =ae!* 296 31 Graphical solution of equations 200 31.1 Graphical solution of simutaneous ccations 209 solution of quadratic eauatons 301 313. Graphical solition of near and quadratic equations sinuttaeousty ot 314 Graphical solution ofeabic equations 305 32 Functionsand thelr curves 307 32.1. Stundand cures 307 322 Simple msiorstions 310 32.3. Peviodic Functions 34 $3244 Continuous and dsconinuows rureions 3164 325 Even and odd fonctions ais 32.6 Inverse functions 3i6 Revision Test 8 30 20viii Contents {Sas = nnn SY aeeacas s 2S : 355. Resolving vectors into horizontal and vertical components 386. Addition of vectrs hy caleation 35.7. Yeetorsubtaction 35K Relative velocity 359. i,j and & notation 346 Methods of adding alternating waveforms 36.1 Combination ofiwo perioge functions 357 362. Plotting periodic functions 358 363 Determining resaltant phasors by drawing 359 644 Determining resttant phasors by the sine snd cosine ules 361 365 Determining rsaltan phasors by torizental snd vertieal components 360 366 Determining resaltant phasors by complex rumbers 308 Revision Test 9 367 Reena tice 37 Presentation of statistical data an 37.1. Some statistical terminology an 37.2 Presentation of ungrouped data 373 37.3 Presentation of grouped dats 6 38 Mean, median, mode and standard deviation — 383 38.1 Measures of central tendency 383 382. Mean, median and mode for diserote data 384 [383 Mean, medi and mode for grouped cata 383 384 Standaud deviation 386 385 Quarles, deciles and percentiles 388 39 Probability 390 39.1 Introduction to probability 301 39.2 Laws of probabiliy, 391 30.3 Worked problems.on probability 302 394 Farthet worked problems on probability 393 395 Permutations and combinations 396 Revision Test 10 8 40. The binosnial and Poisson distribution 399, 40,1 ‘The Binomial abun bo 40.2. The Poisson dstbution 402 41 The normal distribution 406 41 troduction to the normal distribution 406 412 Testing for normal distribution au Revlaton Test 12 ais 42 Lincur corrctation 416 42.1 Intoduction to linear correlation 416 422. The product moment formula for {determining the linear sorelation ceeficient 416 42.3 The significance of a evettcient of correlation 417 42.4 Worked problemson linear correlation 417 43 Linear regression ra 43,1 Trtroduction o linear regression 421 432 The least-squares regression lines 421 433 Worked problems on inearwgression 422 Hing and estimation theories 227 441 Introduction 27 442. Sampling distributions a7 443, The sampling distribution ofthe means 428 444 The estimation of population parameters based cna large sample size 481 445 Estimating the mean of a population based ‘ona small sample size 435 Revision Test 12 9 48 Introduction 45,1 Introduction to calculus 447 45.2 Fanctional notation 47 differentiation 447Contents ix 453 The grdiem of acune 4544ifferetiation from first principles 455. Differentiation of y ile 456 Differentiation of sine and cosine functions 457 Diflerentiavon of e and Ina 46 Methous of differentiation 4611 Differentiation of common functions 462 Differentiation of a product 463 Differentiation of a quotient 464 Function of a furetion 465 Successive differentiation 47 Some applications of differentiation 471. Rates of change 472 Velocity and acceleration 473 Turning points ATA Proctcal problems involving maximum ‘and minimum values 475. PointsoFinexion 476 Tangents and normals 477 Small changes Revision Test 13 48_Ditterentiation of parametric equations 481. Introdsction to parametric equations 48.2 Some common parametric equations 483 Differentiation in parometers 484 Further worked problems on shiferentiation of parametric equations 49 Ditferentiation of implicit fonetions 49.1 Implicit functions 492 Differentiating implicit functions 493 Differentiating implicit funetions containing products and quotients 494 Further implicit afferentiaon 50 Logarithmic differentiation ‘50,1 Inlrodsction to legaritimie differentiation 502 Laws of logarithms 503 Differentiation of logarithmic functions 504 Differentiation of further logarithmic fanetions 505. Differentiation of Lf)" Revision Tost 14 "by the general 38 449 482 433 435 437 a7 an 479 agi 485 485 487 490 490 490 491 492 495 495 496 496 498 01 SI Standard integration SLL The process of integrition 51.2 The general solution of integrals ofthe form ax" $8 51.3. Standard integrals 500 S14 Definite integrals 509 52 Intagraton sing algsbral subtttions 322 Inroduetion 312 522 Aveiro siz 52.3. Worked problems on imegration wing algebra substitutions 513 524 Further worked problems onintegration sing algebraic substitutions si 525 Change ot limits 515 453 Integration using trigonometric substitutions $17 ‘53.1 Inroduetion 517 522 Worked problems.on integration of sin? x 00s? x, tan? x and cot si7 53.3 Worked problems on incegration of powers of sines and cosines 519 534 Worked problems on imegration of praducts of snes and corines 520 585 Worked problems on imegration using the sing substitution 321 536 Worked problems on imepration using the and substitution 523 Revision Test 15 su 4 Integration using partial fractions 525 54.1 Inoduetion 525 54.2 Worked probloms on imtegraion vsing partial fractions wit linear factors 525 ‘54.3 Worked problems on integration using partial fractions with repeated linear factors 327 4.4 Worked probloms on imtepration using partial fractions with quadratic factors 528 55 The tan substitation 330 58.1. Invoduction 530 55.2 Worked problems onthe ¢—tan substitation sat 455.8 Furtherworked problems on the # = tan substision 532 56 Integration by parts 535 56.1 Inoduction 535 56.2 Worked problems on itegration by pats 335, 50.3. Furtherworked problems on integration by parts 337 57 Numerical integration 5a ‘97-1. Inodeton 34 S72 The trapezoidal rule 541 57.3 The mid-ondinate rule 544 574 Simpson's rule 545 Revision Test 16 519X Contents SS8 Areas under und between curves ss0 381 Areaundera curve 350 582 Worked problems on he aea under acurve 55! 58.3 Further worked problems on the area under curve 554 384 The area Derween curves oo 59 Mean and root mean square values 59 59,1 Meanor average values 580 592 Root mean square values 56) 60 Volumes of sold of revolution S64 66.1 Introduction 56 602 Worked problems on volumes of solids of revolution 568 60.3 Further worked problems en volumes of solids of evolution 566 (61 Ceoniroids of smple shapes 509 611 Ceontoids 568 61.2 The fst moment of aa 508 613 Centoid of area between acurve and the ais S10 6144 Centoid of area between acurve and the axis 370 615 Worked problems on centroids of simple shapes sm 61.6 Further worked problems on centroids of ‘imp shapes sm 61.7 Theorem of Pappus st 62 Second moments of area sms 62.1 Second moments of area and radius of ayration sm 622. Second moment of area of regular sections 57 62.3 Parallel axis theorem sm 6244 Perpendicular ani theorem sm 625 Summary of derived wsult seo (626 Worked problems on second moments of tea of regular sections 580 62.7 Worked problems on second moments of rea of composite areas 58 Revision Test 17 586 ee 63 Boolean algebra and logie circuits 389 63.1 Boolean algebrasnd switching circuits 590 632 Simplifying Boclean expressions 594 633 Lawsand res of Boolean algebra 504 634 De Morgan's laws 506 os tama = 2 ss SoTerieaheatertiocsieny se rope Es Skt al sco nl open ieee is SE mma 2a, ee os sis Tresemiatea3by3narx Biieiroacs pease ac Ba Si Saeco orem wpe by a Seman ae ” eh a en im —e at aes & 2 eae are a arp ‘ tay eaoserepsuaeinecs aor a 66s Feast ein nse a rhet0) = =a = itr as senoancserean i Sesoneihinr ous = ms aaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.This page intentionally left blankaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.10 Engineering Mathematics YS" pete £308 Ti STB = 5x8 8° = "8 -esnas Hence 125% of Problem 25. Express 25 minutes as a percentage ‘of 2 hours, correct to the nearest 1% Working in minute units, 2 hours: 20 minutes. Hence 25 minutes is [ths of2 hours. By cancelling 35 iD Expressing >, asa decimal fraction gives 0.2085 ‘Multiplying by 100 to convert the decimal fraction toa percentage gives (0.2083 x 100 = 20.83% Thus 25 minutes is 21% of 2 hours, correct to the neutest 1% Problem 26. A German silveralloy consists of (60% copper, 25% zine and 15% nickel. Determine the masses of the copper, zine and nickel ina 3.74 kilogram block of the alloy: By direct proporion: 100% corresponds to 3.74kg 3.74 1 corresponis to 57> = 0.0374kg (60% corresponds 10 60 x 0.0374 = 2.244 kg 250% corresponds to 25 x 0.0374 = 0.935kg 15% corresponils to 15 x 0.0374 = 0.551 kg Thus, the masses of the copper, zine and nickel are 2.244 ky, 0.935 ky and 0.561 kg, respectively, (Check: 2.244 +0,935-+0:561=3.74) Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise Percentages (Answers on page 656) 1. Convert o percenages: (a) 0.087 (b) 0.374 () 1.285, For fully worked solutions to each of the problems i Expressas percentages, correct to 3significant figures: 19 ore Calculate correct to 4 significant figures (8) 18% of 2758tonnes (b)47% of 18.42grams (©) 147% of 14.1 seconds tage te Oy May OlE When 1600 bolts are manufactured, 36 ‘are unsatisfactory. Determine the percentage unsatisfactory. Express: (a) 140kg as a percentage of It (b) 47s ay a percenuge of Simin (¢) 13.4em asa percentage of 2.5m A block of monel alloy consists of 70% nickel and 30% copper If itcontains 88.2 g of nickel, determine the mass of copper in the block. ‘A. diilling machine should be set © 250 rev/min. The nearest speed available on the machine is 268revimin. Calculate the percentage overspeed. ‘Dwo kilograms of a compound contains 30% of element A, 45% of element B and 25% of clement C. Determine the masses of the three ‘elements present. A conerete mixture contains seven parts by volume oftallast, four parts by volume of sand and two parts by volume of cement, Deter- ‘mine the percentage of each of these three constituents correct to the nearest 1% and the ‘mass of cement in a two tonne dry mix, correct to 1 significant fgure Ina sampleof iron ore, 18% is ron, Howmuch, ore is needed to produce 3600kg of iron? A screws’ dimension is 12.58%mm. Cal- culate the possible maximum and minimum length ofthe screw. ‘The output power of an engine is 4S0kW. If the efficiency of the engine is 75%, determine the power input. Pra Exercices 1 to 4 in this chapter, g0 to the website: www.routledge.comiew/birdaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.14 Engineering Mathematics 30-21 50 Pc auom nae =e Ke st es Maga Ba Exess GER as ssa and Problem 13. Simplify Hence ving the answer with positive indices Alternatively, sale aS gt A fraction raised to-a powermeans that both the numer~ Par ator and the denominator of the fraction are ralsed to 4) shatpowen is: (3) =F A fraction raised wo a negative power has the same value Px S+H x5? as the inverse ofthe fraction raised toa positive power. Problem 11, Byalaates =~ *S ; 2 Thus, (= wolxgeh Dividing each term by the HCF (ie, highest common, factor) ofthe three terms, ie. 3° x 5°, gives: Bxo xs? Similar} Pxsseatxst wast Thus, 30x 52431 St Fast i 1x25+3x1 _ 28 PPE oxS B Problem 12. Find the value of: 255 eee 5S FKSEH RS To simplify the arithmetic, each term is divided by the HEF ofall the terms, ie. 3? 53. Thus Now try the following Practice Exercise Bx58 xsi yas Practice Exercise 6 Indices (Answers on ° page657) In Problems 1 and 2, simplify the expressions sven, expressing the answers in index form and with positive indices:aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.18 Engineering Mathematics Z = = G giga multiply by 1000000000 fie. x 10%) k kilo multiply by 1000 ie, x 104) ‘micro divide by 1000000 fie. 10-5) P pico divide by 1000000000000 (ie. x 10) A caleulator is needed for many engineering calcu. Seas rg x sn which has an ‘ENG? oncnn: oan For example, to calewlate: 3 x 108 0.5 x 10-6 volts, © 1sx108a (a) 225% 10-4V input your calculator in the following order: (@) 35000000000Hz (15x 10-"F (a) Enter “¥ (b) Press x 10% (¢) Enter “4° (a) Press (g) 0.000017 (h) 462000 *x? (e) Enter °0.5° (f) Press x10* (g) Enter “—6" (hy Press 2. Rewrite the following as indicated: 7 ‘The answer's 0.018 Vor (a) Now press the ‘ENC (a) 0025mMA=..0..§tA button, andl the answer changes to 18x 10-8 V ‘The “ENG? or ‘Engineering’ button ensures that the value is stated t0 a power of 10 that is a mutiple of 3, © exit (b) 1000 pP=.....nF kV ‘enabling you, in this example, to express tne answer as 15mV (@) 1250000 0=....Ma Now try the following Practice Exercise 3. Use a caleuator to evaluate te following in engineering notation: Practice Exercise9 Engineering notation @asxTeaxie ‘and common prefixes (Answers on page 657) ° |. Express the following in engineering notation (oy {1:8 1079025 10%) and in profix form: (100% 10% site For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises § (09 in this chopter, s@* 9 to the website: wow.routledge.comiew/hirdaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.22. Engineering Mathematics ‘The fractional part is repeatedly multiplied by 2 iving: oias x 0.625 0625 x 2= Las 028 x os os x pe orod Thus 58.3125) = 111010.01013 ‘Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 11 Conversion of decimal to binary numbers (Answers on page 657) Jn Problems 1 to 5, convert the decimal numbers given to binary numbers. L @5 (IS (19 (29 (a)31 (42 (@)57_ (a6 (a) 47 (0) 60 ()73 (a) ¥4 (a) 0.25 (6) 021875 (€) 0.28125, (a) 059375 5. (a) 47.40625. (b) 30.8125 (c) 53.90625. (d) 61.65625 (©) Binary additio Binary addition of two/three bits is achieved according to the following rues: sum carry sum carry 040 0 04040=0 0 O+1 0 O4F041=1 0 140 0 O+1+0=1 0 141-0 1 OF14t=0 1 14040=1 0 1+0+1=0 1 I+140=0 1 I+i+=t 1 ‘These rules are demonstrated ia the following worked problems. Problem 7, Perform the binary addition: 1001 + 10110 1001 +1010 uur Perform the binary addition: 1111 + 10101 Problem 8. Perform the binary addition: 1101001 +1110101 1101001 +1110101 sum 11011110 cary 1 Problem 10, Perform the binary addition: 1011101 + 1100001 + 110101 lolol 110090 1 +110101 cany HHT Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 12 Binary addition (Answers on page 657) Perform the following binary additions: 1 10411 tor +110 hor+ 111 tino 5. 110111410001 1000101 + 10000101 11101100+ 117001011 1100110104 11100011 toni + wot + 1101 to. 11+ 10101 + 11011 11, io1-+ 001 + 11401 2. 100011 +11 101 + 101110aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.26 Engineering Mathematics Problem 17, Convert LAAE\¢ into a denary umber IME\s = 1x 1+ Ax 167 44x 16" Ex 10! A 15 1684 10 516% 44 x 16! 4 14 x 16° 1x 4096 + 10x 256-44% 16-4 14 x 1 = 4096 + 2560-464 + 14 = 6734 ‘Taus, LAB ig T3410 (b) Converting from decimal to hexadecimal: Thisisachieved by repeatedly dividing by 16 nd noting the remainder at cach stage, as shown betow for 2619 16[26 Remainder 161 10= Aw 9 tate ‘most significant bit TA — lest significant bit Hence 260= 116 Similarly, for 4479 16(447 Remainder 1627 15=F\y—— | TBF Problem 18. Comvert tne following decimal numbers into their hexadecimal equivalents: (a) 3710. (b) 10810 (a) 16137 Remainder 12 5= Sis 0 2-25 23 mos sigifican bit L teat sioican bit Hence 37,0 = 2516 (©) 164108 Remainder 19 12= Cie 0 6= 6 ot be Hence 1080 C6 Problem 19, Convert the following decimal numbers int their hexadecimal equivalents {@) 16219 {b) 23910 (@) 19l162 Remainder 16_ 10 Suee al iu (© i tani I6L14 15 = Fy 0 14 Ey + EF Hence 23949) Fie Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 14 Hexadecimal numbers (Answers on page 657) In Problems | to 4, convert the given hexadecimal ‘numbers into their decimal equivalents, L Ele 2. 26 3 Bie 4. 2Flig In Problems 5 to 8, coavert the given decimal numbers into their hexadscimal equivalents, 5 so 6 2 9h 20010 $8. 23810 (e) Converting from binary to hexadecim: The binary bits are arranged in groups of four, start ing from right to left, and a hexadecimal symbol is assignedto each group. For example, the binary number 1110011110101001 is initially grouped in foursas: 1110 0111 1010 1001 anda hexadecimal symbol assignedto each groupas. EB 7 AO from Table 3.2 Herce 1110011110101001; = E7A9 6aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.30 Engineering Mathematics $0.1 x 18.4 x 122.1 example, ST T22 ay be approx 0 x 20 « 120 matedto 26207170 and inen,by canceling, 50% !26x sant! = aaa aa 1x 155, somevners beiveen 45 and 55 could therefore teenpectt, Certainly an answer trouad 800 ot 5 weuld ot be expected, Acually by cleulator oa ee 238 fant gues 47.31,comect 4 signi- Problem 1. The area A of a triangle is given by eer tekent oie eae tsi ys ea aerate Determine the area of the triangle. 2 12.225em? (by calculator). ‘Area of triangh wnat xa26x75 Theapproximatevaluesis + x 3x 8= Iem?, sothere reno obvious blunder or rlagnitudeerrors. However, i {snot usual in a measurement type problem to state the answer to an accuracy greater than 1 significant figure ‘more than the least accurate number in the data: this is 7.5 cm, so the result should not have more than 3 sigainieant ngures, This, area of triangle 12.2em? Problem 2. State which type of errorhas been ‘made in the following statements: (@) 72x 31.429=2202.9 () 16 <0.08%7=896 (©) 11-714 x 0.0088 =0.3247 correct to 4 decimal places. 29,74 x 0.05 Thay =012eorteet to 2 signincant figures. @ (a) 72x 31.429= 2202.88 (by calculator), hence a rounding-off error has occurred. The answer should have stated 72x 31.429= 22629, correct to 5 significant figures or 2262.9, comrect to 1 decimal place, 8 2x7 fb) 160.08 x7 16% © 7 BF 100 25 22424 Fe = 85g = 89 Hence an order of magnitude error has eccurred. (©) 11714 0.0088 is approximately equal to 12x 9x 107%, ie. about 108 x 10-* oF 0.108 ‘Thus blunder has been made, 29.74 x 0.0512 _ 30x 5 x 10~ TE89 @ 150 89 significant figures, Which equals 0.13 correct to 2 significant figures. Heace « rounding-off error has occurred Problem 3. Without using a calculator, determine ‘an approximate value of: 17x 19.1 19 < 203.6 x 17.91 ) ORxST % 12.1 « 8.76 1020 « is approximaly euatto 4 ie abou 11.7 «191 y catulatr, 2% 1 _ 4.22, comect 1 3 (By calculator, 4771" — 4.22, conect significant figures) 2.19 208.6 x 17.91 _ 2 26x 2 RK 8 x 20 x 2after canceling, 2.19 x 203.6% 17.91 12.1% 876 (ay ‘ateatawe,, 222% 2085 217.91 pee, 121 x8.76 ccorrectto 3 significant figures.) () 80 Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 16 Errors (Answers on page s58) In Problems 1 10 § state which type of error, oF ‘errors, have been made: 1 25x 0.06 x 1.4=021 2 137 x6.842= 937.4 24 x 0.008 U8 0a ae = 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.34 Engineering Mathematics (a) 9.9 inches 5.x 254em = 24.13¢m .13em = 24.13 x 10mm 41.3 mm (b) S0m.ph.=S0 x L.6Lkm/h =80.5 kv (©) 300m = 2? ites = 186 mtn @ 1364 kg (©) 4dkg = 42% 2210= 92410 O.4b = 0.4 x 1602 = 6.402 = 602,corectio the neares! ounce ‘Thus 42ke= 92 tb 607, comect (0 the nearest (6) US gallons = 15 8 pnts = 120 pins 20 pints = 1 jes = 68.18 tres 120 pints = 125 res = 68.48 (g) 40 titres = 40 x 1.76 pints = 704 pints Toa 704 pits = 7 gatlons= 88 gallons ‘Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 18 Conversion tables and charts (Answers on page 658) 1. Carrency exchangerates listed in a newspaper included the following: Ialy —-£1=1.17 euro Jagan £1=155 yen Australia £1 = 1.70 dollars Canada £1=$1.60 Sweden £1=10.5 kronor Calculate (a) how many Italian extos £32.50 will buy. (b) the number of Canadian dol- lars that can be purchased for £74.80, (c) the pounds sterling which can be exchanged for 14 040 yen, (4) the pounds sterling which can he exchanged for 1754.30 Swedish kronor, and (c) the Australian dollars which can be bought for £55 Below is a list of some metric to imperial conversions. Length 2.54em=1 inch L.61km= 1 mile Weight kg = 2.21b (I lb = 16 ounces) Capacity | Hire = 1.70 pints (8 pints = I gallon) ‘Use the list to determine (a) the aumber of tmillimetresin 15 inches, (b)a speed of 35 mph in kmh, (c) the number of kilometres in 235, miles, (d) the number of pounds ind cunces in 24hg (correct to the nearest ounce}, e) the ‘number of kilograms in 15 1b, (f) the namber of litres in 12 gallons and (g) the number of gallons in 25 lites. 3. Deduce the following information from the train timetable shown in Table 4.3 on pages 35 and 36: (2) At what time should a man eateh a train ‘at Messley Hill t0 enable him t0 be in Manchester Piccadilly by 8.15 am. (6) A girl leaves Hunts Cross at 8.17 a.m, and travels to Manchester Oxford Road. How long does the journey tke? What is the average speed of the journey’ (©) A man living at Edge Hill has to be at work at Trafford Park by 845 am. It takes him 10 minutes to walk 10 his worke from Trafford Park station, What time tuain should he cateh from Edge Hill? Wires ‘The statement » =u +a is said to be a formula for » in termsof w.a and 1 bo, a and Fare called symbols or variables. The single tem on the left-hand side of the equation, v, is called the subject of the formulae. Provided values are given for all the symbols in a Formula except one, the remaining symbol canbe made the subject ofthe formula and may be evaluatedby using calculator. Problem 16. Inn electrical circuit the voltage V is given by Ohm's law, ie. V = JR. Find, correct 10 4 significant figures, the voltage when f= 5.30 A and R= 14769.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.38 Engineering Mathematics [Now try the fo wing Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 19 Evaluation of formulae (Answers on page 658) 1, A formula used in connection with gases is R= (PVT. Evaluate R when P= 1500, V=Sand T= 200 2. Thevelocity of body is given bye = u + at ‘Theinitial velocity u is measured when time ris I5 seconds and found to be 12mis. I the acceleration ais 981 m/s? calculate the final velocity 0 Find the distance s, given that s = } ¢/°, time 1=01032 seconds and acceleration due to gravity ¢ = 981 m/s? 4. The energy stored in a capacitor is given by E = /CV? joules, Determine the energy when capacitance C =5 x 10° farads and 240Vv 5. Resistance Ry is given by Ro = Ry(I-+at). Find Ro,correctto4 significant figures, when Ry = 220, a = 0.00027 and 1 = 75.6 ©. Density = “TES. Ping the density when the mass is 2.462kg and the volume is 173cm3. Give the answer in units of kg/mm 7. Velocity = frequency x wavelength. Find the velocity when the frequency is 1825 Hz ‘and the wavelength is 0.154m 8. Evaluateresistance Rr, given 1 ee when RES SOY RRR Ry = 742M and Ry = 12.00 9. Power = FOREX SISHNEE Bing the power time when a force of 3760 N raises an object distance of 4.73m in 358 14 15, 16. 18. ‘The potential difference, V volts, available at battery terminals is given by V = E— Ir. Evaluate V when E=5.62, 1 = 0.70 and R= 430 Given force F = $m(o?— a), find F when m=183,0=12-Tandu=8.24 ‘The current F amperes flowing in a number of cells is given by Evaluate sar 10. = 200, R= 280 thecurrent when n and r= 050 ‘The time, ¢ seconds, of oscillation for a sim- plependalin igen by ref nate y g, ‘minethe time when 54.32and 981 3.142, Energy, £ joules, is given by the formula £ = 4LP. Evaluate the energy when ‘The current / amperes in an a. circuit is ¥ riven by Evaluate the eur- VER rent when V 250, R= L1.0and X = 16.2 Distance + metres is given by the formula urtt at, Iw =9.50, 1=4.60 and ~2.50, evaluate the distance ‘The area, A, of any triangle is given by A=Jsis—aS— BSC) where otbbe Evaluate the area given 3.60em, b= 4:00em and c= 5.20em Given that a = 0.290, b= 14.86,¢ = 0.042, =31.8 and e = 0.650, evaluate », given For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 16 to 19 in this chapter, {to the website: www.routledge.comiew/hirdaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.42. Engineering Mathematics Problem 8, Multiply 3—2y?-+4xy by 2s—Sy ae = 2y? bday Multiplying 2% — 5% by 2x 6x? — dxy? 48x7y Multiplying by Sy —20xy" —1Sxy+10y? ‘Adding gives: Gx —2dxy? +8x2y — LSxy +109 Problem 9. Simplify: 2p-+8pq 2p 8pq means a “Thiscan be reduced by cancelling asin arithmetic. 2p _ xh Ths: 2 PRP 1 : ipa ex ma Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 20 Basic operations (Answers on page 658) 1. Find the yalueof 2ry + 3yz— xyz, when —2 and z=4 2. Evaluate 3pg'r? when p: 1 Find the sum of 3, ~2a, ~6a, $a and da Add together 2a+3b44e, —Sa—2b-+c, da—Sb—6e 5. Add together 3d+4e, ~2e+J, 2d-3f, dd—e+2f—3e 6. From 4x—3y+22 subiract x +2y—32 3, 6 6 7. Subtract 34-5 +e fom 5 — 46 3c Multiply 3x 42y by xy Multiply 2a —Sb-te by 30.45 10. Simplify (i) 32 +Sab (ii) 4o2b-+2a fie The laws oF indices are: @ at xatemate dit) ay" =a ) Problem 10. Simpli Grouping like terms gives: @xaxP xB xoxe Using the first law of indices gives: eh BS colts ie. AX xchat BO Problem 11. Simplity: a" 26%? gape Using the first law of indices, ale? x glV ple (124016) p22. 241 PIE Pet Probien 12, Simptity: S25 apd eatute when ¢=3,b=~ ando=2 5 Using the second law of indices, 129328 Bae ay pray i2y76 ‘evaluate when ps: 16, q=9 and r-=4, taking positive roots onlyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.46 Engineering Mathematics Problem 29. Factorise: ax—ay+bx—by The first two terms have a common factor of @ and the last two terms a common factor of d. Thi ax — ay +bx —by = alx—y)+B(x—y) ‘The two newly formed terms have 2 common factor of (x=), Thos: als y+ 600-9) (= yNa+b) Problem 30. Factorise: 2ax —3ay+2bx —3by @ is a common factor of the frst two terms and 6 a ‘common factor ofthe last wo terms. Thus: Jax —3ay + 2x — by (2s ~3y) +625 —3y) (21—3y) isnow a common factor, thus: aQx—3y) + bQx—3y) = Qe - 39th) Aleenatively, 2¥ is 9 common factor of the original first and third tems and —3y is a common factor of the second and fourth terms. Thus: 2as — Say +2bx—3by = 2x(a-+6)—3y(a+0) (a+b)is now a common factor thus: 2e(a +b) ~ 3y(a+b) = @+b\2x—3y) as before. Problem 31, Pactorise: x34 3x?—x~3 2 Is acommon factor of the fist oro terms, thus: A643) 4-3 4a? 1 is acommon factor of the last two tems, thus: (x t3)-x-3= 07043) Mx $3) (+3) is now a common factor, thus: : +3)? =) vots =H +3) Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 22 Brackets and factorisation (Answerson page638) In Problems 1 1 9, remove the brackets and simplify where possible: 1, @+2y)4@r-y) 2. x-y)-3(9-2) 3. Mpt3q-1)—4r—a+2p) +9 4 atb)(a+2) 5. (p+aGr—24) 6 @ G29)? i) Ge —B7? 1, 3a42[a~@a-2)) 8. 2-sla(a~20)—(o—b)*} 9% 24p[2(3(5p—4)—2(p-+24)} +341 In Problems 10 t0 12, ractorse 10.) pb+2pe ii) 2y2-+8gn ne @ 1a2b?—28ab (i) 2x)? +6x"y +8x°y 12, aytbytotb (ii) prtqxt pytaqy Git) Jax +3ay—4bx — bby mua ae it) pear ‘The laws of precedence which apply to atithinetie also apply to algebraic expressions, The order is Brackets, Of, Division, Muliplicatioa, Addition and Subtraction, (ie, BODMAS). ‘Problem 32. Simplify: 2a-+5a x3a—a Multiplication is performed before addition andsubtrac- tion thus 2a 1Sa?—a at 15a 07 atl 15a) 2atSax 30 Problem 33. Simplify: (a-+5a) x2a—3a ‘Theorder of precedence is brackets, multiplication, hen subtraction. Henceaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 6 Further algebra Why itis important to understand: Further algebra ‘The study of algebra revolves around using and manipulating polynomials. Polynomials are used in engineering, computer programming, software engineering, in management, and in business. Mathemat cians, statisticians and engineers of all sciences employ the use of polynomials to solve problems; among them are aerospace engineers, chemical engineers, civil engineers, electrical engineers, environmental engineers, industrial engineers, materials engineers, mechanical engineers and nuclear engineers. The factor and remainder theorems are also employed in engineering software and electronic mathematical applications, through which polynomials of higher degrees and longer arithmetic structures are divided without any complexity. The study of polynomial division and the factor and remainder theorems is therefore of some importance in engineering, 6.1 (5) Subtract 16 from 20 giving 4 (6) Bring downthe 8 [tore looking at long division in algebra let us revise (7). 16divided into 48 goos 3 times Jong division with numbers (we may have forgotten, (8). Put the3 above the 8 sinve calculators do the job for us!) (9) 3x 16=48 Porcupine ton (0) Bata 208 Hence TE = 12 exactly im Similarly, > is iid out as fottows: u 172 15 22 (1) 16 divided into 2 won't go (2). I6divided into 20 goes 1 (3) Puc above the zero (4) Mutuply lony I giving 10aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.54 Engineering Mathematics [Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 26 Thefactor theorem (answers on page 655) Use the factor dieonem to factorise the expressions given in problems 1 to 4, 1 Pe 3 Brae 4 3. d+ 5x? ar 4 Od =. tor+15, 5. Use the factor theorem to factorise sS4412+4—6 and hence solve the equation 13 44x? + -6 = 6. Solve the equation r3 2x? 42-0 EMP uc eaurcs Dividing a gonoral quadratic exprossion (ax? 4 bx-+ 0) by (1p), where p is any whole number, by long division (see Section 6.1) gives: ax +(b+ap) x-p)artox te ax? apy (tape +e (ot apx—(b+ap)p crOtapp ‘The remainder, c+ (b-+ ap)p =c+bp bap? or ap’ +bp-+e. Tals is, in fact, what the remainder theorem states, i. ‘if (ax? + bx + eis divided by trp), the remainder will be ap? + bp +e If.Jn the dividend (ae? 4 br +), we substitute p for x wwe get the remainder ap? + bp-+e For exampk, when Gx?—4x +3) Is divided by (2) the remainder is ap? +hp +e, (where a=3, b=—4,c=Sand p=2), ive. the remainder i + (#2) 455 12-845 We can check this by dividing (3x? —4r-45) by (2) by long di Similarly, when (Ax? — 7x-+9) is divided by (x +3), the remainder is ap* + bp +c, {where a= 4, =—T, €=9 ani p= —3) i.e. the remainderis: 4-3)? + (-1)(-3) +9 = 36 +2149 = 66 ‘Also, when [x? 4 34 ~2) is divided by (x remainder is W(1)?+ 31) -2=2 It is not panicularly useful, on its owe, 19 know the remainder of an algebraic division. However, i the remainder should be zero then (x — p) isa factor. This 4s vey useful therefore when fatorising expressions. For example, when (2x!-+x—3) is divided by 1, the (x= 1), the remainder is 21)? + 1(1) ~3=0, which means that (x ~ 1) Isa factor of (247+ — 3), In this esse the other factor is (2x +3), i.e. a v= 1)2e=3). ‘The remainder theorem may also be stated fora eubie equation as: ‘it (ax! + bx? tex +d) is divided by (ep), the remainder will be ap* + bp? +¢p-+d" Asbefore, the remainder may be obtained by substitut= ing p for x in the dividend, For example, when (3r3+2x? — x +4) is divided by (x= 1), the temainder is: ap* + bp?-+ cp-+d (where <1, d=4 and p=1), i, the remainder is: SUP +20)? + (I) +4=34+2-144=8. Similarly, when (x? —7x~6) is divided by (x -3), the remainder is: 1(3)? +00)? = 703) — mean that (x ~ 3) isa factor of (3 —7—6). Here are some more examples on the remainder theo- 0, which Problem 8. Without dividing out, find the remainder when 2x? — 3x + 4 is divided by (v — 2) By the remainder theorem, the remainder is given by: ap?-+ bp +0, where a= 2, =—3,0= 4 and paa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.58 Engineering Mathematics Table 7. 2 Repeated linear factors (see Problems 5 to 7) Perey Getic Probie Roore HSE vars fractions ‘The denominator faciorises as (x 1)(s-+3) and the numerator is of less degree than the denominator. ar yee3) where A and B are constants to be determined, 1-3 Ale +3) + Blr= 1) @=NeF3) r= De+3) byaalgedraicaddition. Since the denominators are the same on each side of the identity then the aumerators are equal to each other. Thus, 13x = AG +3) +BU-1) ‘Todetermine constants A and B, values of x are chosen to make the term in A or B equal to zero. When «= 1, then 11=3¢ = Ad+3)4B0) ie. 8=4A ice. A=? When x=—3, then 113-3) =A) +B(-3— 1) he. 2 4B (ta? fox) A.B ¢ (4a) Gra?” Gas ie B=-s Mew 2 TS Byes "Gt asd et ed wD G49 2 5 [os yas 2043)—Six—) © DEH reed ems 2x 94-35 Problem 2. Convent years the sum of three partial fractions FD © on wa) AGe=2)(6+3) + Ble + De +3) FC + D2) @=Da-Daray by algebraic addition [Exquating the numerators gives: 2? — 9x 35 SAC 2/4 +3) + BO+ DO +3) 4064 Dlx —2) Then 2-1)? 9(-1) — 35 AC-3)(2) + BEOV(2 +C0)(-3)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.86 Engineering Mathematics Poobine tone tate | eelge erm z Lande ‘Whenever be prospenivenew mbjectiswihina square root sign, itis best to isolate that term on the LHS and, then to square beth sides of the equation, jt Rearranging gives: 2 Ve Drie oh sear vor 5 L 2 sxeig misting L= (4) =i s Cross-multiplying, je, multiplying each term by 4 ives: = or ant Dividing both sides by # gives: Problem 14. ‘The impedance of ana. cieuit is given by 2=VR?-+X, Make the reactanes, X,the subject. Rearranging gives VP FKP =Z ‘Squaring both sides gives: Pextaz? Rearranging gives: x Taking the square root of both sides gives: x= Vz2—R? Problem 15. The volume V of a hemisphere is aivendy 2 Sar°. Find rinterms of ¥ 23 Seay 2a <3 Rearranging gives Multiplying bath sides by 3 gives: Dividing both sides by 2x gives: ae _3V Oe Oe ay, te Taking the cube root of both sides gives: Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 40 Transposition of formulae (Answers on page 660) Make the symbol indicated the subject of exch of the formulae shown and express each ints simplest form. 1 w) / 3. (E) 4 0 5 (my 6. (®) 1 ) 8. w) 9. 0 10. Ww u. (R) 2. (a) 1b. Z=VRFOqLF tL) 14. ‘The lift force, L, on an aircraft is given by: pu®ac where p is the density, 0 3saa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Gi) cam Solving quadratic equations Why itis important to understand: Solving quadratic equations Quadratic equations have many applications in engincering and science; they are used in deseribing the trajectory of a ball, determining the height of a throw, and in the concept of acceleration, velocity, ballistics and stopping power. In addition, the quadratic equation has been found to be widely evident in a number of natural processes; some of these include the processes by which light is reflected off a Jens, water flows down a rocky stream, or even the manner in which fur, spots, or stripes develop on wild animals. When traffic policemen arrive at the scene of a road accident, they measure the length of the skid marks and assess the road conditions. They can then use a quadratic equation to calculate the speed of the vehicles and hence reconstruct exactly what happened. The U-shape of a parabola can describe the trajectories of water jets in a fountain and a bouncing ball, or be incorporated into structures like the parabolic reflectors that form the base of satellite dishes and car headligh!s. Quadratic functions can help plot the course of moving objects and assist in determining minimum and maximum values. Most of the objects we use every day, from cars to clocks, would not exist if someone somewhere hadn't applied quadratic functions to their design. Solving quadratic equationsis an important skill required in all aspects of engineering. A quadratic equation Is one In which the highest Power of the unknown quantity is 2. For example, Tracers: et tetene eal +1 =0 isa quadratie equation There are four methods of solving quadratic {As stated in Chapter 8, an equation is a statement equations that two quantities are equal and 10 *solve an equa- These are: (i) by factorisation (where possible) tion’ means “to find the value of the unknown" Gi) by *completing the square’ The value of the unknown is called the root of the Gii)_by using the ‘quadratic formula? equation or G9) _graphteally Gee Chapter 3,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.94 Engineering Mathematics ‘Adaing to both sies tha ewetticient of 2)? gives ast -C)- ‘The LHS is now a perfect squat, thus: 8 7 Fhe 16° 16 Taking the square root of both sides gives: =L031 jue,x 1.22 or 3.28, correct to 3 significant figures, Problem 8, By ‘completing the square’, solve the ‘quadratic equation 4.6)" 3.3y~1.75=0, correet 10 3 decimal places Making the coefiicient of y? unity gives: 33175 2 v+a6"" G6 7° 35. _ 15 and rearranging gives: y?4 5 ing gives: y+ Zy= p> Adding to both sides thalf the coefficient of 3)? gives: 45 467 The LHS is now a perfect square, thus: 35)? (+35 ‘Taking the square root of both sides gives: 5251054 ya be VaRITES = an-at6n0 as Hence, y= —22 +£0.7246830 je y= O34 or 1 0s Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 43 Solving quadratic ‘equations by ‘completing the square’ (Answers on page 661) Solve the following equations by completing the square, each correct to 3 decimal places. Lv +4art1=0 2 4Se vee Lethe general form ofa quadratic equation be givenby: axttbxte=0 where a,b and ¢ are constants, Dividing ax? +bx-+e=0 by a gives: be a4 eo Rearranging ives: a,b e vy2ra-£ Adding to each side of the equation the square of half the coefficient of the wrms in x to make the LHS a perfect, square gives: ve-@s Rearranging gives: ‘Taking the square root of both sides gives: aR ae 2a Tae Hence =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Logarithms 107 1 Hence, oss ‘There are three laws of logarithms, which apply to an Problem 7. Solve the equation: Ig. x =3 tase a PEERY (Tomutiply owo numbers: log (A x B)= lag A + log B If lg x =3 then logo 10 ie x and 000 ‘The following may be checked by using a ealeu- Problem 8, Solve the equation: log tates: lg 10 I ogy x = S then = 26 2 Also, 1g 5-+1g 2= 0.69897... +0.301029...=1 Problem: 9. Solve the equation: logy x= —2 Hence, Ig (5 x2) =le 10= Ie 5+1e 2 ‘Todivide two numbers: =) Now try the following Practice Exercise ‘The following may bechecked usinga calculator: If logs = ~2 then x lox A lox B Practice Exercise 52 Introductionto 91629 logarithms (Answers on page 662) In Problems | to 11 evaluate the given expression: 1.60943... 0.69314 0.91629 nes vieg Gil) To raise a number to a power: 5. loge? 6. log7343 log A" =n log a MM, Ine? Hence, 1. Iex=5 Problem 10. Write log4+ log7 as the logarithm 14. logse of a single number 1s, log + Ing 7 = log (7x 4) %e by the first law of logarithms = log 28, 1. if, Problem (1. Write log 16 — log? as the logarithm of a single numberaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.input and Py is the power output. Find the 5 decibels A power gain 5” when RES eC cu ster A graphof y= logo vis shownin Pig. 13 Landa graph of y= log,.xis shown in Fig. 13.2. Both are seen to be (of similar shape: in fact, the same general shape occurs fora logarithm to any base 2 sf Rigere 1 In general, with a logarithm to any base a, itis noted th Gi) loge 1=0 Lat log, the logarithm. 1 from the definition of then at y 2 Logarithms 111 2 Figure 132 Ifa" =1 then x=0 from the laws of logarithms, Hence jog, !=0. In the above graphs itis seen that logig 10 and log, L Gi) toe Let log, a=r. then a* =a. from thedefinition of a logarithm. Wat =a then x=1 Hence log, a=, (Check with a caleulator that logig W0= 1 and log. = 1) Gil) tog, 0 -00 Let log, 0=x then a*=0 from the definition of, a logarithm. If a =0, and a is a postive weal number, then Xx must approach minus infinity. (For exam= pile, check with a calculator, 2-? =.25, 2-* 9.54 10-7, 2-200 =5.22> 10°61, and so om.) Hence log, 0+ -0 For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 52 to 54 in this chapter, 0 to the website: wonw.routledge.com/ew/birdaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Exqonertial functions 115 (@.05)* a aia e 10.05) 140.05 + 0.00125 + 0.000020833 ++ 0.000000260 + 0.000000003 and by adding, 29 — 1.0512711, ccorreci to 8 significant figures In this example, successive terms in the series grow smaller very rapidly and itis relatively easy to deter- imine the value of e*5 to a high degree of accuracy. However, when + is nearerto unity of larger than unity, avery large number ofterms arerequired for an accurate result If in the series of equation (1). x isreplaced by —x. then x 3 + Ina similar manner the power series for e* may be used to evaluate any exponential runction of tne ferm ae, where and Eareconsians. In the series of equation (1), let be replaced by kx. Then oP ths se =5[140" 7 2 or, \ 43 Feet DPe Dt =5 ce Be Ie ot] Problem 4. Determine the value of Se, correct 05 significant Aguros by using the power tories foret * dam \ wos)! 0.5% BaD * FHGOD 0.596 OOOMIID = 1+0.5-40.125+0.020833, ++-0.0026042 + 0.0002004 +0.0000217 ie. 6° = 1.64872 correct 10 6 signitican! figures Hence Se =5( 1.64872) =8.2436, correct to 5 signif icant Hgures. Problem 5. Determine the value of 3e~!, correct to 4 decimal places, using the power series for e* Substituting x=—1 in the power series i = en +o a = 1405 — 0.100007 + 0.041007 — 0.008333 + 0.001380 = 0.000168 = 0.307858 correct 106 decimal places Hence 3e~! imal places. 3)(0.367858) = 1.1036 correct 10 4 dec= Problem 6. Expand et (1? ins? 1) as far as the term ‘The power series fore is:116 Engineering Nathematics Hence: (tat) Grouping like terms gives: (tty Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 56 Power seriesfor & (Answers on page 662) 1. Evaluate 5.6e~', correct to 4 decimal places, using the power series fore" Use the power series for e* to determine, cor- rect fo 4 significant igures, (a) e2 (b) e~8 and chock your result by using a calculator 3. Expand (1~2x)e** as far as the term in xt 4. Expand (2e"*)ix!/?) to six terms to 2 decimal places, over a range x: shown in the following table, e 005 0.08 014 0.22 037 061 1.00 ef 165 2.72 448 7.39 1218 2009 Figure 14.1 shows graphs of y=e" and y=e Figure Wt Problem 7. Plota graph of y = 2e"* over range of x=~210.1=3. Henge determine the value of y when x=2.2 and the value of x when y= 1.6 A table of values is drawn up as shown below. 03r -09 -06 -030 03 06 09 2 O81 1.10 148 2.00 270 3.64 4.92 1° js shown plotted in Fig. 14.2. 2, y=3.87 and when A graph of From the graph, when x=: 10,150.74Exqonertil functions 117 Figure 142 1 507% over the 5. Determine from the 1.2and the valueof Problem 8. Piota graph of range x=—1,5t0 ‘graph the value of y when x = x when y= 14 A table of valuesis drawn up as shown below. 2 6.70 246 0.91 0330.12 0.05 002 A pono fe stoning From the graph, when A, x= 0.72 2, y=3.07 and when Problem 9%. The decay of voliage, volts, across a capacitor at time r seconds is given by 1» =250e~!®, Draw a graph showing the natural decay curve overthe frst 6 seconds. From the agroph, find (a) the volage after 3.4, and (b) the time when the voltage is 150 V A table of values is drawn up as shown below. en 1.00 0.7165 0.5134 0.3579 8 0.2636 0.1889 0.1353, ‘The natural decay curve of »=2506~"/3 is shown in Fig. 14.4 1152 S44 5 6 Time t (eecords) igure 144 From the graph: (a) when time £= 3.4, voltage r= 80 volts and (b) when voltage r= 150 volts,118 Engineering Nathematics [Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 57 Exponential graphs (answers on page 652) L. Plot a griph of y=3e02 over the range 4¥=-3 to x=3. Hence determine the value of y when x=14 and the value of + when yoas 5 over a range Plot a graph of y=5 Fal ae | stot leaee deere value of y when x=—0.8 and the value of x when y=3.5 3, Iva chemical reaction the amount of starting ‘material Cem? leftafter¢ minutes is given by C=40e~™™, Plota graph of C against and éotermine(a) the concentration C after | hour, and (b) the time taken for the concentration 0 ecrease by halt 4. The tate at whieh a body cools Is given by = 2506-0" where the excess of temper ature of a body above its surroundings at time ¢ minutes is @© C. Plot @ graph show ing the natural decay curve forthe rsthourof cooling. Hence determine (a) the temperature after 25 minutes, and (b) the time when the temperature is 195°C ew eter ea Logarithms having a base of ‘e’ are called hyperbolic, Napierian or natural logarithms and the Napierian logarithm of x is writen 2: log, x, or more commonly as In. Logarithms were invented by John Napier", 2 ‘Scotsman (1550-1617). ‘The most common method of evaluating a Napierian logarithm isby ascientfic notation ealeulator. Use your calculator to check the following values: In4.328= 140510554. t : i In 1.812 = 059448, correct to 5 significant figures Ini=0 In527 = 6.2572, correct to 5 significant figures In0.17 = =1.772, correct to 4 significant fiperes who was Napier? Go to www outledccomicw ra In0.00042 = ~7.77526, correct to 6 significant figures 3 Ine’ Ine!= 1 From the lasttwo examples we ean conclude that: loge This wel when solvingequationsimotving expo- nential functions. Forexample, to slvee"* = 7, ake Napierian logarithms ofboth sies, which gives in? from which 0.6486, correct to decimal places Pistian dU Esiune ls apng eke GALES Wn78693 |. 3.17in24.07 (a) 410.7291 () BIS (oy (a) 4ina7291 = £(.553738...)= 0.77687, correctto 5 significant figures In7.86%3 _2,06296911. “7a093 ~~ T.ag93 = 928215. correctto 5 significant figures fe) RHzIn24.07 _ 3.176.18006025..9 oo 083845007... 027, comect 05 significant figures. Problem 11," Evaluate the following (a) rst) SB? eoreti03 is 3 decimal places) Ine?S _ 25 © gs = 95 =* 5e231g2.25 © aa _519.2998607..)(0.34830486 - ‘80200158 20.194, correct to 3 decimal places.Exqonertial functions 119 Problem 12. Solve the equation:9 = 4e—* to, find x, correct to 4 significant hgures. Rearranging 9 = 4e™ gives: ‘Taking the reciprocal of both sides gives: 4 oe ‘Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives: n(3) -1n Since toge*=a, tenn ( a Hence, Problem 13, Given 32= 70(1—e°3) detemine the vale of corectt 3 significant figures Reurranging 32 = 70(1 ~ e~#) gives: 32 0 38 7% 70 ‘Taking the reciprocal of both sides gives: and © ‘Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides giv nd =n (2) ww ble fr jhich, ¢ a ; Pon 4 Sonetuapaion 260 u(2) From the definition of a logarithm. since zon) iam 2 4.87 = 28 0.3339, correct t04 sigailicant figures. Rearranging gives: = 4.876208 mone Spica are correct to 4 Take natural logs of both sides gives: Fics "a 1 ince Ine= Int =3x Since Ine=1 Ing ie. 055962 = 3 ie. = = 0.1865, correct 10 4 significant figures. Problem 16. Solve:e"~!=2e"*— eorrectio-4 significant figures Taking natural logarithms of both sides gives: In(e!) = In(2e®™—4) and by the first law of logarithms, In(et~!) = n2-+In(e*—4) ie. Leind+3r—4 Rearranging gives: 4—1—In2= 3x ie, 3-In2 from which, x Problem 17, Solve, correet to 4 significant figures: In(x—2)? = in(x — 2) — Inix +3) +1.6 Rearranging gives: Inte — 2)? — n(x —2) + Ine +3) = 16 And by the laws of logarithms, w[Saee9) 2)120 Engineering Nathematics Canceling ves Inlie— 2) +391 = 16 and (= HE+D=els ine, P+r-6=e'6 or xt4+x—-6-el6=0 ie, xt 4 10.953= 0 Using the quadratic formula, 12 VP=A OOS a =1i VHRR -1 46.6042 2 z ie x =2.847 or —38471 x =—38471 is not valid since the logarithm of a negative number has no real root. Hence, the solution of the equation is: x Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise $8 _Napierian logarithms (Answers on page 662) In Problems 1 and 2, evaluate correct to 5 signifi- L 182.473 1. (@)jIn5.2932 ) “ES $.621n321.62 © L7e6met7 gett 9 2 @ ero) 2in0.00768 fo MA8629—m24711 . S173 In Problems 3 to 7 solve the given equations, each, correct to4 significant figures. 3. Inx= 2.10 4. 448 a 4s 5. Saettlo7 6 15=4e 7. 7183-20160! & 16 a(1-e4) 00. a. 12. Ine +3)—Ine 13. In@e—1)8— 3 14. ne +3) +2 15. tM a 38) 16. Inge + 1)? = 1.5 —In(x—2) + Ina +1) 17. Trampose: B= Int ain D 10 make # the subject k logo) find evalu of Ry : and R 160. 0 el) make W he subjector the formula 20. The work donein an isothermal expansion of 4 gas from pressure p} 10 pzis given by: a) 7.0kPa, calculate a 21. The velocity v3 of a rocket is given by: v2 =) +Cin( 2) where nis the initial rocket velocity, C 16 the velocity of the jet ‘exhaust gases, m1 is the mass ofthe rocket before the jet engine is fired, and mis the mass of the rocket after the jet engine is switched off. Calealate the velocity of the rocket given vy = 600 mis, C= 3500 mis, ‘50> 10¥g and ma ~ 7.60% 108g. If the initial pressure p) the final pressure pif w: Reread pee) ‘The laws of exponential growth and decay are of the form y= Ae and y= A(—e~*), where A and kare constants. When plotted, the form of each of these equa- tions sas shown in Fig. 14.5. The laws occur frequentlyExqonertial functions 121 Figure 145 in engineering and science and examples of quantities related by a natural kw include: (Linear expansion She” Gi) Change in electrical resistance with temperature Ry= Rye (Gil) Tension in bens Ti=Tuel (vy) Newton’s law of cooling o= the (9) Biological growth woot (v) Discharge of a capacitor g=0ew® (vii) Atmospheric pressure P= poe" (vill) Radioactive decay Noe! is) Decay of current in an inductive (9) Growth of current in a capacitive circuit Problem 18. The resistance R of an electrical conductor at temperature 0°C is given by Roe’, where a isa constant and ‘Ry=5 x 10? ohms. Determine the value ot a, correc! to 4 significant figures, when R=6x 10! ohms and @= 1500°C, Also, find the temperature, correct the nearest degree, when the resistance R is 5.410 ohms Hence ssl yi ON Ry 15 1 = gop 01823215... 1.215477... x 10-4 Hense @=1215x 10-4 figures. corset 10 4 significant R Lok From above, n= ad hence O= In 4x 109, @=1.215477...«10~ and 1 (54X10 T2547. x 10 ST, 104 ot _ (4.x TST 790M. 10 138°C correct tothe nearest degree. Problem 19, Ivan experiment involving Newton's law of cooling, the temperature 4(°C) is given by = dhe. Find the value of constant & ‘when d= 55.6°C, 0=16.5°C and 1= 830 seconés 6 Transposing ¢= the" gives © =e from which posing 6= the" ves % 1 Oo errs ‘Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives: at fom ic, = p= aral(io8) aot 2326486...) Hence k= 1.485% 10-7122 Engineering Nathematics Problem 20. The current # amperes owing ina ‘capacitor atime ¢ seconds is given by .0(1 eR), where the circuit resistance R 25x 10ohms and capacitance C is 16 x 10° ferads, Determine (a) the current é after 0.5 seconds and (b) the time, to the nearest milisecond, forthe carrent to reach 6.0, Sketch the graph of eurrent agains time (a) Current =8.001— 6°) oft — 208/(10x10- 1254105) 01 = e125) (0(1 ~0.2805047...) 0(0.7134952...) =S.7Lamperes @ 2 20. from which, e~"'°®. at 80 ‘Taking the reeiprocal of both sides gives 8.0 wich 0— ‘Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides gives: marr “ &-"(c0=i) Hence ain, (30 ia = Mn(22) =nans0 = Sms, tothe nearest millisecond A graph of current agalnstime Is shown In Fig. 14.6. Problem 21. The temperature 0; of winding sshich is being heated eletrealy at time ¢s given by: &)=04(1—e"/") where 0 isthe temperature ©) Figure 146 (in degrees Celsius) at time 1=0 and + is a ‘constant. Calculate: (a) 61, comect o the nearest degree, when 6 is: 50°C, ris 30nd r is 60s the time f, correct to 1 de behalf the value of al place, for 83 t0 ‘Transposing the formala to make 6 the subject ives: st 0) = gaa ere Te)" T= 0 8 Tels * THM. i.e. 01 =127°C, correct to the nearest degree ‘Transposing to make 1 the subject of the formula lve: = 41.595 Hence the time for the temperature @3 to be one half of the value of 0; is 41.6 s,correet to 1 decimal place.Exponertial functions 2B Now try the following Practice Exer Practice Exercise 59 Thelawsof growth and decay (Answers on page 662) 1. The temperause, 7°C, of a cooking object ‘aries with time, ¢ minutes, according tothe equation: T= 150e"®™, Determine the tem perature when (a) = 0,(b) ¢= 10 minutes ‘he pressure p pascals at height fh metres above ground level is given by p= poe"/°, where po Is the pressure at ground level ‘and C is a constant. Find pressure p when po=1.012« 10°Pa, height = 1420m and c=71500 3. The voltage drop, » volts, aeross an induc tor L hearys at time f seconds is given ty 0= 2000/4, where R=1500° and L= 12.5 x 10-5H, Determine: (a) the voltage when t= 160 x 108s, and (b) the time for the voltage to reach 85 V, 4, ‘The length { metres of a metal bar at tem- perature °C is given by I= le, when fo anid are constants, Determine: (a) the value of f when fo=1.8%4, a=2.038x 10" and =250°C, and (b) the value of fo. when 2.416, 1= 310°C and a= 1.682% 104 5. The temperature °C of an electrical eon- ductor at time seconds is given by 6:=6(1—e-FT), when 0) isthe initial tom- perature and T seconds is a constant. Deter- mine (a) 6 when 6)=159.9°C, 1= 308 and T=80's,and (b) the time for fo fall to half the value of @ if T remains at 80 6. Abeltisincontct with apulley fora sector of 6= 1.12 radians and the coeffeien: of friction between these two surfaces is = 0.26, Deter- mine the tension on the taut side of the belt, T newtons, when tension on the slack side is given by Ty=22.7 newtons, given that these {quantities are related by the law T= Tye". Determine also the value of @ when T=280 newtons 7. ‘The instantaneous current { at time ¢ is sivenby: i=1et'® ‘yhena capacitor Is being charged. The capac- itance C is 7x 10~® farads and the resistance Ris 0.3 10° ohms, Determine: (a) the instantaneous current when f is 2.5 seconds, and (b) the time for the instantaneous current to fall to 5 amperes Sketch a curve of current against time from to £=6 seconds ‘The amount or product x (in movem*) found ina chemical reaction starting with 2Smovem' of reactant is given by s=2.5(1 eM) where ¢ is the times in minutes, to form product x. Plot 8 graph at 30 second intervals up t 2.5 minutes and determine x after 1 minute The current flowing in a eapacitor at sme r is given by: 125(1 11€8) where resistance Ris 30 kilohms and the capacitance is20 microfarads. Determine: (@) the current Rowing alter 0.5 seconds, and (b) the time for the current to reach 10 amperes The amount A alern years ofa sum Invested P is given by the compound interest law: A= Pe" when the per unit interest rate ris added continuously, Determine, correct to the nearest pound, the amountafter 8 years for ‘a sum of £1500 invested ifthe interest rate is 6% perannum The percentage concentration C of the starting material ina chemical reaction varies with time # aecording @ the equation ime 1g the eqi C= 1000 Determine the concen- tration when (a) 1=0, (b) 1=100s, (c) r= 1000. ‘The currenti flowing through a diode atroom temperature is given by: iste” —1) amperes, Calculate the current fowing in a silicon diode when the reverse saturation current 5 = 50 nA and the forward voltage v=027V [A formula for chemical decomposition is given by: C=A(1—e°t) where # is the time in seconds Calculate the time, in mi liseconds, for a compound to decompose t0 a value of C= 0.12 given A124 Engineering Nathematics ‘The mass, m, of pollutant in a water reservoir decreases according 10 the law m = mye!!! ‘where # is the time in days and mg isthe inital ‘mass. Calculate the percentage decrease in the assafter60 days, correct to 3 decimal places. 15. is cooled with waver. Is tempera ture, in °C, is given by: @ = 15+ 13000~°" ‘where is the time in minutes. Calculate how long it will take for the temperature, 0, 1 decrease to 36°C, correct o thenearest secon, For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 55 to 59 in this chapter, g0 to the website: worwaroutledge.comi iedChapter 15 Number sequences Why itis important to understand: Number sequences Number sequences are widely used in engineering applications including computer data structure and sorting algorithms, financial engineering, audio compression, and architectural engineering. Thanks to engineers, robots have migrated from factory shop floors - as industrial manipulators, to outer space ~ as interplanetary explorers, to hospitals - as minimally invasive surgical assistants, to homes - as vacuum, cleaners and lawn mowers, and to battlefields - as unmanned air, underwater, and ground vehicles. Arithmetic progressions are used in simulation engineering and in the reproductive eycle of bacteria, Some uses of AP's in daily life include wniform increase in the speed at regular intervals, completing patterns of objects, calculating simple interest, speed of an aircraft, increase or decrease in the costs of g00ds, sales and production, and so on. Geometric progressions (GP"s) are used in compoun and the range of speeds on a drilling machine. In fact, GP"s are used throughout mathe: they have many important applications in physics, engineering, biology, economics, computer science, queuing theory, and finance. In this chapter, AP"s, GP's, combinations and permutations are introduced and explained. Ae ‘When asequence has aconstantdifference between sue- cessive terms it is called an arithmetic progresion {often abbreviated to AP). Examples include @) 1,4,7,10, 13, difference is 3 and (ii) a,a+d,a+2d,a+3¢, ‘common difference is d where the common es Whore the General expression for the nth term of an AP Ifthe IstiermofanA Pis “a’and the common: is “a then the n'th term is: a4 (= Did In example () above, the 7h tem is. given by 14(7~1)3=19, whic may be readily checked, ‘Sum of n terms of an AP Thesum $ ofan AP can be obtained ty multiplying the average of all the terms by the number of terms.126 Engineering Nathematics The average ofall the terms=2**, where ‘a’ is the Istterm and/ is the last ten, ie. =a+(n— Id, forn terms. Hence the sum of m terms, (BP) = Hester onan S12 +(~ Dl For example, the sum of the first 7 terms of the series. 1,4,7,10, 13,... is given by s 1 F2U)+(7= 113] sincea=1 and d=3 22418) =2120)=70 5l2+18)= 5120)= Se net et ea eee it ars pet esas Problem 1, Determine: (a) the 9th, and (b) the 16th term of the series 2,7, 12, 17... 2,7, 12, 17,... is an arithmetic progression with a common difference, d of § (a). The n't term of an AP is given by @-4(n— 1d Since the fist term a=2,d=5 andn=9 then the ‘Sth term is: 2+O=19=2+8)(9)=24+40=42 (b) The 16th term is 24 (16—NS=2+(15)5) $1S=77 Problem 2. The 6th term of an AP is 17 and the 13th term is 38, Determine the 19th term, The n'th term of an AP is a+ (n— I) "The 6th term isia 4 $= 17 a ‘The 13h term is: a+ 12d= 38 2) ~ equation (1) gives: 7=21, from which, Substituting in equation (1) gives: a-+15=17, from whieh, a=2 Hence the 19th tern is a+ (n= Ijd=24 19 )3=2+18)/3) 56 +5 Problem 3. Determine the number of the term whose value is 22 is the series 1 4,55 Trone Hence if the ath term is 22 then: a-+(n—I)d=22 is abewen(it) and B+Isi lve, the Mth term of the AP is 22 Problem 4. Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the series 3,9, 15, 17, « 5.9,13,17, The sum of n terms of an AP, . isan AP where a=Sand d=4 sen Maes 0a Heoce the sum of the frst 12 tems, Se= $26) +02-14) = [10 +44) = 6(54) = 324Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 60 Arithmetic progressions (Answers on page 662) 1, Find the 1 ih term ortheseries8, 14,20,26, 2. Find the 17th term of the series 11, 10.7, 10.4, 10.1, 3. The 7th term of a series is29 and the Ith term. is 54. Determine the sixteenth term. 4. Find the 15th term ofan arithmetic progression (of which the first term is 2.5 and the 10th term is 16. 5. Determine the number ofthe term which is 29 in the series 7, 9.2, 114, 13.6,.. 6. Find the sum of the first 11 terms of the series 4,7, 10, 13, 7. Determine the sum of the series 65, 80, 9, 11.0, 00432 ee ene arithmetic progressions Problem 5. The sum of tems ofan AP 8353 ard the coramo difference is 1.2. Determine the Ist term ofthe series 1, Since the sum of n terms of an AP is given by and $; Boe n then 38 = Lat 7-H 12)= 4204721 Hence 3542 Qa+7.2 W0= 20472 Ths 2a=10-72=28 28 from whieh a a i.e. the first term,a=1.4 Number sequences 127 Problem 6. Three numbers are in arithmetic progression, Their sum is 15 and their product is 80. Determine the three numbers Let the three numbers be (a—d), a and (ad) Then (a—d)+at(atd which, a=5 Also, a(a—d\(a+a)=80, ie 30 Since 5(5?= a") =80 125-54 =80 125-80 =sa 45=5d? Bo. tence, d=V9 The thece numbers are thus (5~3), $ and (S-+3), be 2,Sand8 From whieh, 2 3 Problem 7. ind the sum of all the numbers between 0 and 207 which are exactly divisible by 3 ‘The series 3,6,9, 12, ..-207 is an AP whose fist teem, 3 and common difference d: ‘The last term is a+ (n—1)d=207 ie. 3+ (n= 1)8=207 207- from which 0 Hence n= +1=09 ‘The sum of all 69 werms is given by So Rati Dal ain Problem 8. The Ist, 12th and last term of an arithmetic progression are 4, 31.5, and 376.5 respectively Determine: (a) the nimber of terms in the series, (b) the sum of all the terms and (c) the 80h term (a) Letihe AP bea, a+d,a42d, where a=4 salad,128 Engineering Nathematics “The 12m term ts: + (12= 1) aL Le 4-4 11d= 31.5, from which, Md=315-4=275 Hace d= 7S 25 i Tre last term is a+ 1 id ie, 4401-25) o-1) Hence the number of terms in the series, n= 149412150 ©) Smofall a teas, Si= 220+ (nD 11) 4050-291 = 758+4)23) 808437251 75(380.5) = 288375 (©) The 80th team is: at (n— 1d = 44 (80-1025) =4+ (792.5) =44 1975 =2015 Problem 9. An oil company bores a hole 120m deep. Estimate the enst of horing if the cost is £70 for drilling the frst metre with an increase in cos of ‘£3 per metre for each succeeding metre The series is 70,73,16, 10,4 ‘Thus, total eost, a 20 $20 + (n= 1d) = *12(90) + (120- 1))) {60(140 4 357] = 601407) = £29 820 Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 61 Arithmetic progressions (Answers on page 663) 1. Thesum of 15 ermsor.an aritimete progres: sion is 202.5 and the common difference is 2. Find the first tem of the series ‘Taree numbers are in arithmetic progression, ‘Their sum is 0 and theie product is 20.25 Determine the three numbers 3. Find the sum of all the numbers between and 250 which are exactly divisible by 4 4 Find the number of terms of the series 5, 8, 11, ...0f which the sum is 1025 5, Insert four terms between 5 and 22.5 to form an arithmetic progression 6 The Ist, 10th and Jast terms of an arithmetic progression are9, 405, and 425.5 respectively. Find (a) the numberof terms, (b) the sum of all terms and () the 70th term 7. On commencing employment a man is paid a salary of £16 000 per annum and receives annual increments of £480. Determine his ‘salary in the 9th year and ealeulate the total the will have received in the frst 12 years 8. An ol company bores a hole 80m deep. Esti- ‘mate the cost of boring Ifthe cost is £30 for dliilling the first metre with an increase in cost (of £2 per metre for each succeeding metre i Ciera Pree When a sequence has a constant ratio between succes- sive terms iti called a geometric progression (often abbreviated to GP). The constant is called the common, ratio, Examples include (i) 1,2,4,8, ... where the common ratio i and (ii) a, ar, ar*, ar’, ... where the commen ratio General expression for the n'th term ofa GP Ifthe first term of a GP is “a” and the common ratio is then then’ dhtermissar”™!hich can be readily checked from the ubove examples. For example, the 8th term of the GP 1, 2, 4.8, ... is (1)2)"= 128, since a= 1 and r=2 ‘Sum ton terms of a GP Leta GP bea, ar, ar, ar, ..ar"" thea the sum of 7 terms, otartartar+entarl.. (1) Multiplying throughout by gives: tart! tar"... 2 PSy=ar-tar?+ ar + ort + Subwraciing equation (2) from equation (1) glves: Sy 1S) =a-ar" ie. S01 a(l-r") ‘Thus the sum of # terms, ar") aA which is valid when < 1 Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2) gives 2) nic in valid whene > 1 «=D For example, the sum of the first § terms of the GP. 1,2,4,8, 16, ..is given by: _ 11) = 1256~1) sincea = Land r= 2 258 ‘Sum to infinity of a GP ‘When the common ratio r ofa GP isess than unity, the sum of » terms, ar’) ay 1 which may be written as Se a7 Since, r < 1." becomes less as m increases, Number sequences 129 te. rho 0 as nace Hence 7 0 as no. Thus Se rr) ‘Theaguantcy "scaled the sum to infty Sx, ands the imiing valueof the sum of an infinitenumber of terms, =“ whichis valid when -1 10 wwwerotledgeccomfewbed a4 sax pian atedabx t6a2x? +4ax3 4x4 Sa'e-+ 103s? +1002 45ax44x5 a6 +6a5e + 1Sats? 0a3s3 + 1Sa2yt + 6085 42° Table 16.1 (a+)! rot (atx adjacent coefficients gives the evefficients of (a +x)” fs shown in (2) below. ‘The first and last terms of the expansion of +x)? and, a7 and x" respectively. The powers of ‘a’ decrease and the powers of “x” increase moving from left 10 right Hence. (ote laal 4 Tobe ah tg ale 4 asa $2taPS + Tac! x7 Problem 2, Determine, using Pascal's ‘method, the expansion of (2p ~34)* Comparing (2p —3q)8 with a-+)8 shows that a =2p) —3q Using Pascal's triangle method: (ats)? =a? +5a'x + 10a'x? 4 10423 + Hence 5(2p)"-39) + 10(2p)(—34) +10(2p)%-39)? +5(2p)(—34)*+ (-349)*136 Engineering Nathematics Les 2p 39h =32p" —240p!4 +7209"? — 10g g + 810pat— 24345 Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 65 Pascal’striangle (Answers on page 663) Use Pascal's triangle to expand (x—y)? 2. Expand (2a +36)S using Pascal's triangle. ies Creel acute ‘The binomial series cr binomial theorem is formula forraising a binomial expression to any power without lengthy multiplication, The general binomial expansion of a+r)" is given by ae where, for example, 3! denote 3 x 2x 1 and is termed “factorial 3°. With the binomial theorem n may be a fraction, a {decimal fraction or a positive or negative integer. In the general expansion of (a +)" itis noted thatthe th term is: nin = 1y(n=2) mea Bina ‘The number is very evident in this expression, For any term) in & binomial expansion, say the rs term, (7—1) is very evident. It may therefore be rea- soned thatthe th term of the expansion (ats) ist nn=1in=2) Can Ifa= 1 in the binomial expansion of (a 4-x)* then: nin 1) (4a) = 14m which is valid for —1- or ~j. Determine the approximate change in the second ‘moment of area fb is increased by 3.5% and [fs reduced by 2.5% New values of b and / are (1 +-0.035) and (1 ~ 0.025) respectively. New second moment of area [C1 +0.035)o]101 — 0.025)1)° = Fy +0.035)(1 ~ 0.025) 1 4.0.035)(1 0.075), neglesting powers of small terms (1+0.035 ~ 0.075), neglecting products of small terms I 12 original second moment of area (10.040) oF (0.96) Le. 96% ofthe Hence the second moment of area is reduced hy approximately 4% Problem 18. The resonant frequency of a ee eo ieee ee oe Pc value of & is 4% too large and the measured value OF Fis 2% too small Let fk and / be the true values of frequency, stiffness and inertia respectively. Since the measured value of stiffness, ky, i8 4% too large, then 140.04) % ‘Themeasured value of inertia, 11,i8 2% toosmall, heace 98 381-002 ag! = (10.00) h ‘The measured valve of frequency, 1 fix eV Be f= = yp llt-+0.0Hai8t( 0021+ = 0.04444 002 =zer-ta to0eta 0.0! (1 +0.04)#(1 ~ 0.02)-F “seo(oml © FL +0.02)(1-+0.01) le fi Joa] [Neglecting the produets of small terms, A= (4002 40.01) F103 6 “Thus ihe percentage error in f based on ne measured ‘values of k and 1 is approximately ((1,03) 100) — 100}, i.e, 3% too large [Now try the folowing Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 68 Practical problems involving the binomial theorem (Answers on page 663) 1. Pressure p and volume » are related by po? =e, wherec is aconstant. Determine the approximate percentage change inc when p is increased by 3% and v decreased by 1.2%se feos 142 Engineering Nathematics 2. Kinetic eneray is givenby $mo®. Determine the approximate change in the kineticenergy when mass m is increased by 2.5% and the velocity is reduced by 39% 3. An error of +1.5% was made when mea suring the radius of a sphere. Ignoring the products of small quantities determine the approximate error in calculating (a) the vol- ume, and (b) the surface area 4. ‘The power developed by an engine is given by [=k PLAN, where is aconstant. Deter- ‘mine the approximate percentage change in the power when Pand A ate each increased by 2.5% and L and N are each decreased by Las ‘The radius of a cone is Increased by 2.79% and its height reduced by 0.9%. Determine the approximate percentage change in its volume, neglecting the products of small terms 6. Theelecwic field strength H duet a magnet of length 2/ and moment Mf at a point on its axisdistance from the centre is given by: lewna x0 Show that is fis very small compared with.x, 7. The shear stiess rin a shaft of diamgjer D under a torque T is given by: 1= 5 Determine the approximate percentage ertor Incalculating r ifT ismeasured 3% too small and D 1.5% too large 10. 1 ‘The energy W stored in a lywhosl is given by: W=ArSN2, where k is a constant, r is the radius and. N’ the number of revolu- tions. Determine the approximate percentage ‘change in W when ris increased by 1.3% and Wis decreased by 2% Ina series electrical circuit containing indue- tance L and capacitance € the resonant frequency is given by: ji If the 1 invic salues of L and C used in the calculation are 216% too large and 0.8% too small respec- tively, determine the approximate percentage caror inthe Frequency ‘The viscosity of a liquid is given by: pe a crore 42h, inv of 4band of -29, A magnetic pole, distance x from the plane of coil of radius, and on the axis ofthe coil, is subject 1 a force F when a current flows in the coil. The Fores is given by: kx F where isa constant, Use JRE the binomial theorem to show that when x is ke Ske small compared tor, then F === — 5 ‘The flow of water through a pipe is given by: by 1%, use the binomial theorem to estimate the decrease in G For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 65 to 68 i this chapter, 9 to the websi warwaroutledge.comiew/hirdChapter 17 Solving equations by iterative methods Why itis important to understand: Solving equations by iterative methods ‘There aremany, many different types of equationsused in every branch of engineeringand scfence. There are straight-forward methods for solving simple, quadratic and simultaneous equations; however, there are many other types of equations than these three. Great progress has been made in the engineering and scientific disciplines regarding the use of iterative methods for linear systems. In engineering it is important that we ean solve any equation; iterative methods, such as the Newton-Raphson method, help us do that, ‘raph cuts the x-axis. Another way is by using @ fune- tional notation method. This method uses the property thatthe valueof the graph of f(x) = Ochangessign for values of just before and just after the value of a rot. Many equations can only be solved graphically of For example, one root ofthe equation x2—x —6 = Dis by methods of successive approximation t the roots, : called iterative methods, Three methods of successive 17.1 Introduction Eee Using fun approximations are (i) by using the Newton-Rapison fon pation: formula. given in Section 17.2. (i the bisection meth- F(a) ‘ods, and (ii) an algebraic methods. The later two meth- 70) cous are discussed in Higher Engineering Mathematics, seventh edition. fay Each successive approximation method relies on a It can be seen from these results thatthe value of f(x) reasonably good first estimate of the value of a root changes irom —4 at f(2) 10 +6 at (4), indicating that being made. One way of determining this isto sketch a rogt es between 2 and 4, Thisis shown more clearly ‘graph of the function, say y= f(x),and determine the in Fig. 17 approximate values of roots from the points where the144 Engineering Mathematics Figure 17.1 ee eee eee) The Newton-Raphson formuls*, often just referred to as Newton’s method, may be stated as follows: Who were Newion and. Raphsen? ~ Sir Isc Newton English polymath Newon shed that ie tions objet Stung the eomucncy Becca Kepler avo plane sroverlegeconlcw Joseph Raphson ihe Nevton-Raphson method for apr nEnglsh mathematician knownbes for sion. To find ot eis ifr bs the opproximete value of a reat root of the equation fix) = 0, then a closer approximation to the root ra is given by: a foo Theadvantages of Newton's metiod over other methods of successive approximations is that it can be used for typeof mathematical equation (i, ones containing onometric, exponential, logari nd it is usually easier to apply than other methods, ‘The method is demonstrated in the smie, hyperbolieand following worked problems. DOL ru uk eicumit sauna Problem 1 the positive root of the quadratic equation 5x24 Ix — 17=0, cortect to 3 significant figures, Check the value ofthe root by wsing the quadratie formula Use Newton's method to determine The functional notation method is used to determine the first approximation to the root: y+ 11(2)— 17 = 25 This shows that the value of the root is elo Letthe first approximation to theroot,r1.be 1. Newton's formula states that a eloser approximation, ron) "Fey Pe Lie 17, thus, fir) =S(ey? +1) — su? +ud)— 17-1 f'(a) ie the differcatial cowificient of f(x), ie J'(z)=l0x-+ 11 (see Chapter 45). Thus f(y) =10(4) +11 =10() + = 2 By Newton's formula, a hetter approximation to the sei M48) = 1.05 =o) 21 0.048) = 1.05, 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.146 Engineering Nathematics Thus, ry comrectto 3 significant figures 3 « (3.042) sin = 3082 — G08) 5 Stellen) 3.08 ana é =3.0i.— =) Me ; 13.1) 7 = 3.042 —0,0022 = 3.0398 = 3.08, comet 3 significant figures 8. Since rand r3 are the same when expressed to the requlted degtee of accuracy, hen the reyulted root Is 3.04, correct wo 3 significant figures. Now try the following Practice Exercise 9 Practice Exercise 69 Newton's method (Answers on page 663) Jn Problems I 07, use Newton’smethod io solve the equations given to the accuracy stated. rn J. s?=24-13=0, comectto 3 decimal places 2. d3—10x=14, correct to 4 significant figures a tony aea places 0, correct 16 3 decimat For fully worked solutions to each of the problemsin ge to the website: 3rt—4x947x=12, comect w 3 decimal places Binx+4x: correct to3 decimal places 1082, correct to 3 significant figures 0 3000" figures . correct to 3 significant A Foner amas of the Tnsanoness Sane wae ne epe y y= (+45) +anrt dan one ofr ms 00 comet deci pcs, Shen amines, 0.80 A damped oscillation of a sysiem is given by the equation: y=—7.deSsin 37. Determine the value off near to4.2, correctto 3significant figure, when themagnitude y of the oscillation ‘The eritical speeds of oscillation, 4,of a loaded ‘beam are given by the equation: 3.2502? +4 -0.063= 0 Determine the value of 1 which is approx- mately equal 19 3.0 by Newton's method, ccorreci to 4 decimal places. Practice Exercise 69 in this chapter, warw.routledge.comiew/hirdee Me ee ee ea ee This Revision test covers the n 1 Pree eee ets atthe end of each question Evaluate tne following, each correct to 4 8 ficant figutes a (ae () ME Expand xe to six terms Plotagraph of y= tox=+1 and hencedetermine, correctto | d imal place, (a) the value of y when x and (b) the value of ¥ when y=4.0 Evaluate the following, each correct to 3 decimal places 1n3.68~ In2.91 (@) 190.0753. (>) Q 463 Two quantities rand yare related by the equation y=ae™*, where @ and k are constants, Deter- imine, correct to 1 decimal place, the value of when a=2.114,k=—3.20 and x=1429 (3) 1 0;-0=4in(f2) find the value of Us piven that 0/=35, = 25, R=031 J=04,U; =50 Solve, comtect to 4 significant figures (a) 13-1 = te" () Inge +1)? = In(e + 1) Ime +2) as) Determine the 20th term of the series 15.6, 15, 14.4, 138, 8) The sum of 13 termsof an arithmetic progression {s280and me common difference is 3, Determin the first term of the series (4) aterial contained in Chapters 14 to 17. The marks for each question are shown in Determine the 11th term of the series 1.3, 3, 6.12. Q) A machine isto have seven speeds ranging from 2Srevimin © S00rev/min. If the speeds form 4 geometric progression, determine their value each correct to the nearest whole number Use the binomial series to expand (2a—30)° o Expand the following in ascending powers of ¢ as far as the term in? 1 1 ai ) vi-m For cach ease, state the limits for which the expansion is valid ) 49 The modulus of igidty G is given by G= 2 where R is the radius, @ the angle of twist and L the length, Find the approxim error in G when R is measured 1.5% too large, 0 percentage is measure 3% too small and L is measured 1% too small © The solution to adifferential equation associcted with the path taken by a projectile for which the resistance to motion is preportional to the veloc y=25(e'~e Use Newton’s method to determine the value of x correct to decimal places, for which the value For lecturers/instructors/teachers, fully worked solutions to cach of the problems in Revision Test 4, together with a full marking scheme, are available at the wel wwwirontledge.com/ew/birdaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have 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either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.226 Engineeing Nathematis = 34Dsin(60.21-0.541) (b) the value of current at f =0, (c) the value of current at 1 = Sms, (d) the time when the ‘current is fist a maximum, (e) the time when the current first reaches 34. ¥=840 sin 50-¢ ‘Sketch one eyele of the waveform showing relevant points Figure 28.27 EER AWE caucus Let an instantaneous voltage v be represented by Now try the following Practice Exercise 1» = Vipin 2x f1 volts. Thisis a waveform which varies sinusoidally with time 1, has a frequency f, and a eee eee Seni vl Ya Abert wins only hainlaie Sc) lanier ot aage 488) assumed to have wave-shapes which are sinusoidal i Bae where only one frequency is present. Ifthe waveform Jn Problems 1 to 3, find (a) the amplitude, jg ot sinuscidal it is called a complex wave, and, (b) the frequency, (c) the periodictime,and(d) tne whatever its shape, it may be split up mathematically Phase angle (stating whether itis leading or lagging nto components called the fundamental and a number sin of) of the alternating quantities given. of harmonics, This process is called harmonic anal- ysis. The fundamental (or frst harmonic) is sinusoidal | F=0 sin(S0x7-40.29)mA y= 75 sin(401~0.54) em 3, 0 = 300sin(20001—0.412) V 4. Assinasoidal voltage has a maximum value of 120 Vanda frequeney of SO Hz. Attimer =0, the voltage is (a) ze, and (b) SOV. Express the instantaneous voltage » in the 5. Am alternating current hts a periodic time of 25 ms and a maximum value of 20 A. When time 1 = 0, current i = ~10 amperes. Express the current jin the form — Asin(oot =a) 6, Anowillsting mechanism hias:amaximum dis- placement of 3.2m and a frequency of 50 Hz. At time 1=0 the displacement is 150em. Express the displacement in the general form Asinjot +a) 7. The current in an acc, circuit at any time # seconds is given by: J = Ssin( 10021 — 0.832) amperes Determine (a) the amplitude, frequency. pesi- odie time and phase angle (in degrees) Figure 23.28Tigonometic waveforms 227 ‘and has the supply frequency, / the otter harmonies arealso sine waves having frequencies which ae integer multiples of f. Tous if the supply frequency is 5 Hz, then the thid harmonic frequency is 150Hz, the fifth 250Hz,and so on. ‘A complex waveform comprising the sum of the fundamental and a third harmonic of about half the amplitude ofthe fundamental is shown in Fig. 23.28(a), both waveforms being initially in phase with each other. If further odd harmonic waveforms of the appropriate amplitudes are added, a good approximation to square ware results, In Fig. 23,28(b), the third harmonic is shown having an inital phase displacement from the fundamental. The positive and negative haf eyeles of each ofthe complex waveformsshown in Figs. 23.282) and (b) are identical in shape, and this is a feature of wareforms containing the fundamental and only odd harmonies, ‘A complex waveform comprising the sum of the fundamental and a second harmonie of about half the amplitude ofthe fundamental isshovin in Fig. 23.28(€), ‘each waveform being initially in phase with each other. For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 93 to 95 in this chapter, 0 to the website: wwromtledge.com/ew/bird Ir furtner even harmonies of appropriate amplitudes are added a good approximation to a triegular wave results. In Fig. 23.28(c), the negative cycle, if reversed, appears as & mirror image of the positive eyele about point A. In Fig. 23.28(c) the second harmonic is shown, With an initial phase displacement from the funda- ‘mental and the positive and negative half cycles are dissimilar, ‘A complex waveform comprising the sum ofthe fan~ damental, a second harmonic and a third harmonic is shown in Fig. 23.28(e), each waveform being initially ‘in-phase’. The negative half eycle, if reversed, appears as a mirror image of the positive cycle atout point B. In Fig. 23.28(1), a complex waveform comprising the ‘sum of the fundamental, a second harmonic and a third hharmonie are shown with initial phase displacement. ‘The positive and negative half cycles are seen to be dissimilar, ‘The features mentioned relative to Figs. 2328(a) to (8) make it possible to recognise the harmonies present in.a complex waveform,Chapter 24 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates Why itis important to understand: Cartesian and polar co-ordinates Applications where polar co-ordinates would be used include terrestrial navigation with sonue-like devices, and those in engineering and science involving energy radiation patterns. Applications where Cartesian co-ordinates would be used include any navigation on a grid and anything involving raster graphics (e. bitmap — a dot matrix data structure representing a generally rectangular grid of pixels). The ability to change from Cartesian to polar co-ordinates is vitally important when using complex numbers and their use in ac. electrical circuit theory and with vector geometry.‘There are two ways in which the position of a point in a plane can be represented. These are (a) by Cartesian co-ordinates, (named after Descartes"), ie. (x. y).and (h)_ by polar co-ordinates, ie. (r, 0), where ris a radius’ from a fixed point and is an angle from 1 fixed point, 24.2 Changing from Cartesian into Poeumerclini In Fig. 24.1, if lengths x and y are known, then the length of r can be obtained from Pythagoras” theorem (see Chapter 22) since OPQ is a rig Hence Pact) from, which Who was Descartes? = René Deseartes(31 March [596-11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician. and wate. He rote many ifucail texts including Meditations on Fits Philosophy, Descartes ne iloseph lea Statement Cost ero sum’ (Ithink, therefore Lam), fund inpart IV of Discourse en the Method. To find out nore go t0 sw otledae.comiewied Cartesian andpolarco-erinates 229 igure 241 For rigonometric ratios (see Chapter: from which r= Je 497 and 0=ten- © are the two formulae we artesian to polarco-ordinates. The be expressed in degres or radians, need to change from angle @, which ma must always be measured from the positive x-axis, ie measured from the line OQ in Fig. 24.1. Itis suggested that wher changing from Cartesian to polarco-crdinates a diggram should 98 be sketched. Problem 1. (3,4) into polar co-ordinates (Change the Cartesian co-ordinates A diagram representing the point (3, 4) is shown in Fig. 24.2 Figure 242 From Pythagoras’ theorem, (ote that 5 has no meaning in this context), By trigonometric ratios, @= tan 3.13° or 0927 rad [note thar 93, 3% (w /180) Fa =0.927 rad 3, 4) In Cartesian co-ordinates 13°) or (5, 0.827 rad) in polar co-ordinates. Problem 2. Express in polar co-ordinates the position (—4, 3)230 Engineeing Nathematis ‘A diagram representing the point using the Cartesian A sketch showing the position (2, —5) 1s shown in co-ordinates (—4, 3) is shown in Fig, 24.3, Fig. 24.5, From Pythagoras’ theorem r= Va2-+3#=5 pa VBGS = VB = 5.385 By trigonometic ratios, @=tan~!} or correct to3 decimal places 0.644 rad, 8.20° oF 1.190 ad Hence Figure 243 Figure 2458 Hence the position of point P in polar co-ordinate Hence form is(S, 143.13°) or (5,2.498 rad). a Geis ‘Thus (2, -5) in Cartesian co-ordinates corresponds pretence whores 5,12) pole to (6.385, 291.80°) or (5.385, 5.093 rad) in polar co-ordinates co-ordinates, AA sketch showing the position (—5, ~12) isho¥n in gy try the following Practice Exercise Fig. 244, ra VP FIP =13 Practice Exercise 96 Changing Cartesian @ into polarco-ordinates (Answers on page and a= tan"! 2=07.38° of 1.175 ra 656) 14738° In Problems 1 to 8, express the given Cattesian co-ordinates as polar co-ordinates, correct to 2 ‘decimal places, in both degrees and in radians. 1 GS) (6.18,2.35) (2,4) (5.4.3.7) (-7,-3) Hence = 180° 467.38" or =m 41.176 = 4.318 ral. (-2.4,-3.9) 6-3) (8.6, -12.4) Figure 144 Thus (5, —12) in Cartesian co-ordinates corre sponds to (13, 247.38°) or (13, 4318 rad) in polar co-ordinates. Problem 4. Express (2, ~5) in polar co-ordinates. From the right-angled langle OPQ in Fig. 246.Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 231 cos =~ and sin 0 = > from tigonometic ratios Hence <= reo:0 and y= rind ” Figure 24.6 If length r and angle 6 are known then x=r cos 0 and sin @ are thetwo formulae we need to change from polar to Cartesian co-ordinates. Problem 5. Change (4, 32°) into Cartesian co-ordinates ‘A sketch showing the position (4, 32°) is shown in Fig. 24,7, Now x andy ro0s6 = Acos32° sind 38 212 Figure 247 Hence (4, 32°) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (3.39, 212) in Cartesian co-ordinates. Problem 6, Express (6,137) in Cartesian ex-ondinatcs AA sketch showing the position (6, 137°) is shown in Fig. 24.8, = res = G08 1379 = 4.388 which corresponds to length OA in Fig. 24.8. y=rsind = 6sin 137° = 4.092 Which corresponds to length AB in Fig. 24.8 Figure 248 "Thus (6, 137°) in polar co-ordinates corresponds to (~4.388, 4,092) in Cartesian co-ordinates. (Note that when changing from polar to Cartesian ‘co-ordinates itis not quite s9 essential to draw a sketch, Useof x =rcos Gand y=r sind automatically produces, the correct signs.) Problem 7. co-ordinates Express (4.5, 5.16 rad) in Cartesian A sketch showing the position (4. in Fig. 24.9. 16 rad) is shown 948 Which corresponds to length OA in Fig, 249. y=rsind =4.5sin5.16 = —4.057 which corresponds to length AB in Fig. 24.9, Figure 249 ‘Thus (1.948, ~4.087) in Cartesian co-ordinates cor- responds to (4.5, 5.16 rad) in polar co-ordinates. [Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 97 Changingpolarinte Cartesian co-ordinates Answers on page 666) In Problems 1 to 8, express the given polar co-ordinates as Cartesian co-ordinates, correct to 3 decimal places.2B2 _Engineeing Nathematis 1 6,759) 2 44.1.2 rad) 3. (7, 140°) 4. B.6,25 nd) 5. (10.8, 210°) 6. @4rad) 7. (15,300) 8. 6,55 mad) 9, Figure 24.10 shows equally spaced holes on an 80mmpitcheircle diameter. Calculate their «co-ordinates relative to axes Ox and Oy ina) polar form, (b) Caresian fonn. (¢) Calculate also the shortest distance between the centres ‘of two adjacent holes, ys o| x Figure 24.10 YW MU aaa ture Peeters Another name for Cartesian co-ordinates is rectangu- lar co-ordinates. Many scientific notation calculators possess Pol and Ree funetions. ‘Ree’ is an abbeevi ation of “rectangular” (i.e, Cartesien) and “Pol” is an For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in abbreviation of “polar’. Check the operation ‘your particular calculator to determine how to use these {wo functions. They make changing from Canesian to polir co-ordinates, and vice-versa, somuch quickerand For example, with the Casio fx-83ES caleulator, or similar, to change the Cartesian number (3.4) into polar form, the following procedure is adopted: anual for 1. Press ‘shitt” 2. Press “Pol” 3, Enter 3 4. Enter ‘comma’ (obtained by ‘shift then) ) 5. Ener 6. Press) 7. Pres= Theanswer is: r= $,0= 53.13" Hence, (3, 4) in Cartesian form is the same as (5, 53.18 in polar form. the angle required in radians, tien before repeat~ ing the above procedure press ‘shift, ‘mode’ and then 4 to change your calculatorto radian mode. Similarly, to change the polar form number (7, 126°) {nto Cartesian or reetangulat fom, adopt ihe following, procedure: 1 Press shit” Press “Rec! Enter 7 Enter ‘comma’ Enter 126 (assuming your calculator is in degrees mode) Press ) Pre across, ‘The answer is X = —4.11, and serolling = $.66, correct to 2 decimal places. Hence, 7, 126°) in polar formis the same as (4.11, 5.66) in rectangular or Cartesian form. Now return to Practice Exercises 96 and 97 in this chap- terand use your ealeulator to determine theanswers,and see how much moce quickly they may be obtained. ractice Exercises 96 to 97 in this chapter, 0 to the website: werw.rvutledge.comiew/hirdCe Me uae This Revision text covers the material contained in Chapters 22 to 24. The marks for each question are shown in brackets at the end of each question. 1. Fig. RT6.1 shows a plan view of a kite design Calculate the lengths of the dimensions shown asaandb 4) In Fig. RT6.1, evaluate (a) angle @ (b) ang Determine the area of the plan view ofa kite shown in Fig. RT6.1 4) Figure R61 If the angle of elevation of the top of a 25m per: peniicular bailding from point A is measured as 27°, determine the distance to the building. Caleu= late also the angle of elevation at a point B, 20m closer to the building than point A 5) Evaluate, each correct to 4 significant figures: (a) sin 231.78° (b) cos 151°16° (e) tan For lecturers/instrac ‘hed sol 6. Sketch the following curves labelling relevant points: (a) y = 4 exs(0+45°) (b) y = Ssin(2r—60") © Solve the following equations in the range 0° to 360° (a) sin~! (0.4161) =x bp) eot~1(2.4108) 0 oy The curent in an alternating current cireuit any time 1 seconds is given by 20sia( 10027 +0.274) amperes. Detenmine the amplitude, periodic time, frequeney and phase angle (with reference to 12) sin 100%2) ihe value the value of current when f=6ms he time when the current first reaches 80 A Sketch ove cycle of the oscillation a7 Change the following Cartesian co-ordinates into polar co-ordinates, correct t9 2 decimal places, in both degrees and in radians: (a) (~2.3, $.4) b) (7.6, -9.2 © Change the following polarco-ordinates inwo Carte sian co-ordinates, correct to 3 decimal places: (a) (6.5,132°) (b) (3,3 rad) 4 together with a full marking scheme, are available at the wel wwwirontledge.com/ew/birdChapter 25 Triangles and some practical applications Why itis important to understand: Triangles and some practical applications As was mentioned earlier, flelds that use trigonometry include astronomy, navigation, music theory, acoustics, opts, electronics, probability theory, statistics, biology, medical imaging (CATT seans and ultrasound), pharmacy, chemistry, seismology; meteorology; oceanography, many physical sciences, land surveying, architecture, economics, electrical engincsring, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, computer graphics, cartography, and crystallography. There are so many examples where triangles are involved in engineering, and the ability to solve such triangles is of great importance. Sine rule With reference to triangle ABC of Fig. 25.1, the sine To ‘solve a triangle’ means ‘to find the values of rule stales: unknown sides and angles’. If a triangle is righ a8 & angled, trigonometric ratios and the theorem of fai aa Pythagoras’ may be wsed for its solution, as shown in Chapiet 22, However, for nom-right-angled triangle, trigonometric ratios and Pythagoras’ theorem cannot be used. Instead, Wo rules, called the sine rule and (2) side and any 2 angles are initially given, oF cosine rule, are used. Puce enue ‘The rule may be used only when: (i) 2 sides and an angle (not the included angle) are initially given. Who was Pythagoras? Go to ww wroutledgecom/cw/birdFigure 25.1 Cosinerule With reference to triangle ABC of Fig, 25.1, the cosine rile states: Bc? — 2he cos ? 407 —2ne cont or cha? +h* —2ab cose ‘The rule may be used only when: (i) 2sides and the included angle are initially given, or eB Gi). 3 sidesare in 25.2. Area of any triangle le such as ABC of Fig. 25.1 is ly given, ‘The area of any trian given i) }rebave x perpendicular height, or (ii) Jab sinc oF Jac sin B oF fhe sin, or Gi) Yee=aya=bye=e) eee Pee ceca Paar eee ae uci Problem 1 Ina triangle XYZ, ZX=S1°, ZY =67? and YZ=15.2em. Solve the tiangle and find its ares The triangle XYZ is shown in Fig. 25.2. Since the angles ina triangle add up to 180°, then z= 180 ~51°—67° = 62. Applying the sine rule 15.2 oy singh sing in ‘and transposing gives: mor Tianglesand some practiclappiations 235 Figure 282 5 po0em= xt 22 Usig BF, = 2 and tarsposing gives: 15.2sin62 B2sne? — ratem= x Aves of triangle XYZ bxysinZ (or area $15.2)(17.27 sino? 20.8em") Iis always worth checking with triangle problems that the longest side is opposite the largest angle, and vice-versa. In this problem, ¥ is the largest angle and XZ, the longest of the three sides. Problem 2. Solve the triangle ABC given B=78°51', AC=22.31 mm and AB=17.92mm. Find also itsarea ‘Triangle ABC is shown in Fig. 25.3, Applying the sine rule - 22s1__ 1192 wrest" ame r9zsinn® foe wth, anc = TEP2HHTESY 9 a § \ ease K Figure 253736 Engineeing Nathematis Hence C=sin"! 0.7881=52°0' or 128°0' (see Chapters 22nd 23). Since B=78°SI', C cannot be 128°, since 128°0/ +-78°51" is greater han 180°, Thus only C=52°0" is vali. Angle A= 180°—78°51/—52°0' Applying the sine rule 9°9) o 2a 459 ~ Sin 78°51" feanwnien; ee PBNHEAF yoniaiw sin 78ST Hence A =49°9/, C=$2°0" and BC=17.20mm. Area of triangle ABC= Jacsin B 4(17.20)17.92)si078°S 1 = 151.2 mm? Problem 3. Solvethe tangle POR snd find its area given that QR=36.5mm, PR=26.6mm and 20=30° Triangle POR is shown in Fig. 25.4 Pp s q-238mm (38 op eanm Figure 28-4 Applying the sine rule: 365 sinP 36.5sin36° from whieh, sin p= OOS _o 724 from whieh, 2 8 Hence P. 40°27" or 133739 When P= 46°27" and = 36° then R= 180°—46°27'—36° = 97°33" When P= 133°33' and Q then R= 180-13. ‘Thus, in this problem, there are two separate sets oF results and both are feasible solutions. Such a situation called the ambiguous ease. 1. P=46°27", 0 and =29.6mm From the sine rule: r 6 SHOTST ~ 336° 29.68in97°33" tromwncn, p= 2082759 _ 4992 mm sin36° ‘Area = $ pqxin R= }(36.5)(29.6)sin97°33° = $35.5mm Case2. 3°33", 36°, R= 10°27, andq=—29.0mm From the tne rte 1 _ 396 SnTPRT ~ Sin36° 29.6sin 10°27 sin36° 3(36.5)(29.6)sin 10°27" 97.988 ‘Triangle POR for case 2is shown in Fig. 25.5. 13933" 9.134mm y 29.6mm 38S mm 1027" Figure 25.8 Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 98 The solution of triangles and their areas (Answers on page 666) In Problems 1 and 2, use the sine rule w solve the tufangles ABC and find their areas. 8°, b 7mm 56°32’, 6=8.60em In Problems 3 and 4, use the sine rule to solve the triangles DEF and find their areas.Mem, f=2em, F=26° =32,6mm, e= 254mm, D=104°27 In Problems 5 and 6, use the sine rule © solve the triangles JKL and find their areas. 3.85em,£=3.23em, K Rae eee Cea Cueeaucnr es pO Rue Problem 4, Solve triangle DEF and find its area ven that EF =35.0mm, DE = 250mm and LE = 048 ‘Triangle DEF is shown in Fig. 25.6. Figure 25.6 Applying the cosine rue: fF -ldfcosE 05.0)? + 25.0)" ~[2135.0)(25.0)¢0s64°) = 1225 4.625 ~ 167.1 = 1083, TOR Applying the sine rule from which, 291mm, 25.0 saF 25.0sin64® rom whiek BOSON = 0.682 from which, Saar = 9.9828 Thus LF = Sin" 0.6828 =43°4" or 136°50" F=136°56' is. not possible in this case since 136°50'+ 04 is greater than 189°. Thus only F=43°4" Tianglesand some practiclappiations 237 is vata. D = 180° 64° ~ 43°4' = 72°56! ‘Ares of triangle DEP= 4d fsin E = }(85.0)(25.0)sin64° = 393.2 mm? Problem S.A triangle ABC has sides e=90em, Sem and =6.5em, Determine its three ‘Triangle ABC is shown in Fig, 25.7. It is usual first, to calculate the largest angle to determine whether the triangle is acute or obtuse. In this ease the largest angle {is A (Le. opposite ihe longest sie). A 850m b=75em a aoe Figure 25.7 Applying the cosine rule: a =P +e2—2beeosA from which, Pte Pee 2becos, and Henze A= cos“! 0.1795 =79.66° (0r280.33°, which is obviously impossible). The triangle isthusacute angled since cos A is positive. (IF cos A had been negative, angle A would be obtuse, ie. lie between 90? and 180°.) Applying the sine rule: 90 sin79.68° 7.5sin79.66 from which, sinB = “> "2 8°" _ o.giog ich, a0 Henve — B. 0.8168 = 55.06 80° — 79.66" — $5.06 528"238 _Engineeing Nathematis Atea= YSU GIS=PVS=C), where atbte 20475468 15em Hence area = VTISUTS8ONTTS= TSS 6S) = V115(25)(4.0)(5.0) = 23.98 em* Alternatively 4(9.0)(7.5) sin45.28° =23.9%em" meas fabsin€ Problem 6. Solve triangle XYZ, shown in Fig. 25.8, and find its area given that Y= 128°, Figure 28.8 Applying the cosine rate: yan? 4272x2008 S?+7.2 ~[2(4.5)(7.2) 08 128°] 10.25 + $1.84— [39.89] 0.25 + 51-844 39.89 = 112.0 V112.0 = 10.58em Applying the sine rule: lose 7.2 sin 128° ~ sinZ 7.2sin 128° from which, sinZ 0.5363, 138 Hence Z= sin™!0.5363=32.43° (or 147.57° which, here, is impossible) X= 180° 128° — 32.47 = 19.57 ‘Area = farzsin ¥ = }(45)(7.2)sin128° = 12.77em* Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 99 The solution of ‘trlangles and thelr areas (Answers on page 656) In Problems 1 and 2, use the cosine and sine rules to solve the triangles POR and find their areas, 1 q=12em,r=I6em, P=54° 2 g=3.25m,r=442m, P=105° In Problems 3 and 4, use the cosine and sine rules to solve the triangles XYZ and find thelr areas. 3 (0.0m, y=8.0em,2=7.9em 4 x=2Imm,y=34mm,2=42mm Practical tr jation: Ceeoy rely ‘There are a pumber of practical situations where the use of trigonometry needed to find unknown sidesand, angles of triangles. Thisis demonstrated inthe following ‘worked problems, Problem 7. A room 8.0m wide has a span roof which slopes at 33° on one side and 40° on the ‘other. Find the length of the roof slopes, correct to the nearest centimetre A section ofthe roof is shown in Fig. 25.9. 80m Figure 25.9 Angle at ridge, B= 180°—33°— 40" From the sine rule: 07 in 3° from whieh, SOs" _ 4 556m [Also from the sine rule a0 Sinl07 ~ Sina from which, en Mena _ sa7Im sin 107Tangles and some practical applications 239 Hence the roof slopes are4.S0m and 5.38m, correct, to the nearest centimetre. Problem 8. Aman leaves a point walking at 65kmh ina direction E 20° N (ie. bearing of 70°). & cyclist leaves the same point atthe same time ina direction E 40° S (ie. a bearing of 130°) travelling ata constant speed. Find the average: specd of the cyclist i the walker and eyclist are ‘80km apan after 5 hours After 5 hours the walker has travelled 5 x6.5=32.5km (shown as AB in Fig. 25.10). If AC is the distance the cyclist vavels in 5 hours then BC=80 km. Figure 25.10 Applying the sine rule: 80 _ 325 Sin60? ~ Sn sin60? from which, sinc = = S8RO0" _y 551g Hence C= sin! 0.3518 =20.60° (or 159.40°, which is impossible in this case B = 180° —60° ~ 20,60° = 99.40° Applying the sine rule again: 80 6 Snoo? ~ Sn 99.40" from which, 80sin99.40" = ot. 14cm sin60° Since the cyclist travels 91.14km in 5 hours then tance _ 91.14 average speed =“ LM _1s.23knvh time 5 Problem % Two voltage phasorsare shown in Fig. 25.11. If Vi=40V and V>= 100 V determine the value oftheir resultant (ie. length OA) and the ‘angle the resultant makes with Vi Angle OBA=180°— 45° = Applying the cosine rue: 24V} —2ViVacosOBA 40? + 100? — (2(40)(100) e0s 135°) 1600 + 10000 — {—5657} 1600+ 10000-+5657-= 17257 ‘The resultant n= VTE 314V Applying the sine rule: 14100. Sn135°~ sindOB LOW sin 135° from which, sing = SE = 0.5381 Hence angle AOB = sin! 0.5381 =32.55° (or 147.45°, Which is impossible in this case) Hence the resultant voltage is 1314 volts at 32.55" to Vi Problem 10. In Fig.25.12, PR represents the inclined jib of a crane and is 10.0m long. PQ is 4.0m long. Determine the inclination ofthe jib t0 the vertical and the length of tie OR Figure 25.12240 Engineeing Nathematis Applying the sine rue: PR__ Po Sn 100" ~ Sink che sing = 2280120" from whieh, sin R= REST top Me Hence £R= sin! 0,3464=20.27°(or 159.73, which is impossible inthis ese) ZP= 180° 120° — which is the inclination of the jib to the verties. Applying the sine rue: 10.0 OR in 120° ~ in39.73° ‘i 10.0sin39.73° from which, length of te, QR = 738m Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 100. Practical situations involving trigonometry (Answers on page 666) 1. A ship P sails ata steady speed of 45 km/ain direction of W 32° N (ie. abearing of 302°) froma pon. Atthe same time another ship @ leaves the portata steady speed of 35km/vin a direction N 15° E (i. a bearing of 015°). Detemine their distance apart after 4 hours ‘Two sidesofa triangular plotof land are52.0m and 34.0m, respectively. Ifthe area of the plot is620m? find a) the length of fencing required to enclose the plot and (b) the angles of the ‘wiangularplot 3. A jib crane is shown in Fig25.13. the le rod PR is 8.0 long and PQ is 4.5m long deter- ‘mine (a) the length of jib RQ and (b) the angle ‘between the jib and the He rod aR Figure 26.13 4, Abuilding site is inthe form of a quadrilateral as shown in Fig.25.14,and tsareais 1510 m*. Determine the length of the perimeter of the site 524m s Figure2s.14 5. Determine the length of members BF and EB inthe roof truss shown in Fig. 25.15 wl TS Pigure28.18 6. A taboratory 9.0m wide has 2 span roof that slopesat 36° on one side and 44° onthe other. Determine she lengths of the roof slopes 7. PQ and OP are the phasors representing the alternating currents in two branches ofa ci- cuit. Phasor PQ is 20.0 and is horizontal. Phasor OR (which is joined tothe end of PO to form triangle POR) is 14.0 and is at an angle of 35° tothe horizontal. Determine the resultant phasor PR and the angle itmakes with phasor PO eee ent Meeker ees ‘Problem 11. A veriieal aerial stands on horizontal ground. A surveyor positioned due east of the aerial measures the elevation of the top as 448°, He moves due south 30,0 and measures the clevation as-44°, Determine the height ofthe aerial In Fig. 25.16, DC represents the aerial, 4 is the inital position of the surveyor and # his fil position, DC From triangle ACD, tan 48°= 2S, from which oe A ac cae, andTangles and some practical applications 241 Figure 28.16 DC Simitary, from tangle BCD, BC= PC a = tan For triangle ABC, using Pythagoras” theorem: (ste), 30.07 BO An? Al (Zee) = on } DC%1.072323 = 0.810727) = W.0? 30.07 2G 0.261596 at DC = W304 = 5865 m, Hence, height of aeri Problem 12, A crank mechanism of a petrot engine s shown in Fig. 25.17. Arm OAs 1.0m long and rotates clock ise about 0, The connecting rod AB is 30.0em long and end B is constrained 9 move horizontally Figure 25.17 (2) Forthe postion shown in Fig. 25.17 determine the angle Between the connecting rod AB and the horizontal and the length of OB. (©) How far does B move when angle AOB changes from 50° to 120°? (a) Applying the sine cute: AB _ AO ia508 ~ Sin B AO sin 50° from which, sin - 10.0sin 50" 300 Hence B= sin~!0,2553=14.78° (or 165.22", which is impossible in this ease) = 0.2583, Hence the connecting rod AB makes an angle of 14.78" with the horizontal Angle OAB= 180° ~ 50? —14.78°=115.22° “Applying the sine rule oB 0° ~ sin 115.222 30.0sin 115.22° from which, 03 = 35.43em (b) Figure 25.18 shows the initial and final positions of the crank mechanism. In triangle 4B", applying the sine rule 30.0 10.0 sin 120° ~ SinA'B'O from which, sina’ = 120850120" Figure 25.18 Hence 4’B'0 = sin~! 0.2887 =16.78° (or 163.22° which is impossible in this ease) Angle OA’B' = 180° — 120° — 16.78° =43.22"2A2_Engineeing Nathematis Applying the sine rule: angles between the lines of action andthe three 30.0 on aces Gniaw ~ Fase 30.0 sind3.22° A vertical aerial AB, 9.60 high, stands on _ground which is inclined 12° tothe horizontal Astayconnectsihe top ofthe aerial A to apoint Con the ground 10.0m downhill from B, the foot of the aerial. Determine (a) the length of the stay, and (b) the angle the stay makes with the ground ‘A reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in Fig. 25.20. The erank AB is 12.0¢m long and the connecting rod BC is 32.0¢m long. = For the position shown determine the length Problem 13. |The wes of a fle + ic he form of 8 ‘of AC and the angle between the crank and the ‘quadrilateral ARCD as shown in Fig. 25.19. Sonedigna Determine its area Hence B moves 11.71em when angle AOB changes from 50° to 120° A. From Fig. 25.20, determine how far € moves, 8 as correct 10 the nearest millimetre when angle oe CAB changes from 40° to 160°, B moving in v ‘an anticlockwise direction 98M, ; 623m aQ 2am ° Figure 28.20 Pes Da) 5. A surveyor, standing W 25° $ of a tower measures the angle of elevation of the vp of the tower as 46°30. From a position E 23°S from the tower the elevation of the 1op is 37°15. Detzemine the height of the owerif the distance between the wo observations is 75m A diagonal drawn from Bw D divides the quadrilateral into two triangles, ‘Area of quadrilateral ABCD area of triangle ABD + area of wiangle BCD 6. Calculate, correct to 3 significant figures, the = $139.8) (21.4) sin 114° + § (42.5)(62.3)sin 55° co-ordinates x and y to locate the hole vente at P shown in Fig. 25.21 > 1487 m? 389.04 4 1097.5 Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 101 Practical situations involving trigonometry (Answers on page 666) 40° L, Three forces acting on fixed point are repre- sented hy the sides of a triangle of dimensions 7.2em, 96em and 11.Dem. Determine the ne eatTangles and some practical applications ‘An idler gear, 30mm in diameter, has to be I6holes areequally spaced on a pitch circle of fitted between & 710mm diameter driving gear ‘7mm diameter. Determine the length of the and a 90mm diameter driven gear as shown chord joining the centres of woadjacentholes in Fig. 25.22. Determine the value of angle between the centre ines 20 mm ia m2 7emmo— Fh) 70 mm dia igure 25.22 For fully worked solutions te each of the problems in Practice Exercises 98 to 101 in this chapter, 0 to the website: wwwroutledge.com/ew/bird 243Chapter 26 Trigonometric identities and equations Why itis important to understand: Trigonometric idemities and equations In engineering, trigonometric identities oceur often, examples being in the more advanced areas of ealeu= lus to generate derivatives and integrals, with tensorv/rectors, and with differential equations and partial differential equations. One of the skills required for more advanced work in mathematics, especially calculus;is the ability to use identities to write expressionsin alternative forms. In software engineering, ‘working, say,on the next big blockbuster film, trigonometric identities are needed for computer graphics; an RF engineer working on the next-generation mobile phone will also need trigonometric identities. In addition, identities are needed in electrical engineering when dealing with a.e. power, and wave addi- tion/subteaction and the solutions of trigonometric equations often require knowledge of trigonometric Identities, Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to the right-angled Pan eure tHangle shown in Pig 26: gv A trigonometric identity is a relationship that is tue eee forall values of the unknown variable, wo = NK wea wa Ss are examples of trigonometric identities from Chap- igure 261Diviaing each term oF equation (1) by €? gives: Hence cos?@-+sin?0= 1 @ Dividing each term of equation (1) by a? gives: Hence 8) Dividing each term of equation (1) by b? gives: aoe POR ‘“ (sy +!=(5) Hence cot'@ +1= cosec” 4) Equations (2), (3) and (4) are three further examples of trigonometric identities. eM suey erat Problem 1. Prove the sin? 9 cot Osee ‘With trigonometric identities itis necessary to start with the [eft-tand side (LHS) and attemptto make it equal to the right-hand side (HS) or vice-versa. tisoften useful, to change all of the tigonometic ratios into sines and cosines where possible. Thus LHS = sin? acotd seco = Sa) (Sa) = sin (by cancelling) — RHS Trigenometric identities and equations 245 Problem 2. Prove that: tana ( any seer (1+ secx, tanx +secx = (0) (2) Gre sin +1 Cie) (as) = 1 (by cancelling) = RHS [bento _ Problem 3. Prove that: TF tand cow 1 2089 sind +e0s0 tena ' +59 in Las= tt Sind sind Tetand |, sind = Son0-+ in 14 SOE corte? cos? cos sind +60s0) (cost and) Nexo vsind, evs = 88 cot = RUS sind Problem 4, Show that: cos? sin? = 1 2sin? From equation (2), cos? 0+ sin? = 1, irom which, cosO=1— sin? Hence, LHS =cos?0~ sin? = (1 ~sin?) —sin®@ 1sin?@ — si? =1-2sin'@=RHS246 Engineeing Nathematis [a-Si —sinw) ~ Y (+sina)( = sinx) _ = (=sin?sy Since cos? x + sin”. then 1 si cost C U=sinx)?? uis= |Oase? (dana? ve cos lesiny 1 sine cost Gosk ost = see — tan = RUS Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 102 Trigonometric identities (Answers on page 667) Prove the following trigonometric identities: ee 3. 2eos'A=1=cos? Asin? cose osx 4, SEES sin xeos sine 5. (1+ eot0)? + (1 —cot6)?=2 cosee?o sin? x(seex 3 5, Sinbrioeer + e080) 4 ay cose ian Camere Equations which contain tigonometric ratios are called trigonometric equations. There are usually an ininite ‘number of solutions to such equations; however, solu- tions are often restricted to those etween 0° and 360°. ‘A knowledge of angles of any magnitude is essential in the solution of trigonometric equations and ealeulawors, cannot be relied upon w give all de solutions (as shown, in Chapter 23) Figure 26.2 shows a summary for angles. of any magnitude. or {ane cosesany| ar poste postive 100 Tangent | cose {anaeotaraent| (ane soca posite poste 20 Figure 26.2 Equations of the typea sin?A +6 sin A+ (When w=0, bsin ate: =0 nate=0, tse sna =—f ant a=sin!(-£) Taare two vales of A betwen OF ad )° that satisfy such an equation, provided 12 ££ (see Problems. 09). (ii) When b=0,asin? A+c=0, hencesin? (= und A = sin’ Ike or eaneaenuit ee ae wiht qos pate, Se wen 2 aqueous ae aposivemd nga theamwer beac forraucot Abarat snd che ean satan oved “i= £. Gee ten 10 an 1 (iii) Whena, b and ¢ are all non-zero: asin? A-Fb sin A-+c=0 is a quadratic equation inhi i unstoe i e Te on 2 quae cquaon I eb eer by Be torising (if possible) or by using the quadratic omit sin b+ JP = doe 2a (sce Problems 12 and 13), (iv) Often the trigonometric identities cot Atsint Al, 1+tn?A=sce?A and cot? A+ 1=cosee?A need to be used t0 reduce ‘equations toone ofthe above forms (see Problems Mito 16).Problem 6, Solve the trigonometric equation: Ssin@+3=0 for values of @ from 0° to 360° Ssin0-+3=0, from which sind =~3/5=—0.6000 yosine zie 323.19 el a x wo fi NY . rie 263 Hen d= s(-1600) Sine img inbetird and fourth quadrants (see Fig. 26.3). The acute angle sin=!(0,6000) =36.87° (shownas a in Fig. 26.3(b), Hence 0= 180° +36.87°, Le. 216.87° or 360°— 36.87", ic. 32313" Problem 7. Solve: 1Stnx—1 O'sxs300° for 1.Stan.x—1.8=0, from whieh is Hence x =tan~! 1.2000 ‘Tangent is positive inthe frst and third quadrants (see Fig. 26.4). “The acute angle n=! 1.2000=50.19° Hence, 1=50.19" or 180°+50.19°=230.19" Trigenometric identities and equations 247 o cc) Figure 264 Problem 8. Solve for 4 inthe range 0° <8 < 360? for sind = cos 2sino iding both sides by cos0 gives: From Section 26.1, hence Dividing by 2 gives from which, ‘Since tangentis positive in the frst and third quadrants, 26.57" and 206.57" Problem 9. Solve: 4sect=5 for values of ¢ between 0° and 360° see“! 1.2500 cosine) is positive in the first and fouth quadrants (see Fig. 265). The acute angle see“! 1.2500 =36.87°, Hence 123687? or 360° — 36.87? = 323.13"248 Engineeing Nathematis Figure 26.5 Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 102 Trigonomatric ‘equations (Answers on page 667) Solve the following equations for angles between, 0" and 300° 1, 4-7sind: 2. Beosee A455=0 3. 4(232—S.4e0t1)=0 In Problems 4 to 6, solve for @ in the range 0° <0 < 300" 4. seco 5. cost 6. cose O= 6 ie In Problems 7 to 9, solve for x in the range =180° (sin A+ sin B), and meat x of body from a fixed poin: ean be expressed 9 on) as = 10sin21-+0.67) meres. The angles (ot 0.33) The formulae stated above may be used to derive two and (21+0.67) ate called compound angles because further compound angle formule they are the sum or difference of two angles. ‘The compound angle formulae for snes and cosines tance my = Attn of the sum and difference of two angles A and B are: ‘and tanA—tanB T+ tana tan(A~B)=252 Engineeing Nathematis “The compound-angle formutaeure tue forall values oF ‘A.and B, and by substituting values of A and B into the formulae they may be shown to be tue. Expand and simplify the following (@) sina +a) (6) sin(A~B) ~sin(A +2) (b) -c0s(90°+ 6) (a) sine +a) = sin cosa+ coss sina (from the formula for sin(A +B) Neos) +(=1) sina (b) =c0s(90° +) —{e0890" eos f— sin90° sin fh —[(0)(e0s A) — (1) sin] =sine (©) Sin(A~B)~ sin(A4 By =|binAcos B — cos A sinB) — Lin Acos B+ cos Asin B] =2e0s sinB Problem 2, Prove that: costy =) + sin(y+ cos(y —#) =cosyeosx + sin ysin x cos y)(=1) + (sin y)(0) cosy inyoos | + cosysin 5 i030) os) = cosy Hace cs(y—n)sin(y+Z) = (cosy) + (cosy) =0 Problem 3. Show that on(-+E)on(o-E tany Han = * 4 mG nian (from the Formula for tan(A + B)) Se eh) (anya) ~ (Tene Hence, un (1+) an (x) okey tane— 1 _ =(=tanx) Tony Taner Ifsin P=08142 and (32 evaluate, corret to} decimal places: (a) sin(P—Q), (b) cosiP +Q) and (6) tan(P-+), using the compound angle formulae Since sin P=0.8142 then P=sin”! 0.8142=5451° Thus cos P= cos 54.51°=0.5806 and tan P= tan $4.51°= 1.4025 fos 0.4432=03,09° Since cos @=0.4832, 0 Thus sin Q = sin 63.68°. tan Q= tan 63.69°=20225 (a) sin(P—0) = sin PcosQ cos Psin 0 = (0.8142}0.4432)— (0.5806) (0.8964) = 0.3609 -0.5204=—0.160 8964 and () covP +0) = cosPeosQ- sin Psing = (0.5806)(0.4432) ~ (08142) (0.8964) = 0.2573 -0.7298=-0473 (©) tan(P+Q) tan P + tanQ tan Ptan (1.4025) + (2.0225) 1 = (1.4025)(2.0225),Problem 5, Solve the equation: 4 sin(1—20°) = Seos « for valuesof x between 0% and 90° sin(x 20°) =4sinxc0s20° ~ cos.xsin20°] from the formula forsin(A ~ B) =4fsinx(0.9397) — c0sx(0.3420)] 7588sinx— 1.3680 cos Since 4 sin(x ~20°) 3.7588 sin x~ 1.3680 cos. Rearranging gives: cos. then cos 3.7588sinx osx + 1.3680cosx. and i.e. tan.x= 1.6942, and ee tan”! 1,6942-.59.449° or 59°27" Check: LHS = 4sin(59.449"— 29") = 4sin 39.449" = 2.542 RHS = Seosx = 5e0s59.449° = 2.542), Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice fxercse 107 Compound angle formulae (Answers on page 667) 1. Reich following tt sine of nea (9) snSTPeos2T° + cos37*sin2I* (>) sin 7tcos 3t— cos 7Trsin 3¢ 2. Reduce the following © the cosine of one angle (a) eos7}*cos33°— sig 71°sin33° (0) esos sin sin 3. Show tat 5 (a) sin(+ 5) +sin(s+ 22) = Vicone 7 0 -m(e) aa Compound anges 253 4, Prove tat ta) sin(a+) —sn(o—*2) = Pet VIGind + cos) €0s(270°-4 ©) ceacaeor—a) =? 5. Given cosA=0.42 and sin B=0.73.eval- uate (a) sin(A~B). (b) _cos(A~ B). (6) tan/A+B), correct to4 decimal places. InProblems6 and 7, solve the equations or yalues f 8 between 0° and 360° 6. 3 sin(04-30°)=7e050 7. dsin(o— 40°) Pye Nn UR Rue cred feu) G)_ Rsin(or +a) represents a sine wave of maximum value R, periodictime x, frequency a/2a and leading R sin ot by angle a. (See Chapter 23.) (ii) Rsinfor-+a) may be expanded using the ‘compound-angle formula for sin(A+ B), where A=olt and B =a, Hence Riin(or +a) = Risinexcosa + cosortsina] Snotcosa + Reoswt sing = (Reosa)sinwt + (Rsina)cosor Gil) a= R cosa and b=R sina, where a and bare ‘constants, then Rsin(ot +a)=< sinot +beoser, ie. asine and cosine function of the Sime frequency when added produce sine waveo the same frequency (which is further demonstrated in Chapter 36). (iv) Since a= Reosa, then cosa=5 and since b b= Resin a, then sin a= 2 z If the values of @ and § are known then the values of R and a may be calculated. The relationship between constants a, b, R and @ are shown in Fig. 27.1 From Fig. 27.1, by Pythagoras’ theorem: nayeee254 Engineeing Nathematis Figure 27.1 and from trigonometric ratios 5 = tan"? ‘Problem 6, Find an expression for 3sin of + 4e08 at inthe form Rain(oot + a) and sketch graphs of 3 sin wr, 4 cos wt and Rsin(wt a) on the same axes Let 3 sinwt +4 cos w= Rsin(wr +a) then 3sinot +4 cos or = R{sineat cos a+ cos wt sina] =(R cos a) sin or +(R sin a) cost Bguating coefficients of sin wt gives 3 Reos, From whieh, cos « Equating coefficients of cos wt gives: 4 ‘There is only one quadrant where both sin and cos a are positive, and this isthe first, as shown in Fig. 27.2 From Fig. 27.2. by Pythagoras’ theorem: Ro VEER RS sin a, from which, sin a Figure 27.2 From trigonometric ratios: =53.13° or 0.927radians Hence, 3sin ot +4 cos wt = S in(ur+ 0.927) A sketch of 3 sin ot, 4c08 ot and 5 sino +0.927) is shown in Fig 27.3. paint Veena asen/) wie Figure 2.3 ‘Two periodic fun combined by ns of the same frequency may be (a) plotting the functions graphically and combining ordinates at intervals, or (b)__byresolutionof phasors by drawing orealculation, Problem 6, together with Problems 7 and & fole Towing, demonstrate a third method of combining. ‘waveforms. Problem 7. Express: 4.6 sin of ~7.3 cos as in the form R sin(wt +a) Let 4.6sin of —7.3 608 0 = R sin(wt +a) then 46 sino —7.3¢0s or [sin oF cos a+ cose sin a] Roos a) sin ot +(R sin @) cos wt Equating coefficients of sin wt gives: 4 cos a, from which, cos « Exquating coefficients of cos wt gives: =1.3= Rsin a, from which sin @=——> There isonly one quadrant where cosine is positive and sine is negative, ie. the fourth quadrant, as showa in Fig. 27.4. By Pythagoras’ theorem’Compound anges 255 48 igure 27.4 By trigonometric ratios ( 4 ) 6 = 97.78" or ~1.008 radians. Hence, 4.6 sin cot 7.3 60s wt = 8.628 sin(oot— 1.008) Problem 8, Express: —2.7 sin @t—4.1 cos ot in the fom R sin(ot +1) Let 2.7 sin o—4.le0sar=Rsinwr ba) = Risin et cosa + cos of sin a] =(Reos a) sinot +(R sin @) coset Equating coefficients gives: 2.7 = Reosa, from which, cos. and —4.1 = Rsina, from which, sina ‘There is only one quadrant in which both cosine and sine are negative, i. the third quadrant, as shown in Fig. 275. From Fig. 27.5, R= VOLPE CAT 4 an So =5607° a 572566: Hence «= 180° +30.03°=236.03" o 4.130 radians. Thus, 2.7 sin of =4.1 c0s wt = 4.909 sin(ot — 4.130) Anangle of 236.63° isthe sameas ~123.37° or ~2.153 radians. Hence ~2.7 sin et ~4.1 cos et may be expressed also a 4.909 sin(wt ~ 2.183), which is preferred since itis, the principal value (Le. —e <0 = 2) “27 e Figure 275 Problem 9. Express: 3 sin 045 eos in the form Rsin(#-+a), and hence solve the equation 3.8n 0+5 es 0=4, for values of O between 0° and 360° Let 3sind-+Scosd = Risin cosa + cos sina] =(Reosa) sind +(Rsina) cos sin(@-+a) Equating coefficients gives: = Reosa, from which, cosa = and 5 = Rsina, from whieh, sina = ‘Since both sina and cos a ate positive, Ries inthe first, (quadrant, as stown in Fig, 27.6. Figure 276256 Engineeing Nathematis Hence sin +5c00 831 sin(9 +59.03") However 3sind-+5e0.0 Thus S.831sin(9 4 59.03%) sean t( tonvicr —0490%)=04""( 42) ie. 8 +39.03° =43.32° or 136.68° = 136.68" 59.03 1.65" Since —15.71° is the same as —15.71°-+360%, ie, ‘344.205, then the solutions are @ = 77.68" or 34429, which may be checked by substituting into the original equation, Problem 10. Solve the equation 33 cos ~ 5.8sinA=O5 for 0" = ‘There is omly one quadrant in whieh hoth sine is posi- tive and cosine is negative, i. the second, as shown in Fig. 27.7. 20" 35 é & “58 360" 270" Figure 27.7 rom Fig. 27.7, R= VF CSBP 35 sige 58 180° =31.12" 6.174 and = tan Hence a: Thus 35 cosA—S.8 sin A =6.774 sin( A+ 148.88°)= 6.5, 48.88" Hence, sin(A + 148.88" from which, (A + 148.88" 6774 73.65" oF 106.35° Thus, A 15.23" (-75.23° +360") = 284.77 or 106.35°— 148.88° = —42.53° (-42.53° +360") = 317.47° The solutions are thus A=284.77° or 317.47", which may be checked in the original equation, Now try the following Practice Exercise Practice Exercise 108 Theconversion of a sin wt+b cos at into Rsin(at + «) (Answers on page $67) In Problems 1 w 4, change the functions into the form Rsinot +a). 1. Ssinar +8cosor 2 4sinar—Seosor 3. -Tsinor +4e0sor 4, -3sinor—6 cos or 5. Solve the following equations for values of 9 between 0° and 360° (a) 2sin0 +4e0s0=3 (b) 12siné—9c0s0=7 6. Solve the following equations for 08

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