Course: CE 401 (Water Resources Engineering)
First abstraction or initial loss????
Abstractions from Precipitation
Initial losses
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration
Instructor:
Prof. M Janga Reddy
mjreddy@[Link]
First abstraction or first loss????
Interception by trees and buildings
Interception by shrubs
Interception by small pits/depressions
Interception by small plants with
large root system
Initial loss
Interception process + depression storage
Interception by large pits/depressions
Interception process: part of rain
caught by vegetation.
it may be evaporated back into
atmosphere
OR it falls on the earth
It may drip off the plant leaves to join
ground called as through-fall
It may run along the leaves-branchesstem and then reach ground called as
stem-flow
Initial loss
Evaporation
Interception process + depression storage
Depression storage: the volume of
water tapped in depressions, before it
can flow over the surface.
It depends on
Type of soil
The condition of the surface
reflecting the amount / nature of the
depressions
Slope of the catchment
Antecedent precipitation
Contd
Evaporation Processes
Vapour pressure at water surface and above
Evaporation:
It is the process in which liquid changes to gaseous state at the free
surface, below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy.
Generally expressed in mm/day
EL= (ew-ea) :Called as Daltons Law of evaporation (1802)
This evaporation continues until ew=ea , then condensation
takes place (if ew > ea)
Air and water Temperature
The rate of evaporation is dependent on
Vapour pressure at water surface and above
Air and water Temperature
Wind speed
Atmospheric pressure
Quality of the water
Heat storage in Water bodies (size of the water body)
Rate of evaporation increases with increase in water
temperature but it is less correlated with air temperature
Wind speed
Rate of evaporation increases with wind speed up to critical
speed (until it removes all air vapour) then there is no influence.
Critical wind speed is function of size of water bodies
Small water body less speed is sufficient
Large water body high speed is required
Contd
Atmospheric pressure
A decrease in the barometric pressure increases the evaporation (particularly
in high altitudes)
Quality of the water
Evaporation rate can be quantified by:
Measuring using evaporimeters
Empirical equations
Analytical methods
Dissolved salts decreases the evaporation
Approximately corresponds to the % increase in the specific gravity
Evaporation from Sea water is about 2-3% less than the fresh water
Heat storage in Water bodies (size of the water body)
Deep water bodies stores more heat (than shallow one)?
Has larger evaporation
However the evaporation rates are not on the same day- (they are seasonal)
These water bodies will have less evaporation in summer than evaporation rate
during winter
But the depth and area of submergence are also related
Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters
Pans containing water exposed to atmosphere
Loss of water is measured at regular intervals (day)
Types of evaporimeter
Class A Evaporation Pan
ISI Standard pan
Colorado Sunken pan
US geological survey floating pan
Class A evaporation pan
Colorado Sunken
evaporation pan
Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters
Evaporation pans can model large reservoir
Lake evaporation = Cp Pan evaporation
where Cp is pan coefficient
Table: Values of Pan Coefficient (Cp)
[Link]. Types of pan
Average
Value
Evaporation pans can model large reservoir
Some disadvantages:
They differ in the heat storing capacity as well as heat
transfer capacity than those of a large lake or a reservoir.
The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind
action over the surface. Also, it casts a shadow of variable
magnitude over the water surface which affects the radiation
incident to the water surface.
Range
1.
Class A land Pan
0.70
0.60-0.80
2.
ISI pan (modified class A)
0.80
0.65-1.10
3.
Colorado Sunken pan
0.78
0.75-0.86
4.
USGS floating pan
0.80
0.70-0.82
Evaporation Stations
Empirical Evaporation Equations
Generally, based on the Dalton-type equation
It is usual to install evaporation pans in such locations
where other meteorological data are also simultaneously
collected.
EL = K f(u) (ew ea)
The WMO recommends the minimum network of
evaporimeter stations as below:
where
Arid Zones - One station for every 30,000 km2
EL = lake evaporation mm/day
ew = Saturated vapour pressure at the water surface temperature
in mm of mercury
ea = Actual vapour pressure of overlying air at a specified height in
mm of mercury
f(u) = Wind speed correction function
K = a coefficient
Humid temperate climates One station for every 50,000 km2
Cold regions One station for every 100,000 km2
15
A sample empirical linear relationship for estimation of
reservoir evaporation Sri Ram Sagar (TS)
Reservoir Evaporation
The water volume lost due to evaporation from a reservoir in a
month is calculated as
VE = A Epm Cp
Empirical equations can give best approximation
EL=f(St, St+1)
EL= f(At, At+1)
Note: Linear and non-linear relationships can be developed.
Month
Evaporation
loss
Historical evaporation
(Mm3)
Relationship between evaporation and the storage
Et = at + bt * (St+St+1)/2
(mm)
Average
Constant
at
Standard
deviation
Coefficient
bt
Correlation
coefficient
June
277.2
32.45
21.28
-0.04526
0.032891
0.930
July
221.5
35.96
19.13
0.337934
0.026263
0.957
August
177.6
44.24
14.39
7.048066
0.019883
0.949
September
194.4
52.38
11.71
19.19361
0.014872
0.714
October
124.3
49.98
12.69
10.63109
0.016538
0.873
November
165.1
38.64
9.67
12.74526
0.011463
0.898
December
151.1
31.95
10.28
7.959367
0.012263
0.936
January
171.0
26.74
11.54
2.536207
0.014708
0.981
February
201.3
26.69
12.33
3.772574
0.017282
0.944
March
311.8
37.28
19.84
3.464567
0.033528
0.981
April
369.3
36.71
21.58
6.534537
0.039498
0.962
May
386.3
34.97
23.26
3.220164
0.044379
0.966
Reservoir Evaporation - Reduction
Transpiration
Reduction in surface area
Mechanical covers
Processes in which the water reaches
the atmosphere from earth through the
plants
The plants receive water from soil
through roots and transpire this water
into atmosphere as vapour through
stomata in their leaves.
Permanent roof
Temporary roofs
Floating roofs (applicable to very small reservoirs)
Chemical films
Used for large reservoirs
One of the practical and viable solution
Cetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) and stearyl alcohol (octadecanol)
Applied as thin films (0.35 to 0.4 kg/ha/day)
Some of the important characters of the chemical
The films should be strong & flexible,should not break easily due to wave
action
If punctured due to rain or birds etc, the film has to close soon after
It should be pervious to oxygen and carbon dioxide
It should not affect the water quality
It should be colorless, odorless and non toxic
Only disadvantage is that strong winds blow this films to one side of the water
body
Evapotranspiration
Transpiration is function of???
In irrigated area, natural vegetation evaporation and
transpiration occurs together
This processes is called as evapotranspiration
Potential evapotranspiration
Actual evapotranspiration
Field capacity
Permanent wilting point
Evapotranspiration: Penman (1948) defined as the quantity of water
required by actively growing plant of 15 cm height completely shading
the ground and growing with out any shortage of water.
Normally estimated / measured for a standard crop and then applied to
individual crops
1. Meteorological parameters
2. Plant characteristics
Contd
Lysimeters
ET is a function of meteorological parameters, crop
characteristics, location (latitude, longitude, altitude) and time
Direct Measurement
Lysimeters
Field plots
Field plots
The direct method for measuring
the water balance.
Lysimeter consists artificially enclosed
volume of soil for which inflows and
outflows of water can be measured.
Lysimeters have a weighing device and a
drainage system, which permit continuous
measurement of excess water
Allows measuring deep drainage,
evapotranspiration, & storage.
Fig. Lysimeter with installed sensors,
field sensors in the background
ET estimation models
All the models estimate the reference crop evapotranspiration
(ETo). Then converts into crop evapotranspiration (ETc)
ET estimation models
Generally use meteorological
data
Reference Crop ET (ETo)
ET rate of actively growing, well-watered, reference crop
Alfalfa is commonly used as the reference crop
A measure of the amount of energy available for ET
Crop ET:
Maximum temperature.
Minimum temperature
Relative humidity
Wind velocity
Solar Radiation
Sunshine hours
Temperature based methods
Thoronthwaite
Blaney-Criddle and others
Radiation methods
Hargreaves
Jensen-Haise and Others
Combination methods
ETc = Kc ETo
Where ETc = actual crop evapotranspiration rate; ETo = the evapotranspiration rate for a
reference crop; Kc = the crop coefficient
Penman
Kimberly-Penman
Priestly-Taylor
Penman-Monteith and others
Crop Coefficient (Kc)
Empirical coefficient which incorporates type of crop & stage of growth
ET estimation
Table: Data
Estimating ET
Required for different ET methods
The Blaney-Criddle formula:
ET = c[p (0.46 Tmean +8)]
where
ET = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Tmean = mean daily temperature (C)
p = mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours
c= adjustment factor
Evapo-transpiration
Evapo-transpiration
mean daily percentage (p) of annual daytime hours for different latitudes
Latitude
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Example on Blaney-Criddle Method
North
Jan
Feb
Mar
Nov
Dec
South
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
.15
.20
.26
.32
.38
.41
.40
.34
.28
.22
.17
.13
55
.17
.21
.26
.32
.36
.39
.38
.33
.28
.23
.18
.16
50
.19
.23
.27
.31
.34
.36
.35
.32
.28
.24
.20
.18
45
.20
.23
.27
.30
.34
.35
.34
.32
.28
.24
.21
.20
the ET is calculated as follows:
40
.22
.24
.27
.30
.32
.34
.33
.31
.28
.25
.22
.21
ET = p (0.46 Tmean + 8)
35
.23
.25
.27
.29
.31
.32
.32
.30
.28
.25
.23
.22
ET = 0.29 (0.46 21.5 + 8)
30
.24
.25
.27
.29
.31
.32
.31
.30
.28
.26
.24
.23
= 0.29 (9.89 + 8)
25
.24
.26
.27
.29
.30
.31
.31
.29
.28
.26
.25
.24
= 5.2 mm/day
20
.25
.26
.27
.28
.29
.30
.30
.29
.28
.26
.25
.25
15
.26
.26
.27
.28
.29
.29
.29
.28
.28
.27
.26
.25
10
.26
.27
.27
.28
.28
.29
.29
.28
.28
.27
.26
.26
.27
.27
.27
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
60
Given:
At Latitude 35 South in the month of October, p = 0.29
Let Tmean = 21.5C
FAO Penman method
Estimating ET
The modified Hargreaves method
ETo = Cp [W Rn + (1-W). f (u). (es ea)]
where
Where
RA
= extraterrestrial radiation (MJ/m2 per day)
Tmax ,Tmin = max and min. daily temperature (Celsius)
Rn = Rns Rnl
Rns = Net short wave radiation mm/day = (1-)Rs
= reflection factor (albedo)
= 0.29+0.06 sin[30(M+0.0333N+2.25)]
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day
W = temperature and altitude dependent weighting factor
Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation in mm/day
f(u) = Wind related function
(es ea) = difference between the saturated vapour pressure at mean air temp. and the
mean actual vapor pressure of air , both in mbar
Cp = adjustment factor to compensate for the effects of day and night weather
conditions
Rnl = Net long wave radiation mm/day
Rnl = f(T).f(ea).f(n/N) mm/day
f (T) = Effect of temperature on long wave radiation (Rnl)
f (ea) = Effect of actual vapour pressure on long wave radiation (Rnl)
f(n/N) = Effect of ratio between actual and maximum bright sunshine
wave radiation (Rnl)
hours on long
M = number of month Jan=1, N day of month
Rs = Solar radiation in mm/day = (a+b*n/N)Ra
n
= Actual sunshine hours
N
= Maximum possible sunshine hours
Ra = Extra terrestrial radiation in mm/day
Rnl = Net long wave radiation mm/day
Cp = 0.68+0.0028(RHmax)+0.018(Rs)-0.068(U2)+0.013(Uday/Unight)+ 0.0097(U2)
(Uday/Unight) +0.000043(RHmax)(Rs)(U2)
FAO Penman-Monteith Approach
FAO Penman-Monteith Method for estimating reference ETo
f(u) = Wind related function
f(u)= 0.27 [1 + U/100]
U = Wind speed in km / day at 2 m height
es = Saturated vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mbar
es= 33.8639[(0.00738Tmean+0.8072)8-0.000019*|1.8Tmean+48| +0.001316]
ea = Actual vapour pressure of the air in mbar
ea= es (RHmean / 100)
Infiltration
It is the processes of surface entry of water into the soil
Seepage
Percolation
where :
ETo
Rn
G
T
u2
g
D
es
ea
es - ea
= reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1],
= net radiation at the grass surface (MJ m-2 day-1),
= soil heat flux density (MJ m-2 day-1),
= mean daily air temperature at 2m height (oC),
= average hourly wind speed at 2m height (m s-1).
= psychrometric constant (kPa oC-1)
= saturation slope vapor pressure curve (kPa oC-1),
= saturation vapor pressure (kPa),
= actual vapor pressure (kPa), and
= saturation vapor pressure deficit (kPa)
Infiltration is a function of soil characteristics and is expressed
in mm/h
But infiltration opportunity time is also important, which is
function of rainfall intensity, and time available for the water to
enter the soil mass
It affects the surface runoff process by affecting the timing,
distribution and magnitude of surface runoff
It is primary step in ground water recharge
Variation in infiltration rate
Sandy soils have the highest infiltration rates
Clay soils have the lowest infiltration rates.
High organic matter improves infiltration rates.
Infiltration Capacity (fc)
The maximum rate,
at which a given soil at a given time can absorb water
Actual rate of infiltration (expressed in mm/h)
f = fc
f=i
when i fc (runoff starts)
when i< fc (no runoff condition)
where i = intensity of rainfall
Infiltration process is affected by
Characteristic of soil
Surface of entry
Fluid characteristics
Measurement of infiltration
Infiltration indices
In hydrological studies, sometimes it is convenient to use a
constant, average value of infiltration loss for the duration
of the storm, instead of an exponentially decaying
infiltration capacity curve.
Flooding (ring) infiltrometers
Single Ring Infiltrometer
Double Ring infiltrometer
Tension Infiltrometers
The average infiltration rate is known as infiltration index.
Fig. Single Ring Infiltrometer
It assumes a lower infiltration loss at the beginning of the
storm and a higher value at the end of the storm, which is
actually opposite of the real situation.
Two types of infiltration index are in use:
W-index
- index and
46
Fig. Double Ring Infiltrometer
- index
Infiltration indices
-index is derived from the hyetograph of a known storm and
Infiltration index: the average
infiltration rate
Types of infiltration indices
1. -index:
resulting runoff,
it is the average rainfall intensity above
which the rainfall volume is equal to
runoff volume.
2. W-index:
It is a modified version of - index, where
initial losses are separated from the total loss.
where
P= precipitation (cm)
R= runoff (cm)
te= duration of rainfall excess (hrs)
W= average rate of infiltration (cm/h)
Ia= initial losses (cm)
In deriving - index from rainfall hyetograph, it is treated as a
constant infiltration loss.
If the rainfall intensity i is less than , then infiltration rate is
equal to i and there is no runoff.
If rainfall intensity i is more than , then infiltration rate = and
the runoff during t = (i ) t .
- index includes initial losses along with infiltration loss.
Example: A storm with 10.0 cm precipitation produced a
direct runoff of 5.8 cm. Given the time distribution of
the storm as below, estimate the -index of the storm
Time of Start (h)
Incremental rainfall in
each hour (cm)
Various Analytical Models of Infiltration
0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5
Note:
The first hr and last hr rainfall has not
contributed to the runoff !
Overton Model
Holtan Model
Huggins-Monke (HM) Model
Kostiakov
Green-Ampt (GA) Model
Horton Model
Philip Model
Hence omit the two rainfall duration
and magnitude, thus
Actual rainfall contributed to runoff
is =10-0.4-0.5=9.1 cm only
Kostiakov Model
Horton Model
The infiltration rate is represented by
The infiltration rate is represented by
where a and b are constants,
determined by method of least squares
Problem:
For experimental data given in
Table below, fit the Kostiakov
model and Horton infiltration
model. Show graphically the
model fit to experimental data.
Also plot the relative error in
model fit against time.
Relative error =
(Observed value computed value)
Observed value
Time from start of
rain (min.)
Observ ed Infiltration
rate (cm/h)
6.730
3.605
10
3.438
15
3.101
20
2.776
25
2.600
30
2.567
35
2.565
40
2.487
45
2.494
50
2.510
55
2.384
60
2.275
65
2.303
70
2.336
75
2.323
80
2.240
85
2.381
90
2.377
95
2.208
100
2.282
105
2.264
110
2.316
115
2.195
120
2.168
125
2.325
130
2.085
135
1.969
140
2.102
Kostiakov Model
Step1: plot the data
Step2: Kostiakov model
Take log of f and t
Step3: Plot log (f ) Vs log(t)
Kostiakov Model
Slope = -0.21461
Hence value of
(b-1) = -0.21461
Intercept = 0.787172
=log10(a)
Hence a=5.850
Step4: Fit a straight line find the slope
and intercept
Step5: Slope is equal to b-1; and
antilog of intercept will give you the a
Step6: Estimate the error in estimation
Time from start of
rain (min.)
Observ ed Infiltration
rate (cm/h)
6.730
0.48
0.83
4.62
45.66
3.605
0.70
0.56
4.14
-12.93
10
3.438
1.00
0.54
3.57
-3.63
15
3.101
1.18
0.49
3.27
20
2.776
1.30
0.44
3.07
-9.69
25
2.600
1.40
0.41
2.93
-11.26
30
2.567
1.48
0.41
2.82
-8.89
35
2.565
1.54
0.41
2.73
-5.90
40
2.487
1.60
0.40
2.65
-6.11
45
2.494
1.65
0.40
2.58
-3.43
50
2.510
1.70
0.40
2.52
-0.58
55
2.384
1.74
0.38
2.47
-3.62
60
2.275
1.78
0.36
2.43
-6.29
65
2.303
1.81
0.36
2.39
-3.49
70
2.336
1.85
0.37
2.35
-0.54
75
2.323
1.88
0.37
2.31
0.38
80
2.240
1.90
0.35
2.28
-1.85
85
2.381
1.93
0.38
2.25
5.69
90
2.377
1.95
0.38
2.23
6.82
95
2.208
1.98
0.34
2.20
0.38
100
2.282
2.00
0.36
2.18
4.90
105
2.264
2.02
0.35
2.15
5.17
110
2.316
2.04
0.36
2.13
8.66
115
2.195
2.06
0.34
2.11
120
2.168
2.08
0.34
2.09
3.64
125
2.325
2.10
0.37
2.07
12.12
130
2.085
2.11
0.32
2.06
1.40
135
1.969
2.13
0.29
2.04
-3.46
140
2.102
2.15
0.32
2.02
log t
log f
Estimated Infiltration
rate (cm/h)
-5.16
3.97
3.86
Average
Horton's Model
Step1: plot the data
Step2: Find the basic infiltration
rate from the graph (1.95
cm/hr)
Step 3: Estimate (f-fc), then find
ln (f-fc)
Step3: Plot ln (f-fc) Vs t
Step4: Fit a straight line find the
slope and intercept
Step5: Slope is equal to k
and antilog of intercept will give
the (fo-fc)
Step6: Estimate the error in
estimation
Error in estimation
(%)
0.54
Self Study
1. Analytical models for estimation of
evaporation loss
2. Various models available for estimating
Evapotranspiration and Infiltration
3. Solve all the given problems
?? Solve the Problem and fit the
equation
10
