2/3/2015

32nd Hands-On Relay School

Generation Track
Overview Lecture

Generator Design, Connections, and

Grounding

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Generator Main Components

Stator
Core lamination
Winding

Rotor
Shaft
Poles
Slip rings

Stator Core

Source: www.alstom.com/power/fossil/gas/

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Stator (Core + Winding)

Winding Connections
Core Lamination

Winding (Roebel bars)

Typical Types of Generator Windings

Stator Winding: Random-Wound Coils

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Typical Types of Generator Windings

Stator Winding: Form-Wound Coils

Typical Types of Generator Windings

Stator Winding: Roebel Bars

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Roebel Bars Inside Stator Slot

Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants

Stator Winding Combinations

Typical for Two- and Four-Pole Machines

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Series Connection of Roebel Bars

Series connection

Source:www.ansaldoenergia.com/Hydro_Gallery.asp

Rotor

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Classification of Synchronous
Generators
Synchronous Generator Classification
Cylindrical rotor
Rotor design
Salient-pole rotor
Direct
Cooling: Stator and
rotor
Indirect
Field winding
Brush
connection to dc
Brushless
source

Rotor Design

Salient-Pole Rotor

Cylindrical Rotor

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Two-Pole Round Rotor

Source: www.alstom.com

Salient Pole Rotor

Source:www.ansaldoenergia.com/Hydro_Gallery.asp

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Stator Winding Cooling

Indirectly Cooled

Directly Cooled

Cooling Ducts,
Water Cooled Bar

Rotor Winding Cooling

Indirectly Cooled

Directly Cooled

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Field Winding Connection to DC Source

Brush Type

Field Winding Connection to DC Source

Brushless

10

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Generator Station Arrangements

Generator-Transformer Unit

Generating Station Arrangements

Directly Connected Generator

11

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Synchronous Generator Grounding

IEEE C62.92.2-1989
Resonant grounding (Petersen Coil)
Ungrounded neutral
High-resistance grounding
Low-resistance grounding
Low-reactance grounding
Effective grounding

Increasing Ground
Fault Current

Why Ground the Neutral?

Minimize damage for internal ground faults

Limit mechanical stress for external ground faults
Limit temporary/transient overvoltages
Allow for ground fault detection
Ability to coordinate generator protection with
other equipment requirements

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Ungrounded Neutral

No intentional connection to ground

Maximum ground fault current higher than for
resonant grounding
Excessive transient overvoltages may result

High-Resistance Grounding

Low value resistor connected to secondary of

distribution transformer
Resistor value selected to limit transient overvoltages
Maximum single-phase-to-ground fault current: 515 A

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Low-Resistance Grounding

Limit ground fault current to hundreds of

amperes to allow operation of selective
(differential) relays
Low temporary/transient overvoltages

Effective Grounding

A low-impedance ground connection

where: X0 / X1 3 and R0 / X1 1
Ground fault current is high
Low temporary overvoltages during phaseto-ground faults

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Generator Capability Curves

Defining Generator Capability

Curve provided by the generator manufacturer
Defines the generator operating limits during steady
state conditions
Assumes generator is connected to an infinite bus
Limits are influenced by:
Terminal voltage
Coolant
Generator construction

15

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Generator Capability Curve for a

Round Rotor Generator

Generator
Capability
Curve for a
Salient Pole
Generator

16

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Capability Curve Construction

Phasor Diagram Round Rotor Generator

Xd

P V I cos( )
E 0 sin( ) Xd I cos( )

V
E 0 sin( ) V I cos( )
Xd
V
( BC ) V I cos( )
Xd

E0

E0

P
Xd I

Q V I sin( )
( E 0 cos( )) V Xd I sin( )
V
(( E 0 cos( )) V ) V I sin( )
Xd
V
( AB) V I sin( )
Xd

17

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Power Angle Characteristic

P

Operation with Constant Active Power

and Variable Excitation
C

Xd I

Xd I
E 0

Xd I

E0

E0

V
B

Q
Xd 1.6
V 1.00
I 1 36.87 E 0 2.3433.15
I 1.6 60 E 0 3.46621.7
I 1.1345 E 0 1.3178.5

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Power Angle Characteristic

P

E 0 2.3433.15
E 0 3.46621.7
E 0 1.3178.5

V-Curves
I ( p.u )

cos cap.

cos inductive

E 0 (p.u.)

Excitation Current

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Operation with Constant Apparent

Power and Variable Excitation
C

E0
Xd I

Xd 1.6

V 1.00
I 1 36.87

Operation with Constant Excitation

and Variable Active Power
Theor. Stability Limit

E0

Xd I
C

E0

I
Xd I

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Theor. Stability Limit

Capability Curve Round Rotor

P (Real Power)

V
(( E 0 cos( )) V ) V I sin( )
Xd
E0 0
- VV
Q
Xd
V
E 0 sin( ) V I cos( )
Xd
E0 0
P0

max.

Xd 1.6
Q (Reactive Power) V 1.0

- VV
0.625
Xd

Generator Fault Protection

21

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Generator Fault Protection

Stator phase faults
Stator ground faults
Field ground faults
External faults (backup protection)

Stator Phase Fault Protection

Phase fault protection
Percentage differential
High-impedance differential
Self-balancing differential

Turn-to-turn fault protection

Split-phase differential
Split-phase self-balancing

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Phase Fault Protection

Percentage Differential

Dual-Slope Characteristic

23

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Phase Fault Protection

High-Impedance Differential

Phase Fault Protection

Self-Balancing Differential

http://www.polycastinternational.com/old_cat/pdfs/Section4/Section4-Part2.pdf

24

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Stator Winding Coils with Multiple Turns

Turn-to-Turn Fault Protection

Split-Phase Self-Balancing

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Turn-to-Turn Fault Protection

Split-Phase Percentage Differential

Stator Ground Fault Protection

High-impedance-grounded generators
Neutral fundamental-frequency overvoltage
Third-harmonic undervoltage or differential
Low-frequency injection

Low-impedance-grounded generators
Ground overcurrent
Ground directional overcurrent
Restricted earth fault (REF) protection

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Ground Fault in a Unit-Connected

Generator
XC1
T
G

XG1

XT1

XS1

S
XG2

XC2

XS2
XT2

3R
XC0
XG0

XS0
XT0

High-Impedance Grounded Generator

Neutral Fundamental Overvoltage

Fault Location/
% of Winding

Voltage V

F1 / 3%

Vnom
3
Vnom
85%
3

F2 / 85%

3%

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Generator Flux Distribution in Air Gap

Total Flux
Fundamental
Harmonics
Generator Flux Distribution in Air Gap

High-Impedance Grounded Generator

Neutral Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
GSU

F1

(3)
59GN

OR (2)

27TN

Full Load
Full Load
No Load

VN3

No Load
VN3
VP3

VP3

No Fault

Fault at F1

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High-Impedance Grounded Generator

Third-Harmonic Differential

GSU

(3)
(3)

59GN

VN3

VP3

k VP3 VN 3
Pickup Setting

59THD

Third-Harmonic Differential Element

Generator Winding Analysis

Generator data
18 poles
216 slots

Winding pitch
Full pitch = 216/18 = 12 slots
Actual pitch = 128 120 = 8 slots
Actual pitch / full pitch = 8/12 = 2/3

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Full-Pitch Winding

2/3 Pitch Winding

Removes Third Harmonic

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High-Impedance Grounded Generator

Low-Frequency Injection
GSU

(3)

OR (2)

I
R

59GN

V
64S
Coupling
Filter

Low-Frequency
Voltage Injector

Protection
Measurements

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Elements Coverage

31

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Low-Impedance-Grounded Generator
Ground Overcurrent and Directional Overcurrent

Low-Impedance-Grounded Generator
Ground Differential

32

http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot235.nsf/veritydisplay/beaaeb0123376541832573460062a765/$file/1vap428561-db_byz.pdf

2/3/2015

Low-Impedance-Grounded Generator
Self-Balancing Ground Differential

Zero-Sequence CTs

Zero-sequence CT

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Field Ground Protection

Field Ground Protection

Types of rotors
Winding failure mechanisms
Importance of field ground protection
Field ground detection methods
Switched-DC injection principle of operation
Shaft grounding brushes

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Salient Pole Rotor

Source:www.ansaldoenergia.com/Hydro_Gallery.asp

A Round Rotor Being Milled

Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven

Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants

35

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Round Rotor End Turns

Source: Main Generator Rotor Maintenance Lessons Learned - EPRI

Source: Main Generator Rotor Maintenance Lessons Learned - EPRI

Two-Pole Round Rotor

Source: www.alstom.com

36

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Two-Pole Round Rotor

Source: www.alstom.com

Two-Pole Round Rotor

Source: www.alstom.com

37

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Round Rotor Slot Cross Section

Coil Slot
Wedge
Retaining Ring
Creepage Block Insulation

Retaining Ring

Copper Winding
Winding Short
Winding Ground
Turn Insulation

End Windings

Winding Ground

Slot Armor

Field Winding Failure Mechanisms in

Round Rotors
Thermal deterioration
Thermal cycling
Abrasion
Pollution
Repetitive voltage surges

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Salient Pole Cross Section

Pole Body
Pole Collar
Winding Turn
Turn Insulation
Winding Ground
Pole Body
Insulation

Winding Short

Pole Collar
* Strip-On-Edge

Field Winding Failure Mechanisms in

Salient Pole Rotors
Thermal deterioration
Abrasive particles
Pollution
Repetitive voltage surges
Centrifugal forces

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Importance of Field Ground

Detection
Presence of a single point-to-ground in field
winding circuit does not affect the operation of
the generator
Second point-to-ground can cause severe
damage to machine
Excessive vibration
Rotor steel and / or copper melting

Rotor Ground Detection Methods

Voltage divider
DC injection
AC injection
Switched-DC injection

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Voltage Divider
Field Breaker

Rotor and Field Winding

R3

+
R2

Exciter

Brushes

R1

Sensitive Detector

Grounding Brush

DC Injection
Field Breaker

Rotor and Field Winding

+
Exciter

Brushes

Sensitive Detector
+
DC Supply

Grounding
Brush

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AC Injection
Field Breaker

Rotor and Field Winding

+
Brushes

Exciter

Sensitive Detector

Grounding
Brush

AC Supply

Switched-DC Injection Method

Field Breaker

Rotor and Field Winding

+
Brushes

Exciter

R1

Grounding
Brush

R2
Rs

Measured Voltage

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Switched DC Injection Principle of Operation

Voscp
VDC

Voscn

Vrs

Rx

Cfg

Vosc
R
Measured Voltage (Vrs)

Vrs

Rs

Shaft Grounding with Carbon Brush

43

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Shaft Grounding with Wire Bristle Brush

Source: SOHRE Turbomachinery, Inc. (www.sohreturbo.com)

Generator Abnormal Operation

Protection

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Generator Abnormal Operation

Protection
Thermal

Overvoltage

Current
unbalance

Abnormal
frequency

Loss-of-field

Out-of-step

Motoring

Inadvertent
energization

Overexcitation

Backup

Stator Thermal Protection

Generators With Temperature Sensors

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Stator Thermal Protection

Generators Without Temperature Sensors

I 2 I P2
T ln 2
2
I k I

NOM

Current Unbalance Causes

Single-phase transformers
Untransposed transmission lines
Unbalanced loads
Unbalanced system faults
Open phases

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Generator Current Unbalance

Produces negative-sequence currents that:
Cause magnetic flux that rotates in opposition to rotor
Induce double-frequency currents in the rotor

Rotor-Induced Currents

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Negative-Sequence Current Damage

Negative-Sequence Current Capability

Continuous
Type of Generator

I2 Max %

Salient pole (C50.12-2005)

Connected amortisseur windings

10

Unconnected amortisseur windings

Cylindrical rotor (C50.13-2005)

Indirectly cooled

10

Directly cooled, to 350 MVA

351 to 1250 MVA

8 (MVA 350) / 300

1251 to 1600 MVA

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Negative-Sequence Current Capability

Short Time
I 22t K 2
Type of Generator

I22t Max %

Salient pole (C37.102-2006)

40

Synchronous condenser (C37.102-2006)

30

Cylindrical rotor (C50.13-2005)

Indirectly cooled

30

Directly cooled, to 800 MVA

10

Directly cooled, 801 to 1600 MVA

Negative-Sequence Current Capability

Short Time

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NegativeSequence
Overcurrent
Protection
T

K2
I2
I

NOM

Common Causes of Loss of Field

Accidental field breaker tripping
Field open circuit
Field short circuit
Voltage regulator failure
Loss of field to the main exciter
Loss of ac supply to the excitation system

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Effects of Loss of Field

Rotor temperature increases because of
eddy currents
Stator temperature increases because of
high reactive power draw
Pulsating torques may occur
Power system may experience voltage
collapse or lose steady-state stability

Negative-Sequence Current Caused

Damper Winding Damage

Damper
Windings

51

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LOF Protection Using a Mho Element

LOF Protection Using NegativeOffset Mho Elements

52

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LOF Protection Using Negative- and

Positive-Offset Mho Elements

Zone 2 Setting Considerations

53

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Possible Prime Mover Damage

From Generator Motoring
Steam turbine blade overheating
Hydraulic turbine blade cavitation
Gas turbine gear damage
Diesel engine explosion danger from
unburned fuel

Small Reverse Power Flow

Can Cause Damage
Typical values of reverse power required to
spin a generator at synchronous speed
Steam turbines
Hydro turbines
Diesel engines
Gas turbines

0.53%
0.22+%
525%
50+%

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Directional Power Element

Q
32P1
32P2

P1
P2

Overexcitation Protection

V f NOM

f VNOM

Overexcitation occurs when V/f exceeds

1.05
Causes generator heating
Volts/hertz (24) protection should trip
generator

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Core Damaged due to Overexcitation

Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants

Core Damaged due to Overexcitation

Source: Maughan, Clyde. V., Maintenance of Turbine Driven Generators, Maughan Engineering Consultants

56

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Overexcitation Protection
Dual-Level, Definite Time Characteristic

Overexcitation Protection
Inverse- and Definite Time Characteristics

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Overvoltage Protection
Overvoltage most frequently occurs in
hydroelectric generators
Overvoltage protection (59):
Instantaneous element set at 130150
percent of rated voltage
Time-delayed element set at approximately
110 percent of rated voltage

Abnormal Frequency Protection

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Possible Damage From

Out-of-Step Generator Operation
Mechanical stress in the machine windings
Damage to shaft resulting from pulsating
torques
High stator core temperatures
Thermal stress in the step-up transformer

Single-Blinder Out-of-Step Scheme

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Double-Blinder Out-of-Step Scheme

Generator Inadvertent Energization

Common causes: human errors, control
circuit failures, and breaker flashovers
The generator starts as an induction motor
High currents induced in the rotor cause
rapid heating
High stator current

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Inadvertent Energization Protection

Logic

Logic for Combined Breaker-Failure

and Breaker-Flashover Protection

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Backup Protection
Directly Connected Generator

Generator With Step-Up Transformer

Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent
Element Pickup Current

62

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Mho Distance Element Characteristic

Synchronism-Check Element

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Power System Disturbance Caused

by an Out-of-Synchronism Close

Nominal Current: 10560 A

Voltage: 6.5 kV

Possible Damaging Effects

During Synchronizing

Shaft damage due to torque

Bearing damage
Loosened stator windings
Loosened stator laminations

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IEEE Generator Synchronizing

Limits
Breaker closing angle

+/10

Generator-side voltage
relative to system

100% to 105%

Frequency difference

+/0.067 Hz

Source: IEEE Std. C50.12 and C50.13

Issues Affecting Generator

Synchronizing
Voltage ratio differences
Voltage angle differences
Voltage, angle, and slip limits

Synchronism
Check relay

Synchronism
Check relay

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Synchronism-Check Logic Overview

66