Network Analysis
Chapter 4
Laplace Transform and Circuit Analysis
Chien-Jung Li
Department of Electronic Engineering
National Taipei University of Technology
Derivative
Derivative
Isaac Newton (, 1643-1727) : fluent
: fluxion
Method of fluxions
y = x2
y = 2x x
y
i
= 2x
yx()
G. Wilhelm Leibniz (, 1646-1716)
dy
dx
y
= x
J-Louis Lagrange (, 1736-1813)
y = f (x)
dy
y = f (x) =
dx
y = x2
y = 2x
d dy d 2 y
y = f ( x ) =
= 2
dx dx dx
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Operators
Operators do particular mathematical manipulations, such as
The derivative
y = f ( x ) =
Differential operator
dy
d
=
(y )
dx dx
x2
d 2
x = 2x 3
dx
d dy d 2 y
d2
y = f ( x ) =
=
=
(y )
dx dx dx 2 dx 2
Louis Arbogast (1759-1803) conceived the calculus as operational
symbols. The formal algebraic manipulation of series investigated by
Lagrange and Laplace.
d
D
dx
dn
Dn
n
dx
x 2Dx 2 = 2 x 3
D 2 x 5 = 20 x 3
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Differential Equations
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)
Heaviside was a self-taught English electrical engineer, mathematician, and
physicist who adapted complex numbers to the study of electrical circuits,
invented mathematical techniques to the solution of differential equations
(later found to be equivalent to Laplace transforms. He changed the face of
mathematics and science for years to come.
y = ex
y =
d x
e = De x = e x
dx
Dy = y
Hence, we can know the solution of the equation Dy = y should be of the form
y = e x or y = Ce x
C is a constant
y = e kx
y =
d kx
e = De kx = ke x
dx
Dy = ky
Similarly, we can know the solution of the equation Dy = ky should be of the
form
y = Ce kx
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Solutions of the Differential Equation
d2
d
y
y 8y = 0
+
7
dx 2
dx
Consider the differential equation:
( y + 7y 8y = 0 )
Use the differential operator D:
D 2 y + 7Dy 8 y = 0
Take this as an algebraic equation:
(D
(D)
+ 7D 8 ) y = 0
The solutions:
y =0
or
put y back
(D
+ 7D 8 ) = ( D 1)( D + 8 ) = 0
Dy = y
and Dy = 8 y
solutions
roots
D = 1 and D = 8
y = Ae x
and(/or)
y = Be 6 x
General Solution: y = Ae x + Be 6 x
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Fourier Transform
The Fourier Transform
X ( f ) = x ( t ) e jt dt
The usefulness of the Fourier transform is limited by a series drawback:
if we try to evaluate the Fourier integral, we find that the integral does not
converge for most signals x(t), i.e.,
x (t ) = sin 0t
X ( f ) = sin 0t e jt dt
0
X ( ) =
j e jt sin 0t 0e jt cos 0t
jt
sin 0t e dt =
02 2
je j sin 0e j cos + 0
X ( ) =
02 2
But what are sin and cos ?
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Circumvent the Problem
The Laplace transform offers a way to circumvent this problem.
The evaluation of the Fourier integral would be simpler if the function x(t)
would approach zero for every large values of t. The solution of the Fourier
integral becomes possible if x(t) is multiplied by a damping function e t ,
where is a positive real number.
X ( f , ) = x ( t ) e t e jt dt
0
For x (t ) = sin 0t
X ( f , ) = sin 0t e t e jt dt
0
X (, ) =
X ( , ) =
X (, ) =
( + j ) e
( + j ) t
sin 0t 0e
+ ( + j )
2
0
( + j ) e
( + j )
cos 0t
sin 0e
+ ( + j )
2
0
( + j )t
( + j )t
t =
=e
( + j )
0
( + j )
cos
( + j ) e0 sin0 0e0 cos0
02 + ( + j )
02 + ( + j )
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The Fourier Transform of the Sinusoid
The Fourier integral X (, ) is obtained with x(t) multiplied by a damping
function:
X ( , ) =
02 + ( + j )
The Fourier integral X(f) is now obtained by letting 0 ( e - t e0 = 1)
X ( ) =
0
02 2
Thus the Fourier transform of any function x(t) is obtained by first introducing
a damping function e - t evaluating the integral for > 0 and finally
letting 0 .
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Definition of the Laplace Transform
As we said, the evaluation of the Fourier integral would be simpler if
the function x(t) is multiplied by a damping function e t , where is a
positive real number.
X ( f , ) = x ( t ) e t e jt dt
0
X ( f , ) = x ( t ) e
( + j )t
dt
Define s = + j , where s is called the complex frequency
X ( f , ) = X ( + j ) = X ( s )
X ( s ) = x ( t ) e st dt
This is the definition of
the Laplace transform
The Fourier transform can be obtained by letting 0, i.e. s = j
X ( ) = X ( s ) s = j
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Historical Points of View (I)
Newton 1643-1727
Leibniz 1646-1716
Lagrange 1736-1813
Laplace 1749-1827
Fourier 1768-1830
Arbogast 1759-1803
Heaviside 1850-1925
Watt 1736-1819
Coulomb 1736-1806
Volta 1745-1827
Ampere 1775-1836
Ohm 1789-1854
Joule 1818-1889
Kirchhoff 1824-1887
1700
1600
1609
1643
1609
1610
1621
1657
1679
1687
1800
1710
1752
1769
1652
(,
)
1791
1685
1800
1821
1824
1804
1826
1836
1831
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1843
1801
1807
1690
1900
1889
1893
1870
1877
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Historical Points of View (II)
1700
1600
-1644
1636
1644-62
1644
1600
1650
1600~
1661
1624
1800
1662-1722
1722-35-95 ,
1796-1804
1754
1763
1789-1794
1774-1783
1795
1774
1799-1814
1776
,
1784
1789
1795-1908 , , , ,
1840-42
1865
1866
1852
1884 ,
1856-60
,
1885
,
1863
1885
1864
1865
1887
1894
1861
1874
1871
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1861
1851
1760
1683
1900
1895
1898 ,
1900
1889
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Definition of The Laplace Transform
The mathematical definition of the Laplace transform is
F ( s ) = f ( t ) e st dt
0
One-sided or Unilateral Laplace transform
The process of transformation is indicated symbolically as
L f ( t ) = F ( s )
The process of inverse transformation is indicated symbolically as
L -1 F ( s ) = f (t )
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Basic Theorems of Linearity
Consider the Laplace transform of a function f(t) is
L f ( t ) = F ( s )
Let K represent an arbitrary constant, we have
L Kf (t ) = K L f ( t ) = KF ( s )
Let f1(t) and f2(t) represent any arbitrary functions, we have
L f1 (t ) + f2 ( t ) = L f1 ( t ) + L f2 (t ) = F1 ( s ) + F2 ( s )
It is mentioned here that
L f1 (t ) f2 ( t ) F1 ( s ) F2 ( s )
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Step Function
The unit step function u(t) can be used to describe the process of
turning on a DC level at t=0.
u (t ) = 0 for t < 0
= 1 for t > 0
u ( t ) = Ku ( t ) = 0 for t < 0
= K for t > 0
u (t )
u ( t )
K
1
t
t
U ( s ) = L u ( t )
U ( s ) = L u ( t )
1
e dt =
s
= Ke st dt =
st
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s
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Exponential Function
The Laplace transform of the exponential function e t .
x ( t ) = e t
x ( t ) = e t
for > 0
for < 0
X ( s ) = L e t = e t e st dt
0
= e
0
( s + )t
dt =
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1
s +
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Sine and Cosine Functions
The Laplace transform of the sinusoid cos 0t .
e j0t + e j0t st
1 j0t st
F ( s ) = cos 0te dt =
e dt = e e dt + e j0t e st dt
2
20
0
0
0
st
1
1 ( s j0 )t
1
1
( s + j0 )t
( s j0 )t
s + j t
= e
dt + e
dt =
e
+
e ( 0)
20
( s + j0 )
0
2 ( s j0 )
0
1 s + j0 + ( s j 0 )
1
1
1
s
=
+
=
=
2
2
2 ( s j 0 ) ( s + j 0 ) 2
s 2 + 02
s + 0
The Laplace transform of the sinusoid sin 0t .
e j0t e j0t st
1 j0t st
j t st
F ( s ) = sin 0te dt =
e dt =
e e dt e 0 e dt
2j
2j 0
0
0
0
st
1
1 (s j0 )t
1
( s + j 0 )t
s j t
=
dt e
dt =
e ( 0)
e
2j 0
0
2 j ( s j0 )
1
( s + j 0 )t
e
( s + j0 )
1 s + j0 ( s j0 )
0
1
1
1
= 2
2
2
2
2 j ( s j0 ) ( s + j0 ) 2 j
s + 0
s + 0
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Damped Sinusoidal Functions
The Laplace transform of the damped function e t .
e t cos 0t ( where > 0 )
F ( s ) = e e dt = e
t
st
( + s )t
dt
e t
1
+s t
=
e( )
( + s )
1
( + s )
The Laplace transform of the damped sine function e t sin 0t.
F ( s ) = sin 0te e dt = sin 0te
t
st
( s + )t
dt =
0
2
( s + ) + 02
The Laplace transform of the damped cosine function e t cos 0t .
F ( s ) = cos 0te e dt = cos 0te
0
st
( s + )t
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dt =
s +
(s + )
+ 02
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Transformation Pairs Encountered in Circuit Analysis
f (t )
F ( s ) = L f ( t )
f (t )
F ( s ) = L f ( t )
1
s2
1 or u (t )
1
s
e t
1
s +
sin 0t
0
s 2 + 02
e t t n
cos 0t
s
s 2 + 02
(t )
sin 0t
cos 0t
n!
s n +1
n!
(s + )
n +1
(s + )
+ 02
s +
(s + )
+ 02
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Transform Example
Find the Laplace transform of f(t):
f ( t ) = 10 + 5e 4t + 12sin3t + 4e 2t cos5t
<Sol.>
f (t ) = 10 + 5e 4t + 12sin3t + 4e 2t cos5t
damped
constant
F (s ) =
sinusoid
damped cosine
4 (s + 2)
10
5
12 3
+
+ 2
+
s s + 4 s + 32 ( s + 2 ) 2 + 52
4 (s + 2)
10
5
36
=
+
+
+
s s + 4 s 2 + 9 s 2 + 4s + 29
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Laplace Transform Operations
Operation
f(t)
F(s)
Differentiation
f (t )
sF ( s ) f ( 0 )
Integration
e t
f (t ) dt
F (s )
s
e t f ( t )
F (s + )
Time shifting
f (t T ) u (t T )
e sT F ( s )
Initial value theorem
()
f (0 )
Final value theorem
()
lim f (t )
Multiplication by
(Frequency shifting)
lim sF ( s )
lim sF ( s )
s 0
poles of sF(s) must be in left-hand
half-plane. (stable)
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Differentiate Operation
If the Laplace transform of f(t) is F(s), prove that Laplace transform of
f(t) is sF(s)-f(0).
F ( s ) = f ( t ) e st dt
0
df (t ) st
e dt
dt
0
f (t ) e dt =
0
st
Let u = e st , and
df ( t )
dt = dv
dt
v = f (t )
df (t ) st
st
st
st
0 dt e dt = f (t ) e f (t ) de 0 = f (t ) e
s ) f (t ) e st dt
(
0
= f ( ) e s f ( 0 ) e s0 + s f (t ) e st dt = sF ( s ) f ( 0 )
0
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Use Differential Operation to Find the Transform of Sinusoid
0
.
2
2
s + 0
by using the differential
Let f ( t ) = sin 0t and its Laplace transform is know as F ( s ) =
Find the Laplace transform of
operation.
f (t ) = sin 0t
f (t ) = 0 cos 0t
L f ( t ) = sF ( s ) f ( 0 ) =
s0
0
2
2
s + 0
L [0 cos 0t ] = 0 L [cos 0t ] =
L [cos t ] =
cos 0t
s0
s 2 + 02
s
s2 + 2
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Use Integral Operation to Find the Transform of Ramp Function
1
.
s
Find the Laplace transform of the ramp function x ( t ) = t by using the
integral operation.
Let f (t ) = 1 and its Laplace transform is know as F ( s ) =
F (s ) =
f (t ) = 1
1
s
x (t ) = f ( t ) dt = 1dt = t
t
t
F (s ) 1 1 1
= = 2
L x ( t ) = L f (t ) dt =
0
s
ss s
X ( s ) = L x (t ) = L [t ] =
1
s2
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Degree or Order
Most transforms of interest in circuit analysis turn out to be expressed
as ratios of polynomials in the Laplace variables s. Define the
transform function F(s) as
F (s ) =
N (s )
D (s )
Numerator polynomial
N ( s ) = ans n + an 1s n 1 + + a0
order = n (means n roots)
Denominator polynomial
D ( s ) = bms m + bm 1s m 1 + + b0
order = m (means m roots)
19s 5 + 160s 4 + 1086s 3 + 3896s 2 + 8919s + 10440
F (s ) =
s ( s + 4 ) ( s 2 + 9 )( s 2 + 4s + 29 )
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Zeros and Poles
For F ( s ) =
N (s )
D (s )
Zeros of F(s): roots of the numerator polynomial N(s)
N ( sz ) = 0
F ( sz ) = 0
Poles of F(s): roots of the denominator polynomial D(s)
D ( sp ) = 0
F ( sp ) =
Denominator polynomial D ( s ) = bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + + b0
can also be completely specified by its roots except for a constant
multiplier bm in factored form as
D ( s ) = bm ( s s1 )( s s2 ) ( s sm )
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Classification of Poles
The poles can be classified as either real, imaginary, or complex.
x
jy
x+jy
An imaginary or complex pole is always accompanied by its complex
conjugate, i.e., jy is accompanied (-jy) and (x+jy) is with (x-jy).
The poles can also be classified according to their order, which is the
number of times a roots is repeated in the denominator polynomial
().
The first-order (or simple-order) root is which the root appears only
once. Higher-order roots are referred to as multiple-order roots.
The roots of second-order equations may be either real or complex. For
third- and higher-degree equations, numerical methods must often be
used.
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Example Inverse Laplace Transform
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s): F ( s ) =
<Sol.> f (t ) = 10 + 15t + 20e 3t
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s): F ( s ) =
<Sol.> F ( s ) = 8
s
5
+
6
s 2 + 52
s 2 + 52
10 15
20
+ 2 +
s s
s+3
8s + 30
s 2 + 25
f (t ) = 8 cos5t + 6sin5t
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s): F ( s ) =
<Sol.> F ( s ) =
2s + 26
s 2 + 6s + 34
2 ( s + 3 ) + 20
(s + 3) + 4
2s + 26
5
=
=
2
2
2
s 2 + 6s + 34 ( s + 3 )2 + 25
( s + 3 ) + 52 ( s + 3 ) + 52
f (t ) = 2e 3t cos5t + 4e 3t sin5t
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Example Classify the Poles
Given F(s): F ( s ) =
N (s )
s ( s 2 + 3s + 2 )( s 2 + 16 )( s 2 + 6s + 34 )( s 2 + 8s + 16 )
and where N(s) is not specified but known that no roots coincide with
those of D(s). Classify the poles.
<Sol.> 9 poles s1, s2 ,, s9
3 + 9 8
= 1
2
s1 = 0
s2 =
s4 = + j 4
s5 = j 4
s3 =
3 9 8
= 2
2
s6 =
6 + 36 136
= 3 j 5
2
s7 = 3 + j 5
s8 =
8 + 64 64
= 4
2
s9 =
8 64 64
= 4
2
Real, 1st order (3 poles): s1, s2, s3
Imaginary, 1st order (2 poles): s4, s5
Complex, 1st order (2 poles): s6, s7
Real, 2nd order (2 poles): s8, s9
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Inverse Laplace Transform Step 1
For the purpose of inverse transformation, poles will be classified in 4
categories
1. First-order real poles
2. First-order complex poles
3. Multiple-order real poles
4. Multiple-order complex poles
(purely imaginary poles will be considered as a special case of complex poles with zero real part)
Step 1: Check Poles
F (s ) =
50s + 75
( s 2 + 3s + 2)( s 2 + 4s + 20 )
50s + 75
( s + 1)( s + 2 ) ( s 2 + 4s + 20 )
real
real
complex conjugate
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Inverse Laplace Transform Step 2 (I)
Step 2: Partial Fraction Expansion
F (s ) =
=
50s + 75
( s + 1)( s + 2 ) ( s 2 + 4s + 20 )
A1
A2
B s + B2
+
+ 2 1
( s + 1) ( s + 2) ( s + 4s + 20 )
A1,A2,B1,B2 are constants to be determined.
Note that the single-pole denominator terms require only a constant in the
numerator, but the quadratic term requires a constant plus a term
proportional to s.
Various procedures exist for determining the constants, but the results can
always be checked by combining back over a common denominator of
necessary to see if the original function is obtained.
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Inverse Laplace Transform Step 2 (II)
The inverse transform of F ( s ) =
A1
A2
B s + B2
+
+ 2 1
:
( s + 1) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 4s + 20 )
f (t ) = A1e t + A2e 2t + Be 2t sin ( 4t + )
B and are determined form B1 and B2.
A first-order real pole corresponds to an exponential time response
term.
A quadratic factor with complex poles corresponds to a damped
sinusoidal time response term. Said differently, a pair of complex
conjugate poles corresponds to a damped sinusoidal time response
term.
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General Algorithm Find Coefficients
Give F(s) in the factored form:
F (s ) =
A1
( s + r 1 )( s + r 2 ) ( s + rk ) ( s 2 + a1s + b1 )( s 2 + a2s + b2 ) ( s 2 + aR s + bR )
( 1 j1 ) , ( 2 j2 ) ,,( R jR )
r 1, r 2 ,, rk
The corresponding inverse transform:
f (t ) = fe1 (t ) + fe 2 ( t ) + + fek (t ) + fs1 ( t ) + fs 2 (t ) + + fsR (t )
fek (t ) = Ak e k t
fsR ( t ) = BR e Rt sin (Rt + R )
coeff.
Ak = ( s + k ) F ( s ) s =
BR e jR
coeff.
1
s 2 + aR s + brR F ( s )
= BR R =
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s =R + j R
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Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s): F ( s ) =
<Sol.> F ( s ) =
6s + 42
s 2 + 7s + 10
6 (s + 7)
( s + 2 )( s + 5 )
f (t ) = fe1 (t ) + fe 2 ( t ) = A1e 2t + A2e 5t
A1 = ( s + 2 ) F ( s ) s =2
6 (s + 7)
6 ( 2 + 7 )
=
=
= 10
( s + 5 ) s =2 ( 2 + 5 )
A2 = ( s + 5 ) F ( s ) s =5 =
6 (s + 7)
6 ( 5 + 7 )
=
= 4
+
2
5
+
2
s
(
) s =5 (
)
f (t ) = 10e 2t 4e 5t
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Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s):
10s 2 + 42s + 24
F (s ) = 3
s + 4s 2 + 3s
10s 2 + 42s + 24
<Sol.> F ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 3 )
f (t ) = A1 + A2e t + A3e 3t
10s 2 + 42s + 24
24
A1 =
=
=8
( s + 1)( s + 3 ) s =0 1 3
10s 2 + 42s + 24
10 42 + 24
A2 =
=
=4
s (s + 3)
1 2
s =1
10s 2 + 42s + 24
90 126 + 24
=
= 2
A3 =
s ( s + 1)
3 ( 2 )
s =3
f (t ) = 8 + 4e t 2e 3t
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Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s): F ( s ) =
20 ( s + 2 )
s ( s + 1) ( s 2 + 2s + 5 )
<Sol.> f (t ) = fe1 (t ) + fe 2 ( t ) + fs (t ) = A1 + A2e t + Be t sin ( 2t + )
A1 =
A2
20 ( s + 2 )
20 2
=8
1 5
( s + 1) ( s 2 + 2s + 5 ) s =0
20 ( s + 2 )
20 1
=
=
= 5
s ( s 2 + 2s + 5 )
B =
1 4
s =1
10 (1 + j 2 )
1 2
1 20 ( s + 2 )
s + 2s + 5 ) F ( s )
=
=
(
2
2 s ( s + 1) s =1+ j 2 ( 1 + j 2 )( j 2 )
s =1+ j 2
10 ( 2.236163.435 )
( 2.2361116.565 )( 290 )
= 5 143.13
fs (t ) = 8 5e t + 5e t sin ( 2t 143.13 )
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Example
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s): F ( s ) =
100s
( s 2 + 4 )( s 2 + 2s + 10 )
<Sol.> f (t ) = fs1 (t ) + fs 2 (t )
fs1 (t ) = B1e 0t sin ( 2t + 1 ) = B1 sin ( 2t + 1 )
fs 2 (t ) = B2e t sin ( 3t + 2 )
B11 =
50 ( j 2 )
1 2
1
100s
s + 4) F (s )
=
=
(
2
2 s 2 + 2s + 10 s = j 2 ( 4 + 10 + j 4 )
s= j 2
10090
=
= 13.867556.3099
7.211133.6901
B2 2 =
33.33 ( 1 + j 3 )
1 2
1 100s
s + 2s + 10 ) F ( s )
=
=
= 14.6176 127.875
(
2
2
3
3 s + 4 s =1+ j 3
( 1 + j 3 ) + 4
s =1+ j 3
fs (t ) = 13.8675 sin ( 2t + 56.3099 ) + 14.6176e t sin ( 3t 127.875 )
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Inverse Transform of Multiple-order Poles (I)
Algorithm for Multiple-order Real Poles
F (s ) =
Q (s )
(s + )
Q (s ) = (s + ) F (s )
i
i roots@s =
The time function due to the pole of order i with a value will be
the form:
C1t i 1
C2t i 2
Ck t i k
fm (t ) =
+
++
+ + Ci e t
( i k )!
( i 1)! ( i 2 )!
A give coefficient Ck can be determined from the expression:
1
d k 1
Ck =
Q (s )
k 1
( k 1)! ds
s =
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Inverse Transform of Multiple-order Poles (II)
For a first-order real pole:
C1t 01 t
fm (t ) =
e = C1e t
0!
1
C1 = Q ( s ) s = = ( s + ) F ( s ) s =
0!
For second-order real poles:
Q (s ) = (s + ) F (s )
2
fm (t ) = (C1t + C2 ) e t
C1 = Q ( s ) s =
dQ ( s )
C2 =
ds s =
For complex poles, find the complex coefficients Ck with s = j
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
s-domain Circuit Analysis
Time domain circuit for which a general solution is desired
Convert circuit to s-domain
form
Solve for desired response in
s-domain
Determine inverse transform
of desired response
Desired time domain response
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Transform Impedances (I)
I (s )
i (t )
v (t )
s-domain
Passive
RLC Circuit
V (s )
Z(s)
V ( s ) = L v (t )
I ( s ) = L i ( t )
V (s )
Z (s ) =
I (s )
I (s )
1
Y (s ) =
=
Z (s ) V (s )
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Transform impedance Z(s)
Transform admittance Y(s)
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Transform Impedances (II)
I (s )
i (t )
I ( )
v (t )
V (s )
V ( )
I (s )
i (t )
I ( )
v (t )
V (s )
I (s )
i (t )
v (t )
V ( )
1
sC
I ( )
0
V (s )
sL
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1
j C
V ( )
j L
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example Transform Impedance
R = 1 k
R = 1 k
C = 0.5 F
1
1
2 10 6
=
=
sC s ( 0.5 10 6 )
s
L = 30 mH
sL = s ( 30 10 3 ) = 0.03s
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Models for Initially Charged Capacitor
Initially charged capacitor
Thevenins equivalent circuit
+
V0
1
sC
+ V0
s
Nortons equivalent circuit
1
sC
CV0
Example:
C = 0.2 F
+
V0 = 60 V
50 106
s
+ 60
s
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50 106
s
12 10 6
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Models for Initially Fluxed Inductor
Initially fluxed inductor
Nortons equivalent circuit
Thevenins equivalent circuit
sL
I0
I0
s
sL
LI
0
+
0.05s
L = 50 mH
0.4
s
I0 = 0.4 A
0.05s
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+ 0.02
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Complete Circuit Models
1. Transform the complete circuit from the time-domain to the s-domain
v (t ) V ( s )
L sL
V0
V0
s
i (t ) I ( s )
1
sC
I
I0 0
s
2. Solve for the desired voltages currents using the s-domain model.
3. Using inverse Laplace transform to determine the corresponding timedomain forms for the voltages or currents of interest.
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example (I)
2H
1
F
3
4
t =0
10cos3t
i1 (t )
+
8V
5H
+ 20 V
1
F i2 (t )
6
Transform from time-domain to s-domain
2s
10s
s2 + 9
4
s
I1 ( s )
8 +
s
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6
s
5s
I2 ( s )
20
s
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example (II)
4
s
2s
10s
s2 + 9
I1 ( s )
8 +
s
6
s
5s
I2 ( s )
20
s
Apply the circuit laws:
Mesh 1:
10s
4
6
8
+
2
sI
s
+
I
s
+
3
I
s
+
I
s
I
s
+
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
1
1
2
s =0
s2 + 9
s 1
s1
Mesh 2:
8 6
20
+ I2 ( s ) I1 ( s ) + 4I2 ( s ) + 5sI2 ( s ) + 10 +
=0
s s
s
Solve for I1(s) and I2(s)
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
General Forms for Solutions (I)
Natural and Forced Responses
Let y (t ) represent some arbitrary general circuit response (either a voltage
or current). When the circuit is excited by one or more sources, a general
response y (t ) may be represented by the sum of two responses as follows:
y (t ) = y n (t ) + y f (t )
Natural response
Forced response
Natural Response
The form of the natural response is determined by the circuit parameter,
i.e., if the circuit has a time constant of 2 seconds, corresponding to an
exponential e t 2 , such a term will appear in the response when the circuit
is excited by any type of source.
Force Response
The form of the forced response is determined by the excitation source(s),
i.e., if a circuit is excited by a sinusoid having a frequency of 5 kHz, the
general response will always contain a sinusoid with a frequency of 5 kHz.
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General Forms for Solutions (II)
Transient and Steady-state Responses
y ( t ) = y t (t ) + y ss (t )
Transient response
Steady-state response
Frequently, transient response and natural response are considered to be
equivalent, and steady-state response and forced response are considered
to be equivalent. The terms transient and steady-state relate to the
common case where the natural response is transient in nature and
eventually vanishes, whereas the forced response continuous as a steadystate condition indefinitely.
Example:
v s (t ) = 10 sin1000t
i (t ) = 2e t 3e 2t + 4 sin (1000t + 30 )
it ( t ) = i n ( t ) = 2e t 3e 2t
i ss (t ) = i f (t ) = 4 sin (1000t + 30 )
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
First-Order Circuits
First-order Circuit with Arbitrary Input
For first-order circuits, the natural response y n (t ) will always be an exponential
term of the form:
y n (t ) = Ke t = Ke t
K is a constant
is the time constant
= 1 is the damping factor
Since the exponential term approaches zero as time increases, it is proper to
designate the natural response as a transient response whenever the forced
response continuous indefinitely.
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example of a First-Order Circuit (I)
Use Laplace transform techniques, determine the current i (t ) and
voltage vC (t ) for t > 0 .
Apply KVL:
t =0
40sin4t
vc (t )
i (t )
1
F
12
i ( t ) = 4.8e 3t + 8 sin ( 4t + 36.87 )
Transform from time-domain to s-domain
160
s 2 + 16
Transient response
VC ( s ) =
I (s )
160
12
+
4
I
s
+
I (s ) = 0
(
)
s 2 + 16
s
40s
I (s ) =
( s + 3 ) ( s 2 + 16 )
Vc ( s )
Steady-state response
12
480
I (s ) =
s
( s + 3 ) ( s 2 + 16 )
vC ( t ) = 19.2e 3t + 24 sin ( 4t 53.13 )
12
s
Transient response
Steady-state response
Time constant = 1/3 = RC
Damping factor = 3
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example of a First-Order Circuit (II)
Use Laplace transform techniques, determine the i (t ) for t > 0 .
Apply KVL:
t =0
30e t
i (t )
30
+ 6I ( s ) + 3s I ( s ) = 0
s +1
I (s ) =
3H
10
( s + 1)( s + 2 )
i ( t ) = 10e t 10e 2t
Transform from time-domain to s-domain
30
s +1
I (s )
Forced response
Natural response
Time constant = 1/2 = L/R
Damping factor = 2
3s
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Second-Order Circuits
Second-order circuits are of special interest because they are capable
of displaying, on a simple scales, the types of responses that appear
in circuits of arbitrary order. In fact, second-order circuits and systems
occur frequently in practical applications, so their behavior is subject
of considerable interest.
R
L
Series RLC Circuit
t =0
Vi +
V
1
i + sLI ( s ) + RI ( s ) +
I (s ) = 0
s
sC
Vi
L
I (s ) =
R
1
s2 + s +
L LC
i (t )
Vi
1
LC
VC ( s ) =
I (s ) =
1
R
sC
s s2 + s +
L LC
Vi
s
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I (s )
vc (t )
sL
+
VC ( s )
1
sC
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
3 Possible Forms of the Roots
The roots of the second-order circuit
s1
R
R2
1
=
s2
2L
4L2 LC
Three possibilities for the roots s1 and s2
Overdamped Case (the roots are real and different) :
Critically Damped Case (the roots are real and equal) :
R2
1
>
4L2 LC
R2
1
=
4L2 LC
R2
1
<
Underdamped Case (the roots are complex) :
4L2 LC
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Overdamped Case (Series RLC)
In the overdamped case, the two poles are real and different. Assume
that the poles are s1 = 1 and s2 = 2 , the forms for I(s) and VC(s)
can be expressed as
I (s ) =
VC ( s ) =
Vi
L
( s + 1 )( s + 2 )
Vi
LC
s ( s + 1 )( s + 2 )
The inverse transforms are of the forms
i (t ) = A0e 1t A0e 2t
vC (t ) = Vi + A1e 1t + A2e 2t
The natural response consists of two exponential
terms, each having a different damping factor or
time constant. The forced response for the current
is zero and for the capacitor voltage is the
constant final voltage across the capacitor.
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Critically Damped Case (Series RLC)
In the critically damped case, the two poles are real and equal.
Assume that the poles are s1 = s2 = , the forms for I(s) and VC(s)
can be expressed as
Vi
L
I (s ) =
2
(s + )
The damping factor:
R
2L
Vi
LC
VC ( s ) =
2
s (s + )
The inverse transforms are of the forms
i (t ) = C0te
Vt
= i e Rt 2L
L
vC ( t ) = Vi + (C1t + C2 ) e Rt 2L
C0 = Vi L
The most significant aspect of the natural
response function for the critically damped case is
the te t form. Although the t factor increases
with increasing t, the te t decreases at a faster
rate, so the product eventually approaches zero.
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Underdamped Case (Series RLC)
In this case, the two poles are complex and denoted as
s1 = + j d
where =
s1 = j d
and
R
and d =
2L
d is called the damped
1 R
LC 2L
natural oscillation frequency
The forms for I(s) and VC(s) can be expressed as
I (s ) =
Vi
L
(s + )
2
d
and
Vi
LC
VC ( s ) =
1
R
s s2 + s +
L LC
The inverse transforms are of the forms
i (t ) =
Vi t
e sin d t
d L
vC ( t ) = Vi + Be t sin (d t + )
The natural response is oscillatory. Depending on
the value of , this response may damp out very
quickly, or it may continue for a reasonable period
of time.
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Comparison of Response Forms (I)
i (t )
Overdamped Case :
Underdamped
i (t ) = A0e 1t A0e 2t
Critically Damped Case :
Critically damped
i (t ) = C0te t =
Overdamped
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Vti Rt 2L
e
L
Underdamped Case :
V
i (t ) = i e t sin d t
d L
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Comparison of Response Forms (II)
vC ( t )
Overdamped Case :
Underdamped
overshoot
vC (t ) = Vi + A1e 1t + A2e 2t
Critically Damped Case :
Final level = Vi
vC ( t ) = Vi + (C1t + C2 ) e Rt 2L
Underdamped Case :
vC (t ) = Vi + Be t sin (d t + )
Critically damped
Overdamped
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example (I)
Use Laplace transform techniques, determine the current i (t ) and
voltage vC (t ) for t > 0 .
2 106 2s 2 + 400s + 2 106
Z ( s ) = 2s + 400 +
=
s
s
400 2 H
t =0
Vi = 40 V +
40
s
i (t )
vC ( t )
400
2s
i ( t ) = 0.0201008e 100t sin ( 994.987t )
I (s )
0.5 F
40
V (s )
s
I (s ) =
=
2
Z ( s ) 2s + 400s + 2 106
s
20
20
= 2
=
s + 200s + 106 ( s + 100 )2 + 994.9872
VC ( s )
2 10
s
40 106
V (s ) = I (s ) Z (s ) =
s ( s 2 + 200s + 106 )
vC ( t ) = 40 + 40.2015e 100t
sin 994.987t 95.7392
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Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Example (II)
vC ( t ) , V
i ( t ) , mA
vC ( t )
60
Final voltage = 40 V 20
40
10
i (t )
20
10
0
20
30
t , ms
20
i ( t ) = 0.0201008e 100t sin ( 994.987t )
vC ( t ) = 40 + 40.2015e 100t sin 994.987t 95.7392
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