PUTA mn | Pen ATUL cat) an | BUNS Ea Pena LunShip StabilityAuthors: Klaas van Dokkum Hans ten Katen Kees Komen Jakob Pinkster Lay-out R. Mazereeuw, Ermclo The Netherlands Cover: Peter Schotvanger peterschotvanger@gmail Printed by: Giethoorn Ten Brink by, Meppel, ‘The Netherlands Published by: DOKMAR, Marisime Publishers POBox 360 1600 AJ Enkhuizen, The Netherlands. © Copyright 2008, 3 edition DOKMAR, Enkhuizen, The Netherlands ISBN 978-90-71500-07-7 Al eights reserved. No part of cis publication may be teproduced, stored ina retrieval system or transmiseed in any form or by any means, in- cluding electronic, mechanical, by photocopy, through recording or otherwise, without ptior written permission ofthe publisher. Great care has been taken with the investiga tion of prior copyright. In case of omission the rightful claimant is requested co inform che publishers. Great cate has been taken on the compilation of the text. However, mistakes may occur for which Dokmar aceepts no responsibilityShip Stability Klaas van Dokkum Hans ten Katen Kees Koomen Jakob Pinkster Third edition man te — Nin Atta mn Enkhuizen - 2008Introduction Just as “Ship Knowledge” was presented in a whole new manner, s0 too is “Ship Stability” Due to theadvances in computer power and software, the authors are able to present the material in a drastically dif. ferent form from that of other stability textbooks, includ- ing the order and approach of topics. The subject should interest college and university seu dents, as well as fishermen and sailors. Lack of knowledge about stability means great risk for the ship, crew, passen- gersand environment. Thus, this comprehensive book suits all levels of naviga- tional and shipouilding schools. All required topics are addressed and can be easily under- stood with help from the many illustrations. ‘The terminology and abbreviations conform to intern tional usage as much as possible, meaning that Maritime English is used, ‘The following persons, authorities cad the following chapters: Hoofdseuk 6, deel 2, 3,4en 5 Hoofdseuk 9 their field, supplied Dr It Frans van Walree Dr. ke Herbert Koelman, Photos and other material ‘A numberof photographers and shipping concerns have provided. photographs for this book. These photos illustrate various topics or hhave some other relationship to sability ‘The Following have my heartfele thanks for photos and other Danny Comelisen (wwor-porepicates.al) Jan van der Klooster (ww w.scheepvaarthock.nl) Klaas Slot (wwrslotmactimephoto.com) Martijn van Engeland, Delfship BV (waewefeeship.org) would also like to express my appreciation to the following. shipping concerns and businesses: Anthony Veder Rotterdam The Netherlands Redet Drenth Delfaifl The Netherlands For a specific concept, one term and one abbreviation is provided, despite the fact that in practice more words are sometimes used. This provides clarity as soon as the terms become familiat. Hydrostatic data for 6 ships are given in the accompany- ing CD. For 3 of the ships, an abbreviated version of this data is included in the back of the book. Each author has practical experience and specialized knowledge, and the fusion of their experience and knowl- edge has resulted in this book, “Ship Stability” Functions ofthe authors ‘Klaas van Doklaum: Navigating office / instructor nautical college / publicise / publisher: Hans ten Katen: Naval Architect / Senior Surveyor Lloyds Register / Consultant for marieime technical matters. Kees Komen: Marine yachtsman / captain / pilot / instructor natal college / publicist Jakob Pinkster; Naval architect / instructor Maritime Technology TU -Delfe/ publicise Editor-in-chief ‘Klaas van Dokkeum Enkhuizen, March 2008 Bighife Amscerdam The Netherlands Gefonzo BY Veeve The Netherlands JR Shipping Harlingen The Netherlands Jumbo Shipping Rotterdam The Netherlands SARC Bussum (wrwsarc.nl) The Neth. Seatrade Groningen The Netherlands Sviczer Wijsmuller Jmuiden. The Netherlands Correction to text and proof readings: Fiacy Gale “Technical Manager Nautical nee (eowsnatincorg) London, UK SARC, Bussum, ‘Phe Netherlands Lecturer Enkfizen Nautieal College Noordbrock, The Netherlands Retired Senior cerer Nauteal English MIN, The Netheriands Retired profstoc Univesity of Michigan, USA Marion Goddijn Marijke de Jong Carmen Koenen-Loos mi Kaijper-Heres Thomas Lamb Translation: Carol Conover Amersfoort The Netherlands‘Table of contents: 1 1 12 13 14 15 L6 17 39 3410 341 4. 41 42 43 44 45 General Stabilcy Definition of stability Examples of stbilicy Why define stability? ‘The important of Stability Important factors for stability Who is responsible For stability ipal Dimensions Definitions Dimensions Positions of the schip Proportions Volumes and weights ‘The shape ofthe ship General arrangement Derivative quantities (Cargo capacity relative to density / stowage factor Relation between the weight of the ship and the displaced water Reserve buoyancy Relationstip between buoyancy and graviey Relationship between the observed draft and displacement Corre ions tothe draft readings ‘Transverse stability General Stability of form and weight Location of point B Location of the Meracenter, M Model data Center of gravity “G" Level of eepaciey ‘The righting arm Curve of taical seabilicy List momentum Vatious copies Longitudinal stability ‘The importance of longitudinal stability ‘The watesline’s Center Of Floatation (COF) Momento change trim per uni Calculation of trim Distribution of trim forward and afe COV em wan 27 28 28 30 30 32 34 34 35 35 36 38 45 a7 56 76 2B 7B 78 7” 81 6. 61 62 63 6A 65 66 7 72 8. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 % 9.1 92 93, 94 95 10. 10.1 102 103, Damage Stability Ship stability in damaged conditions Evolving points of view regarding damage stability Calculation methods for sinking and trim due to damage Determining damage stability Stability while underway Ship sabiliey while underway Dynamic stability while underway Loss of quasi-static stability Los of dynamic stability Broaching Heavy weather guidance Docking, running aground Ship stability while docking Running aground Special types of ships Sailing vessels Catamarans / swath Crane ships Fishing vessels Supply ships Dredging vessels Submersible pontoon Submarines Loading and stability software Incroduction and history ‘Arithmesie functions “Tools for loading sofeware Standards and requirements Examples of loading sofeware Hydrostatic particulars MN. Enforcer MN. Morgenstond MN. Pride of Braila Credits: photographs and illustrations Index Abbreviations 82 84 84 86 89 90 2 95 95 95 96 99 100 102 106 108 110 105 120 ri 2 123 124 125 126 128 128 130 I I 132, 134 144 161 175 176LI Stability Stability isa word regulatly heard and used in daily life. Examples, among others, are: the weather is stable ~ the patients stable ~ astable character the stock exchange is stable. Inall the above-mentioned situations the word unstable, which sche opposite of sa- ble, can also be inserted, What is meant by che word stable? In popular speech: ‘the person or sieuation can stand rough handling” Orin other words, when a person or situ- ation in a stable situation experiences a shorclived disturbance the original state will prevail sooner or later. How do the words stable or unstable apply toa floating object? ‘Theconcept of stable also applies to float ing object. Ie can stand rough treatment. A floatingobject (in astable tate) through, internal and/or external Forces, can be out of balance for atime when: = a ship is thrust to one side by a wave, as soon as the wave is gone, i rights itself ~ sailboat tips on it side ina strong gust of wind and as soon as the wind dies, the boat recurns to its original position ~ a rowboat tips when one of two people gets our. When che person gets back in, the boat balances itself again. fone of the aboy>-mentioned floating ob- jects was unstable it would noe right itself and would probably capsize. General: Unless otherwise noted, the ships described lc in calm water. 1.2. Definition stability ‘Thestability ofa floating object (for exam: ple, ship) can be defined in various ways ~ Allcharacteristies that a ship exhibits in a state of equilibrium. ~ The ability of a ship to resist capsizing ‘That is, the ability co right itself when these forces no longer exis. 1.3. Examples of stability Stability has 3 kinds of diseinetions ~ stable = unstable ~ indifferene In chapter 3.6.1, chree kinds of ability are farther explained. ‘What could be said about the book in front ofyou? Without moze information it cannot be said whether i is stable or nor. The book lies flat on the table in a stable stare, Ifthe circumstances are changed, for example, if wwe stand the same book up. chen the book becomes less stable. A small push is all it takes £0 knock it over. ‘The book doesn't change, but i can be- come stable or unstable (See drawings 1 ~ 8) stable Stabiliey ~ 1. General return to equilibrium stable unstable and will se its equilibrium stable in she new equilibrium U eutral equi brian1.4 Why define stabilicy? Why isitimportane tha che shipbuilder be concerned with sability before and during conseruetion and why must the officers be thoroughly conscious of the degree of sta- bilicy during the voyage? The face of the matter is, an unstable ship has disastrous consequences. Ie cannot be expected that each ship has 2 fixed value. Ever. for one specific ship in different situations, is greater or lesser st- biliey advantageous. Advantages of increased stability = the ship is bercer able to resist negative internal and / or external forces Advantages of lesser stability: = the ship rolls more calmly on waves re sulting in: «+ favorable conditions for passengers «less wear ard tear on cargo lashings 1.5. The importance of stability Ship stabilicy is an integral part of seawor- ‘thiness, Ships must have sufficient stabiliey rosuccessfully complete theie voyage in the worst expected weather conditions. At che beginning of che 18th century scientists were already stucying this matter, and they began to deverrine the stability of ships ‘mathematically. Ships also can have too much stabiliy. Some experts even go so far as to say that more ships founder asa result of coo much. stability than too liele stabiliey. The ac- celeration that occurs when the ship re- gains its equilibrium is then so large thac the lashings of the cargo become severely strained and the construction of the ship canalso be damaged Too litle stability leads co accidents as ‘vel. Thus, ships still founder because large amounes of fee loating liquids are present coaboard. Ships can capsize when they are pulled of after grounding, The double-bortom tanks are emptied of ballast to lighten the ship. Once ie is afloat, there is too litle stability eo cera upright From all chese examples, it appears that fiom one occurrence to the nest, stability must be considezed 1.6 Important factors for stability “The distribution of weight on the ship is of great imporeance, Another important factor isthe form ofthe submerged part ofthe hull, For example, if the ship lists due to a gust of wind, ie will right itself. This is largely due to the ob~ lique displacement of the upward pressure caused by the displaced water (upehrust) ‘The magnicude of the oblique displace- ‘men of the water's upthrust isin turn, de= termined by the shape of the submerged parcofthe hull. Thats, ies much lager on theside ofthe ship than the othes, and is, in conjunction with other variables, sufficient to ensure stability ‘The distribution of the upehrust force and also the extent ofthat pressure on each part is dependent upon the form of the under- water hull. The form thus plays a very im portane role in stability ‘The face that the diseiburion of upward force around the ship changes continually, s also important to stability. Examples of such changes are found: ~ when the afi ship has more draft (due to load placed aft) ~ rridingon the crest of awave as aresule of which che distribution of upward force ‘on the submerged part of the hull eauses the ship to capsize. ‘General precantions against cap 2.541 Compliance with the stability eri teria does not ensure immunity against ‘eapsizing, regardless ofthe circumstances, ‘or absolve the master from his responsibi itis Masters should therefore exercise. pru- dence and good seamanship having regard to theseason of the year weather forecasts and the navigational zone and should take the appropriate action as t0 speed and course warranted by the prevailing cit + Refereothe Guidance roche master for _voidingdangeroussituacionsin following and quartering seas (MSC/Cire.707). TO rouse A. 749(18). (Amended by MSC75(6),calson inte bly oll peo thr coveredty IMO Instents Stability ~ 1. General To prevent problems with the previous the center of the combined weight ofthe ship and its cargo muse not be too high. This also has limieations, but will be explained later inthe book. Stability may meet all legal requirements bat there may still be circumstances where the stabilicy of the ship i in danger. SeeIMO resolution 4. 749 (18) (Amended by MSC75 (69) The ship is pushed to onesie by a wave During this period, the uptoard greater on the sarboard than on the port ide 1.7. Whois responsible for stability? Based on the forgoing it appears ehat che following factors have a large bearing on the ships seabilicy = the shape of the underwater hull, also called earéne. ~ the distribution of weight (longitudinal, thwart ships and aspecially vertically). ‘The shipbuilder/designer determines the shape of the hull. This is because the ship, under normal operation must always havea posicive stabilicy and has co fulfil all incer national requirements In short, the shipbuilder has to deliver a safe ship ‘The ship’ officer cannot change the hull form of the ship, only the distribution of ‘weight (cargo, fue, ballast, et) TThe officer is required eo comply wih legal stability regulations thac apply to the par- ticular ship.22.1 Definitions 2.1.1 Perpendiculars Imaginary lines, perpendicular to che base line or plane (and the waterline). = Forward Perpendicular (Fyp or Fy) This line crosses the intersection of the waterline a the front ofthe stem. ~ Afe Perpendicular (App oF A) This line usually aligns with the censer line of che rudder stock. This is the im: aginary line around which the rudder The perpendiculars are used when the lines plan is made. They ate the ends of the ‘block’ on the submerged part ofthe hull. (see definitions block coefficient) Moulded dimensions. The distance between the inner sides of the shell Summer freeboard 2.1.2 Waterlines The above-mentioned wateslines apply to an upright ship. There ate differene water- lines (Le. loadlines) for different loading conditions, such as ~ Light waterline ‘The waterline ofa ship carryingonly her regular inventory. ~ ally loaded waterline ‘The waterline of maximum load deafein ~ Construction (Seantling) waterline (Cy) ‘The waterline used 2s the limit to which the various struetural components are designed. 2.1.3 Plimsoll Mark ‘The Plimsoll mark or freeboard mark is a xymbol indicating the maximal immersion of the ship in the water, leaving a minimal freeboard for safety. Freeboard deck ‘The mark consists of a circle with a dia- meter of 300 mm, through which a hori- zontal line is drawn with its upper edge going through the center of the citce ‘This level indicates the minimal freeboard in sale water summer conditions. Beside this circle the loadline matk consists of a ‘number of horizontal lines indicating the ‘minimal freeboard required for other than summer conditions Al freeboard lines are 25 mm wide and are connected by a vertical line, ‘The abbreviations used in the matked load- lines must be in the language of che vessels flag state. Should the crew consist of more than one nationality the langauge uscd is generally English. Thisisto ensure the safe board, ofthe peopleon ‘The ship may load eargo until the upper «edge of the water level of che relevane load- line is reached Topical S Summer Ww Winter WNA Winter Noh Atlantic ‘TF: Tropical Fresh (for water with a density of 1000 «/m3) F Fresh (dieto) T: Tropical (for waeer wich a density of 1025 e/m3) S: Summer freeboard (ditto) W: Winter (ditto) WANA: Winter North Atlantic (ditto) only fr ships less than 100 mecers GL/LR: Germanischer Lloyd / Lloyds Register Piiesoll mark (1) stich erm alle d with special simsber allowances (3). The deck line (4) is marked off above the Plimsoll circle Stability ~ 2. Principal Dimensions ‘The drafe marks and Plimsoll mark have tobe marked pecmanently on che shell plating. Usually this means that they are outlined on the plating by bead welding or by welded plate,‘The Plimsoll mark is placed at halflenghe ‘oneach side of the ship. “The freeboard ines are the direct result of the freeboard calculation, where che sum- mer freeboard in salt wateris established. “The main paramecers of the calculation are length, width (beam), sheer, lengeh of su- perscructure, lengch/depth ratio, etc “The minimal operating feeboard dependson ~ Ship’ position at sea ~ Thetime of year (summer, winter) 2.1.4 Deck line In general this is the extended line from the upper side of the freeboard deck at the ships side ‘The deck line is placed above the Plimsoll ark so that the freeboard can be easily monitored by the ship's crew or other in- terested parties ‘Normally the deck line is a the level of che ‘weather deck, but in case the weather deck does not correspond with the freeboard deck (e.g, RoRo, passenger ships), chen ieis, placed at the level of that deck When the distance beeween the deck line and the mark is impractically large, or che ‘connection deck shell plate is rounded off (ankers, bulk carriers), the reference line is positioned at lower level. 2.1.5 Deck cargo of timber ‘When a ship carries a deck cargo of timber, and certain requirements are met, ths ship is allowed to have more draft (less fre board). Thisisdue to theadditional reserve ‘buoyancy caused by the cargo. To indicate this, the ship has a special freeboard mark for carrying a deck cargo of timber, the so- called timber mark. 2.1.6 Tankers and bulk earviers ‘Tankers carrying liquid cargoes and being completely watertight, also have allowance for less freeboard compared with other ‘argo ships ofthe same length. § tera —terermttonnetmimn | ErgeaM ane *S. ~ pam = | | or o o 20" “Chart of zones and Seasonal Areas or ‘zane rap! A section of this map is portrayed The Plimsoll mark indicates the maximum Uoaded draft allowed for a given level The mark (for example, W, S or T) can be determined with the help ofthe map. During # voyage, the lowest drafts always the most inportant. For exannple, if a ship leaves in the winter from Northern Spain in a south- ery direction, it is posible to reach the surm- ‘mer zone within a fow bows. However it sul aust be loaded asi 8 were in the winter On. ifa specifi W. S or T zone is applicable, shen itis wholly based on the average expected winds and height ofthe waves in the area Stability ~ 2. Principal Dimensions The cyclone regions are clearly marked in Blue withthe times they are likely to occur Note the WNA mark at the bottom of the ‘map for ships of ess than 100 meters 132.1.7 Permanent marks on the ship's shell Ie is very importane that drafe marks ean be accu rately rea Some experi is also imp ‘marks movement of wacer often makes an accurate read ing difficult Several examples with explanations are provided ‘on these pages. Draft to poreside fore: aft to porwside fi aft on the stern is given in meters and fect: 9136 m. = 307 4, Draft co starboard aft: 9.35 meter, 5, Drafe midships: 7.00 meters 6, Decklline 7. Plimsoll mark 8. The water evel does not reach the draft marks below the stern under che transom. These 3.8. dm 17 mecers 1 3, ‘marks must be read on che stern to port or star board. (9) This will actully not be easy due co she seers shape. 9. The draft is visible on the aft perpendicular co port. From above to the rudder stock. In prac tice, dificult to read, CHRISTIAN MAERSK GRASTEN IMO 8820195 4 Stability ~ 2. Principal DimensionsIMO 9109073 GUDRUN EUPeC ky Stability — 2, Principal Dimensions2.2 Dimensions Length between perpendiculars (Lp) Distance between the Fore and the Afe Perpendicula: Length overall (Lg,) The horizontal distance over the extrem ties, from stem to seen, Lengeh waterline (Ly) Horizontal distance between fore and aft when the ship is loaded at che summer mark, ess the shel. Draft Forward (Try) Vertical distance between the watetline and the underside of the keel, as measured atthe forward perpendicular Drafeat the stern (Ty) The vertical distance between the water line and che underside ofthe keel as meas- ured at the aft perpendicular. Breadth or beam (By.o) The greatest molded breadth, measured from side to side at the outside of the frames, but inside the shell. Breadth over all (Bg,) ‘The maximal breadth of the ship 2s meas ured from the ovter hull on starboard to the outer hull on port side, including rub- bing bars, permanent fenders eee Depth (D) ‘The vertical distance between the baseline and the upper continuous deck. The depth is measured at half Lyp at the side of the ship. Length overall (Lo,) Length beeween the perpendiculars (pp) Length waterline (Ly) 16 Freeboard ‘The distance between the waterline and the top of the deck at the side (ae the deck line). The term summer freeboard means the distance from the top of the summer loadline and the upper edge of the deck line Airdrafe ‘The vertical distance berween the watetine and the highest poine ofthe ship. The ait drafc is measured ftom the summer mark FEthe ship has less draft one can ballast un- ti ic reaches che summer draft and so ob ‘ain its minimal air drat 4, Breadth overall (By,) 5. Depth 6. Drafe Stability ~ 2, Principal Dimensions Sheer This is the upward rise of a ship's deck from rid length cowards the bow and stern. The sheer gives the vessel extra reserve buoyan- cyat the stem and the ster. Camber The cransverse curvature of the weather deck. The curvature helps to ensure suffi cient drainage of any water on deck. Base line Top of the flac keelplate Keel (K) Iner section of thebase line and the center line plane. 7. Freeboard 8. Overall height of vessel (air draft)The keel (K) i the intersection of the base ine (purple) and centerline Rise of floor ‘Common to some types of vessels like eu. 2.3. Positions of the ship, Lise Heeling to one side about the fore and aft 2.4 Proportions The ratios of some of the dimensions ean be used to obtain information on resist ance, stability and maneuverability of the ship. Some commonly used ratios are: LB ‘The ratio of lengeh and breadth: L/B ean differ quite significanely depending on the type of vessel. Common values Passengerships 6-8 Freighters 5-7 Tugboats 3-5 A larger L/B value is favorable for speed, buc unfavorable for maneuverability boats and fishing boats. Thisis the upward deviation from the baseline of the lower celges of the floors from che keel cowards L/D The length/depth-ratio. The customary the bilges, Bilge Radius Gives the bilge radius ofthe ship. 3. bilge radius Arise of floor Down by the stern: T,, more then T, ‘Trim (0) ‘The difference between the draft at the steen and the draft at the stem. the em fore (tg) + the trim aft (¢,) Onan even keel, in proper trim ‘The draft of che stern equals the draft of che stem, Seability - 2. Principal Dimensions values for L/D vary between 10 and 15. This relation plays a role in the determina- tion of the freeboard and the longicudinal strength. BIT “The breadth/drafe-ratio, varies between 2 and 45. ‘Alarger breadth in relation to the draft (2 hauger B/T-value) provides greater initial seability B/D ‘The breadth/depch-ratio, varies between 1 and 2, IF eis value increases, i will have an unfavorable effect on stability (the deck. will be submerged when the vessel heels) and strength, 72.5. Volumes and weights General ‘The size ofa ship can be expressed by using terms which describe che characteristics of the ship. Each term has a specific abbre- vation. The type of ship determines che term to be used, For instance, the size of a container vessel's expressed in the number ‘of containers (TEU) it ean carry; a Ro- Ro carvier’s size is given by the total deck surface (lanes) and a passenger ship in the number of passengers it can carry. At the IMO-conference in 1969 the new measurements for the "Gross ‘Tonnage’ and "Nee Tonnage’ were introdueed, 0 establish a world-wide standard in calcula ing the size ofa ship. In many countries the Gross Tonnage is used to ealeulate harbor dues and pilotage, or co determine the number of crew members Register ton (RT) To determine the size of a ship the RT is used. Irisbased on volume where one regis- cer ton equals 100 cubic feet, or 2.83 m*, Gross Register Tonnage ‘The Gross Regiseer Tonnage(GRT or GT), usually called Gross Tonnage, is calculated using formula chat rakes into account the ship’ volume in cubic mezers below the main deck and the enclosed spaces above the main deck. ‘This volume is chen multiplied by a coef ficient, which resultsin a non-dimensional number (this means no values of T or m? should be placed after the number). All ‘measurements used in the calculation are moulded dimensions. In order to minimize the daily expenses of 1a ship, the ship owner will keep the GT as low as possible. One way of doing this is by keeping the depth small, so more cargo will be placed on deck. ‘This strategy isin particular used in small container ships (feeders). As 2 consequence, dangerous situations ean occur as the lesser reserve buoyancy can result in a lesser stablicy and. ‘more ‘water on deck: [Net Register Tonnage ‘The Net Register Tonnage is also a non- mensional number that describes the vol- tume of the cargo space. The NT is derived from the GT by subtracting the volume of space occupied by: ~ navigation equipment ~ the propulsion equipment = work stations ~ ballast 18 Gross Tonnage (GT) Nett Tonnage (NT) ‘The NT may notbe les than 30% ofthe GT. ‘Underwater volume (carene) (m*) ‘The moulded underwater volume of ship is che displacement in m? minus the contsibu- tion of the shell, propeller and rudder. Or: the calculated volume of che pare ofthe hull which is immersed in the water, on the outside of the frames without extensions. The influence ofthe shell in weight, is compensated by the excra displacement. splacement V (m3) ‘The displacement is the volume of the part ofthe ship below the waterline including the shell plating, propeller and rudder and other appendages. Displacement D or A (ton) The displacement is the weight of the volume of water displaced by the ship. One could also say: the displacement equals the coral mass ofthe ship. Displacemene (ton) = water displacement (m3) x densiey of water (t/m9) Lightship weight (ton) Thisis che weight of che ship including the regular inventory, but without any cargo, fuel or crew. The regular inventory includes: anchors, life-saving equipment, lubricating oil paint, ete Deadweight (ton) ‘This is the weight a ship can take on unl the maximal allowable immersion is reached. This is a fixed value, unique to each ship. Through the years, there usually a build-up of mud in the balla tanks, additional lubricating ol is raken on board, and less is removed, ‘There isalso water, which cannot be pumped out. The toral weight ofall ths, icalled the ship-constant or dead load, and has to be subtracted from the deadweight. Deadweight (ton) = design displacement (ton) — light ship weight (con) Actual Deadweight (ton) = maximum weighe A(ton) ~ actual weight (ton) Cargo Capacity (t) “This is the coral weight of cargo a ship is designed to carry at a given time. The actual cargo loaded (in tons) is nor a fixed amount. Ie depends on the ship’ maximum allowable immersion a che elevant season, which will inchude the capacity (in tons) of fuel, lubri- ‘ating oil, provisions and drinking water. For along voyage a large quantity of fuels has co bbe taken on, which reduces the cargo capacity. fon the other hand, the ship refuels (bun kers) underway, che cargo capacity is larger upon departure. The amount of fuel on board and the location for refueling depend on many factors, butin the end the captain has final responsibility forthe decision. The cargo capacity sets mainly the income of a ship. Cargo capacity (ton) = deadweight (ton) ~ ballast, fae, provisions (con). Stability ~ 2. Principal Dimensions2.6 The shape of the ship ‘As stated earlier, che shape of the ship is very importance for stability ‘The form coelficienes discussed here ae re- lated to the under water Form of the ship to the summer loadline This does noe alter the fact that the part of the ship above water is also important to stabiliy Ie is importane to know which upward force can effect the part of the ship stil above water. In other words: how large is the reserve buoyancy and how is this distributed throughout the ship? (see chapter 2.11) Passenger ship. Nove the large B/T ratio leis clear that che amount of buoyancy (ith an equal angle of heel) ofa passenger ship will be completely different than that of a supply ship. For example on a passen- ser ship, cis is mach larger than on a sup: plyship due o the higher superstructure of the passenger ship. Fven so, this does not cause a problem for the supply ship as long as the weight distribution and the shape below the waterline is sufficient 2.6.1 Hull form coefficients Line coefficients define the characteristics of the vessels shape at and below the waterline, This makes it possible to get an impression of the shape of the underwater body of a ship without extensive use of any data. However, the line coefficients do not contain any information aboue the dimensions of the ship and are thus, non-dimensional figures. ~ Waterline coefficient, Cy (#) ‘The waterline coefficient gives the ratio of the area of the waterline (Ay) and the rectangular plane bounded by Lyp and molded breadth (By.p) ‘A large waterline coefficient in combination with a small block coefficient (or coefficient of fineness) is favorable to stability in both transverse and longitu inal direction, Aw = So ‘Wirerline coefficient (Cy) = = Midship Section cosicient, Cy (@) “The midship (main frame) coefficient gives the ratio of the area ofthe midship section (A,.) and the area bounded by By and T. ‘The influence ofthe midship section coefficients variable. Stability ~2. Principal Dimensions 19~ Block coefficient, coefficient of fineness, C, (3) The block coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body (V) and the rectangular block bounded by Ly». Byyp and drafe (T). A vessel with a small block coef. ficient is referred o as fine: In general, fast ships have small block coefficients, Customary values for the block coefficient of several types of vessels: mee See Approximate ship speed Ship eyp block coefficient C, (akg Barge 0.90 5-10 Bulk: carrier 0.80 -0.85 12-17 Tanker 0.80 -0.85, 2-16 General cargo 055-075 13-22 Container ship 050-070 14-26 Ferryboat 050-070 15-26 Volume Block coefficient (Cy) = ae ConRo ship with an average block coeficient 2.6.2. Hull-form (Lines plan) = Prismatic coefficient, C, () ‘When the principal dimensions, displace- The Prismatic Coefficient gives the ratio of the volume of the underwater body and the mentand hull-form coefficients arc known, block formed by crc area of the Midships Section (Ay,) and Ly. The Cy isimportane for one has an impressive amount of desiga in. resistance and hence, for the necessary power of propulsion (ifthe C, decreases, the nec- formation, but not yet a clear image of che «ssaty propulsion power aso becomes smaller). exact geometrical shape of the ship. The shape is given by the lines plan, ‘The maximal value ofall these coefficients (also for a rectangular block) equals 1. The minimal value is theoretically 0. The shape of a ship can vary in height, lengeh and breadth, In order to represent this complex shape on papet, transverse sections of the hull are combined with two v Lp XBXTXCy Cy longitudinal sets of parallel planes, each r] Prismatic coefficient (C = ‘one perpendicular to the others. VO ee eee eee or re ae Waerlines Horizontal sections of the hull are called waterlines. One of these is the design wa- cerline, whichis che waterline ofthe ship at the level ofimmersion with a ful cargo When the watelines ate projected and drawn into one view from above, the result iscalled a waterline model 20 Stability — 2, Principal DimensionsStations Evenly spaced vertical cross-sections in transverse direction are called sections (or dinates). Usually the ship is divided ineo 20 ordinates, from the center ofthe rudder scoek (ordinate 0) to the intersection of che construction waterline and the mould-side of the stem (ordinete 20), ‘The boundaries of these distances are num- bered 0 to 20, called the section numbers [A projection ofall ordinates into one view is called a body plan. Verticals / Bow and Buetocks Lengehwise sections are called verticals or bow and buttock Lines. These longicudinal sections are parallel to the plane of symme- try of che ship, Verticals projected and drawn in one view result ina so-called longieudinal plan, Diagonals [Apart from the rectangular sections, some- times planes running lengthwise are used, bbue at an angle from the midships plane, They are called dicgonals, or sene-lnes, ‘The diagonals are longitudinal sections thar intersect with the hull surface ata cer- tain angle. On the longitudinal plan they show up as curves ‘The curvature of the frames (ordinates), water lines and Suttocks are compared to each other and modified until ehey are consistent, and develop smoothly in all icections. When this procedure is execu ted, the results can be checked using the diagonals. The mast commonly used dia- onal is called the bilge diagonal. parmenaae Waterlines Stations Buttock lines Diagonals The lines plan of. mawler ith an overall length of 124 meters Stability ~ 2. Principal Dimensions aa canuanneesaccommodation / deck house 2.7 General Arrangement rear cargo space bulkhead . longitudinal bulkhead between hold Now that che overall dimensions and side rank and form of the ship are under- 4. tanktop stood attention will be directed 5. fore cargo space bulkhead atanumber of stationary compo- 6. side tank nents and spaces. These have an 7. double bottom indirect relationship to stability 8. stezn and are frequently referred to in 9. side shell this book. 11. bullesd (poreable) 12. beam Stability 2. Principal Dimensions2.8 Derivative quantities In addition to the fixed components and spaces referred to in 2.7, there are also a number of variables important to stability. TThese are farther explained in this chapter. ‘The variables are: The location of these variables is depend- ‘The ship’ weight, among other factors, ent upon: includes: ~ the dstribucion of weight* on the ship — the weight ofthe ship when ie is empty ~ the distriburion of upward force (buoy- cargo ancy) on the submerged part of the - fuel, lubrication oi, drinking water, etc hull (added cargo) ~ ballast ‘Term | Feplanation Centre of Gravity mean mass or center of gravity (of ship, cargo and added cargo) Cenere of gravity mean mass of space or object Centre of Buoyancy (volume)| __volumeeric center of the submerged part ofthe hull. Meracenter Metacenter K Kel Keel | COF ‘Centre of Floatation ;cometical center of the water plane area, or tipping center axisaround which the ship trims COF = center of floatation Stability ~ 2. Principal DimensionsFurther explanation 28.1 Point Al the ship's mass is concenerated in one place, G (center of gravity). Gis the poine where the ships total weight is thought to be concentrated (weight of the empey ship + cargo + added weight). As soon as weight is added, removed or shifted, point The distvibatio G changes weight per section aver the length. G indicates the total weigh The position of G is determined relative to 3 points of reference: Note: normally, in a moving ship, point G will not change. Abbreviation point G| Area of reference Explanation [vce Keel Vertical Center of Gravity Lc Aft perpendicular TCG ‘Area of Keel and Seem = = Be mee | a hice 2.8.2 PointB All upward force on the underwater hull ‘ean beconcentrated arone point, B (=cent- er of buoyancy), Point B is the volumetric center of gravity of the submerged part of the hull and also where the resuleant up- ward force is centered. ‘The position of B in the ship is subsequent. ly determined by the form of the hull The distribution of upward pressure per section over te length. B indicates the total Note: Point B wil. move as longas the ship isin motion. This motion cn be very slow The position of B is determined relative to 3 points of reference: (for example when loading and / or dis- [Abbreviation point B [ Area of reference [ Explanation location to trans- verse (initial) stability is great. The loca- tion of M depends on the location of B. ‘The location of G in relation to M ly decisive for the stability. Seability can be: = positive (G under M) ~ neutral (Gat M) ~ unstable (G above M). Up to about 5° list and/or trim, it can be assumed that B forms a citcle with M as center point. BM is, therefore, a fixed dis “The drawings demonstrate that with an in- crease in heel, the location of M depends ~ the shape of the submerged part of the ship (thereby, the Location of B, which changes continuously ina moving ship) ~ the surface area of the waterline where by the wideh of the waterline is che most {important factor (this also changes con- tinuously in a moving ship) 35ship bas O° list. The alignment BM gis largely determined by the breadch ofthe waterline The ship witha list of 20°. The breadth ofthe waterline becomes largersthere- fore, BM becomes greater ‘The ship with a lit of 40°. Because the deck is partially sebmerged and the bilge is out ofthe water, the breadth of the waterline decreases; therefore, BM becomes smaller Nis defined as follows: {in physical terms) the intersection of the buoyancy vector and the center line (plane). 36 The ship with a list of 60%. The breadth ofthe aaterline decreases and thus, the distance BM is also smaller The ship with 90° list. As 60 Misdefined 2s follows: (Gn physical terms) the intersection of 2 consecutive buoyancy vectors with a slight increase in angle of heel (forexample from 0,5" t0 0.6" (e+(9+0.). Scability - 3, Transverse Stabilicy The length of the waterplane area will be fairly constant with an increasing ise. ‘The wideh of the waterplane area will in- crease initially and decrease thereafter. Consequentl, the BM becomes larger initially with an increasing list. IF the lise farther increases, the waterline surface area decreases along wich the BM distance (de- pendingon the draft). ‘The distance of BM is decisive for the amount of righting moment. See section 3.6, ‘With larger lis, there i false metacencer (N). (A ship wich an even transverse weight dis- tribution has no list). The value BM for eransverse angles is sig- nificanely differene fom M for longivudi rally angles with BM, being much larger. 3.5. Model data ‘The lines plan accurately represents the hulls form. Amongst other lines the water- lines are drawn at constant distances from base line to the design watedine, Berween the base and waterline 1 a water line ¥ is marked in order to make adjust: ‘ments for irregularities caused by che rise of floor (deadrise) and curve ofthe bilge. ‘With the Simpson Rules (se chapter 3.11.2), the area of the waterplane as well as the area of the ordinates (sections) can be cal- culated. ‘The following can also be derived from these rules: ~ the statical moment of the waterlines in relation to the keel ~ the ordinates in relation to the aft per- ppendicular so thae che volume of the hull can be determined, KBand LCB can be found in this way. Bonjean curves Aline representing the area below the wa- terlines at each ordinate gives the possibil- ity co calculate displacements coefficients fora given tim at each ordinate (section).Bonjean curve ordinace 10 Bonjean curve ordinate 18 Example: Occinates 10 and 18 of a ship are reproduced ‘The wateslines ate marked in intervals (I) of and WL is 0.75 meter. Section area ata drafeT| 100 150m? inthe drawings 15 meters. The distance between the base widest pare of he ship is 19.20 mecer. Forordinate 10, che following ae the waterline half bread: 4b (),e7-8m, 1: 9.0m, 2 £06: 9.6m Surface area to WL 1 > Simpson’ Ist Rule Area =2x UX AIK (Yy+ 4¥q +¥)) = 2x UKKX1S x(04 4X78 + 9.0) = 201 m? Suface area to WL 2—> Simpson's Ist Rule: Ara =2x 4x1 x (Ypt4¥, +¥;)=2% 4x 15 x (044x904 9.6)= 45.6m? Susiceatea to WL 3 Simpson's 2nd Rule: Atea =2% %x1x (Yq +3¥) +3¥)+ Yq) SIXHXISX(043%9.043 9649. A graph is drawn, whereby the draft can be fad on the vertical axis and the area ofthe fame on the horizontal axis. The 6 caleu- lated areas are chen given and combined in the graph, Value in between can be found by inter Polation “This graph for all che sections is called the “Bonjean Curves: With the Bonjcan curve of each ordinate and the Simpson's Rules: the volume of the hull at each draft and swim can be calculated Stability ~ 3. Transverse Stabiliey ‘The so calculated displacement represents the submerged part ofthe ship without the shell plating, rudder, propellor ete ‘The displacement has co be adjusted ac- cordingly "The buoyaney at WL 4 can be found by measuring horizontally che Bonjean curves atthe level of waterline 4 for each section. By combining the areas formed below che waterline drawn on these seetion values represents the buoyancy. In the third figure, che draft is 7 meeers, che resulting value for an area of 120 mv. “The Bonjean data appear in table form in the ship's specifie stability booklet (hydco- static particulars) ‘The following is given for each ordinate and waterline: ‘The distance from basis to warerline for each ordinate (section). For each water- line, the area of the submerged part of the ordinate ~ The distance from each ordinate to or dinate 0 (is afe perpendicular). ~ The statical moment of area in relation co the baseline ~ The statical moment of area in relation ro ordinate 0. Each arbitrary draft and trim as well asthe volume of the hull, LCB and KB can be calculated from chese data, ‘Many more sections can be used to deter- mine not only the ship's displaced volume with each trim but also with each list, pref- erable with a computer’ assistance. ‘Ac the same time, i is posible to calculate Bor che ship on a series of waves. “The accuracy ofthe calculations rely onthe accuracy of the Bonjean curves. [New methods of calculation ‘The newest methods involve dividing the shell surfacein small elements. For each cle- mene the hydrostatic pressure i calculated. ‘To find che sum, by means of che direction and strength of the hydrostatic foree on all calculated surface elements, the position of Bis decermined. The position of B can, in this manner, be calculated For each transi ory waterline, as well as in complicated3.6. Center of geavity'G? Amongst other things, the crew decides: = the amount and sequence in which the loaded/discharged goods are placed ~ where they are placed ~ which fuel, ballase and drinking water tanks are filled oF emptied The assumption is that d the ship (weight of seu chinery, outfic, cargo, fuel, ete.) is concen trated at a point G (Center of Gravity coe), The summation and alignment of which, are represented by a vector, the so-called resultant ofall weights for che ship. total weight of rural parts, ma G is thus, dependent on che magnitude of the ships weight and where itis located. ip’ 3.6.1 Determination of the location ofG The shipyard estimates the location of G for the ‘empty ship The ‘light ship weight isthe weight of the ship with only the compulsory in ntory onboard ‘compulsory equipment’: equipment thacis part of che completed ship, such asanchors life-saving apparatus, etc, les of extreme distribution of w Gis che only point that can be directly in fluenced by the ship's crews. The crew deter- mines where the different weights (cargo, ballast, fuel, supplies) are placed onboard, Vector: Quaneity thar indicates magnitude as wall as direction. With regard to stabil ity this means cat che vector indicates: ~ aforce in tons = the working direction of this force Resuleane: One vector thee replaces a number of functioning vectors on the same body without changing the result. {g =center of gravity of component G = center of gravity of the entire ship. 20. G wil tion of weight on the 38 Seability ~ 3. Transverse Stability move higher asa result. Depending upon th The shipyard can fairly accurately ‘mine the lighe weight of the empty ship based on the materials use [Above the calculations for G (light ship) a compulsory inclining experiment has vo be performed. (see 3.6.1.) The location of Gis found from the inclin- ing experiment and adjusted for possible known weights to be added or removed ‘This is the starting point for the calcula tion of G for any other loading condition, Additionally, che “lightship weight" is determined at the same time as the in- clining experiment as the firse step, using, Archimedes law. ‘The location of G can be calculated: ~ by the summation of al weight, mul- tiplied by their relative distance from cach weight to baseline or aft perpen- dicular divided by the total weight (3.6.13) ~ by moving of substantial weights (in- elining experiment) (3.6.1.6) eal cistrib ip this is not necessarily3.6.1.4 Law of Moment Equilibrium The location of G slave the keel is deter mined by all weights of ship and eargo, but also on the postion ofthese weights above the keel (VCy) In order to efleulate the VCG the follow. ing information is necessary: ~ displacement and VCG of the empty ship — the weight of each added load or cargo ~ the diseance from each additional weight to a point of reference, usually the keel Formula: Momen: Fora simple explanation of ‘moment; con- sider a sees ‘A parent exertsa momentin elation to the pivot poinc of: 80 x 4 = 320 kilogram-mecer (kgm) and the child: 20 x-4= 80 kgm ‘Ouecome: equilibrium one end of the see- saw is suspended and cannor be moved. ‘The moments are not equal 20kg es 4m ‘Whar can be done to bring the seesaw in balances the moment that parent and child ‘xere must be equal relative to the pivor poine (point of reference), but in the op. posite direction ‘01g @ 20 kg Tm am “The momene that both now exert relative to the pivot point, isthe same and equilib- rium is achieved. ‘The parenc exerts moment relative co the pivot poine at 80 x 1 = 80 kgm and the child, the same momens, namely 20° 4 = 80 kgm, In principle, che same occurs on a ship. IF there is equilibrium between all mo: ments to port and starboard there is no list. ‘The axis of roration is located in the cen- terline plane. “Thisalso applies in the longitudinal sense ‘The ship then eurns on the laveral axis Law of Moment equilibrium: Total_moment of a number of forces (weight) x levers in relation toa fixed (cho Sen) point or area is equal co the summa sion of all the individual moments in rela- sion to the same point or area The magnicude of moment exerted on the ship thus dependant upon the: ~ magnitude of weight (in tons) = lever distance (in meters) Explanation of different moments that weight (g) exerts on 2 ship with the points of reference, distances and abbreviations through the warcrplane Center OF used Floatation (COP) Direction | Abbreviation Abbreviation] Poincof | Distaned Explained ‘Momentum | explained | Reference Vertical — | Mi, Veriesl | Kel | VCg | Vereical COg Moment Transverse | M, “Tranwvene | Centerline | TCg | Transverse Moment COg Longitidunal M, Longisudinal | Afeperpen] LCg | Longieudinal | Momene | dicular COs. Stability ~ 3. Transverse Stability Points of reference ean be ale perpendicular fore perpendicular amidships centerline keel (base line) With a few illustrations and sim- ple calculations, the concept of Moment is further explained on the following page. NB: for clarification, longitudinal stability is also indicated here: this is explained later in chapter 4‘is 6000 tons and VCG 5.00 mecers Mone o [ea ha con meter [ronmeter pee ees initial situation ‘6000 | 7.00 | 42,000 nil scuation «000 | 5.00 | 30.000 containers discha =100 [1200 | -1200 eoneainers discharged | -200 |1200 | -2400 contnersloaded | +100 | 400 | + 400 result [res 6000 | 66 | 41,200 VCG new = Weight [LCG [Momenrum iniialsieuation «6000 [50.00 | +300,000 containers discharged | -100 [3000 | - 3000 containers lode +100 [45.00 | + 4500 resale ‘6000 [50.25 | 301,500 [Weigh [LCG [Momencum nit sewaton 000 |s0.00_| +300.000 containersdischarged | - 20 |2400 | - 480 concinersloaded +20 [99.00 | + 1980 result «6000 [30.25 | 301,500 From the above illustrations and calcula- tions it appears thar large weight moved shore distance kas the same effects asmall the position of Gis known immediately. — trim weight moved a long distance. The mo- The computer caleulaes the location of | — lise ‘ment for both is equal. On aship, the location of Gis determined (LCG) and eransverse (TCG) by dividing the total moment by the total weight. G vertically (VG) as well a horizoneally “The computer calculates each new change ‘The exact location of G is important for: in weight during loading (after input) so - stability Space Weight [vee MH eae, MT LeG Example 1000 (ton) [5.00 (mete) | 5000 (tonmerer) [600 (meter) | 6000 (conmeres) 70 (meter) ME 70,000 (ronmece) | Above, is an exampl 40 Stability ~ 3. Transverse Stability Le whereby the momentuin of one weight i stipulated in relation to three reference points3.6.14b Movement of center of gravity “The movement of G can be quickly made clear if only one (large) weight is relocated on board orloaded. G then moves: in the movement direction of the weight for the transfer of one ofthe weights = across a distance of GG, = 4 onboard (p) pxa (a+p) for adding weight (p) ‘Changing the location of G by transferring 8 (25 tons) containers 75 meters forward on ship of 6000 tor. displacement pxa__ _8x25con x75 meters a 6000 GG, =25 meter Conclusion: G moves 25 meters forward, A vertical rise of G caused by placinga load above G. KG =5 merers, Kg = 12 meters ‘6000 + 200 200.on x (12 (6000 + 200 Conclusion: G then moves 0.23 me- cers upwards, KG,= 5.00 + 0.23 = 5.23 meters ‘The formula ist GG, G moves when a weight is transferred or loaded / discharged P isthe trarsferred, loaded or discharged weight the displacement of the ship before loading weight ‘The distance by which the weight is moved relative to G Loading of weight: obviously the weight i loaded at G, then moved to its definitive Position; 2's chen che distance between G and the definitive position, Stability ~ 3. Transverse Stability 3.6.LecIndlining test ‘The shipbuilder can estimate the displace ment, KG and GM based on he materials (mosily steel) used in building, In order to calculate the correct GM of the empty ship, the ship must undergo an inclining experimenc (stability est) co de- termine KG. ‘The results ofthe test serve as the bass for all stability calculations. Should the results of the sability est deviate from the ship. builder’ calculations, then i could be chat the weights of the used building materials ‘were incorrectly calculated. ‘The weight of che ‘empty ship’ must be as accurate as possible. During che test: ~ the ship must be fee to roll (mooring wires slack, et) ~ iemmust be calm with no wind no disturbaney from waves ‘The test must be conducted multiple times both starboard and porcside with consist- anc outcome to ensure an accurate result. A kenown weight (1) is moved transversally across a known distance (2) as a resule of which the ship list. (1) he weight must be so large char: ‘© the ship remains wichin an initial range of seabilicy (max. is 5*) «equal to about 2 % displacement (2) approximately % the breadth Gb change of location is indicated in the figure. The ship’ lst due to relocating the weight is aceurately measured. This can be done by means of a plumb line. Ifa plumb line is used, i is usually suspend ced in a hold where the weight hangs in a tank of water to stabilize the plumbline. “The result is determined by measuring the distance the pendulum moves on a tape line (QR). In practice, also a special instru ment is used that registers thelist in frac tions of degrees Afier a number of weight moves GM can becaleulaed. Afeer a substantial conversion, a new in- clining experiment can be requested by Clas, usually when edie or cemoved weight is more than 2% of the light weight. Al