2.996/6.
971 Biomedical Devices Design
Laboratory
Lecture 2: Fundamentals
and PCB Layout
Instructor: Hong Ma
Sept. 12, 2007
Fundamental Elements
Resistor (R)
Capacitor (C)
Inductor (L)
Voltage Source
Current Source
Enough to model any physical linear circuit
Fundamental Relationships
Ohms law: R = V / I
KVL, KCL Conservation laws
Impedance:
1
ZC =
Z L = j L
jC
Treat capacitors and inductors as resistors
Fundamental question:
Given an arbitrary circuit, what happens when you
hook up another circuit up to it?
Thevenin-Norton Equivalents
Represent an arbitrary circuit using a source and a
source impedance
Thevenin and Norton representation is equivalent
Result: Reduce all circuits into one fundamental circuit
Source and Load
Sources
Power supply
Signal Generator
Sensor
Amplifier output
Optimize for Voltage: ZLOAD >> ZSOURCE
Optimize for Current: ZLOAD << ZSOURCE
Optimize for Power: ZLOAD = ZSOURCE
Purpose of amplifier / active circuit:
impedance transform
Loads
Actuator
Measurement
device
Amplifier input
Simple Filters
RC Low pass
RC high pass
Bandpass
Bandstop (notch)
Simple Cascaded Filters
What if 2 stages are needed?
Practical Introduction to Passive
Components
Resistors
Range: 1 to 22M
Carbon composite (axial)
5% accuracy typical
Wirewound
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo examples of resistors.
1% accuracy typical
Thick film (Screen printed / electroplated)
Accuracies down to 1%
Thin film (Vacuum deposited)
Accuracies down to 0.1%
Temperature coefficient: 20-200 ppm / C
Potentiometer
Concerns:
Over-usage
Wiper skips not all values are achievable
Mechanical stability multi-turn not
necessarily better
Courtesy of [Link]. Used with permission.
Practical Capacitor Considerations
Accuracy: 10%
typical
Effective series
capacitance
Dielectric soakage
(dielectric absorption)
Temperature
dependence
ESR
Ceramic Capacitors
Most common type
1pF to 1F
Accuracy
Through-Hole 20%
SMT 10%
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo examples of ceramic capacitors.
Low ESR, loss tangent 0.002
Temperature coefficient
Z5U, X7R, C0G (NP0)
Cost = ~$0.01 in quantity
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
Primary use: power supply bypassing
Range: 1F 1F Typical: 100F
Cost: ~$0.10 depending on size
Polar, designated by the negative terminal
Will blow up if reverse biased
Nonpolar versions available
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo examples of aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
Very inaccurate
Typical tolerance: +80%, -20%
Limited lifetime
High ESR, loss tangent = R/Xc 0.2
Tantalum Electrolytics
Similar to aluminum electrolytics, but better
energy density
More expensive than aluminum electrolytics
Range: 0.1F to 1000F
Polarity designated by the positive terminal
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo examples of tantalum electrolytics.
Double Layer Capacitors
Extremely high capacitance
Range 0.1F 1000F
Low voltage rating
Used for energy storage
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo examples of double layer capacitors.
Specialty Capacitors: Polypropylene
Improved performance:
Accuracy
ESR at high frequencies
Low dielectric soakage
Temperature stability
Higher breakdown voltage
Tradeoffs
Larger size
Smaller range of values
Higher cost: ~$0.10
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo of polypropylene capacitor.
Power Supply Bypassing
Ideal sources do not exist!
Source impedance increases with
frequency
Ceramic capacitor on each IC component
Electrolytic on both sides of the power
supply
Practical Inductors
Inaccurate (at best 10%)
Expensive
Parasitics
All inductors self resonate
Avoid whenever possible
Images removed due to copyright restrictions.
Photo examples of practical inductors.
Where to find information / parts
Manufacturers website: datasheet &
samples
Distributors:
Digikey
Mouser
Newark
Meta search engine: [Link]
PCB Layers
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
Substrate
FR-4 standard; Specialty: G-10, polyimide (Kapton), ceramic
Standard thicknesses: 0.062, 0.031
Copper
2, 4, up to 12 layers
Minimum trace/spacing 6 mil, smaller is possible
Thickness: 1 oz copper = 500 per square
Exposed copper tined with solder
Interlayer connection by vias; Blind and buried vias = $$$
Soldermask very important Hydrophobic to solder
Silkscreen
PCB Layout Error Sources
Capacitive interference
Inductive interference
Electromagnetic interference
Need a ground plane but why?!?
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
Capacitive Interference
Cause: capacitance between nearby traces
When to watch out for it:
High impedance circuit nodes
High-voltage excitation signals
High frequency signals
How to avoid it:
Lower the circuit impedance
Use groundplanes and shielding to isolate signal lines
Boot-strap to reduce capacitance to ground
Separate analog and digital ground planes
Inductive Interference
Cause: mutual inductance between traces
When to watch out for it:
Large AC current
Transient switching
Long traces
Loops
How to Avoid Inductive Interference
Keep traces short
Make traces perpendicular
Use star power / ground routing
Reduce loop area
Careful use of ground planes
Watch out for return lines
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
See Figure 12 here: [Link]
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Cause:
long traces/wires acting as an antenna
When to watch out for it:
Length > 1/20 wavelength
Source of interference
Wireless communication (900MHz, 2.4GHz, 5GHz)
FM radio
Microwave oven
Lightning, solar flares, cosmic rays
High speed processors
Real products must pass FCC and CE testing
Ferrite Bead
A lossy inductor
Resistor at high frequencies
Example photos removed due to copyright restrictions.
Where to put the ground planes?
Ground planes outside, signals inside:
Essentially eliminate capacitive interference
Ground planes inside, signal outside:
Ground plane with frewer interruptions
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
Project Teams
