Fabric

for
Fashion
The
Complete
GuideNatural and
man-made fibers
Published in 2014
by Laurence King Publishing Ltd
361–373 City Road
London EC1V 1LR
tel +44 20 7841 6900
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© text 2014 Amanda Johnston

and Clive Hallett

All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or
any information storage and retrieval
system, without prior permission in
writing from the publisher.

A catalogue record for this book is

available from the British Library.

ISBN-13: 978 1 78067 334 9

Cover image: Courtesy Yiqing Yin,

photo by Laurence Laborie

Designed by Struktur Design Limited

Printed in China
Fabric
for
Fashion
The
Complete
Guide Natural and
man-made fibers

Clive Hallett and

Amanda Johnston
Photo editing and
commissioned photography
by Myka Baum

Laurence King Publishing

Introduction

Section 1:
Animal fibers

Section 2:
Plant fibers

Section 3:
Man-made fibers

Useful information
Introduction 8

Fibers to fabrics 12

Introducing color 44

Wool 62

Luxury animal fibers 86

Silk 104

Linen 128

Cotton 142

Alternative plant fibers 166

Synthetic fibers 184

Artificial fibers 212

Fabric and the fashion industry 236

Resources/Glossary 248

Index/Credits/Acknowledgments 262
6

Introduction
Fashion design and textile knowledge are often taught as
separate disciplines, and knowledge of the raw materials
and processes that make up a fabric are not usually
integrated into fashion studies.
A confident understanding of fabrics, and the fibers they
are composed of, is fundamental to the design process,
allowing one to make informed choices rather than arbitrary
decisions based upon surface appeal.
7
 This book is intended as an easily navigable fabric lexicon Our relationship with fibers and fabrics is intimate and all-
8 that explores the relationship between fashion and textiles encompassing; we are surrounded by, sleep in, and are clothed
and encourages an awareness of fibers and fabrics in a broader by them. Historically textiles have been valued not only for their
fashion context. It is designed to inform the reader of the practical and aesthetic properties, but also as incredibly powerful
endless possibilities that fabrics offer to the design process. It is cultural indicators. Textiles display the artistry and ingenuity of
not intended as an exhaustive technical manual, but rather as a a civilization, the most precious examples of which even help
tool to inform, inspire, and encourage the creative use of fabrics. to denote status within society. In contemporary life an ever-
The content of the book is intended to support an essential more sophisticated and growing range of fabrics expresses the
knowledge base, which is fundamental to developing a range complex language of fashion.
of fashion products. The textile industry may be simplistically viewed as the
Focusing in turn on animal, plant, and man-made fibers, supplier of the raw materials for the fashion industry, whereas in
each of the three sections considers the origins of specific fibers reality the two industries are inextricably linked. Developments
within these classifications, their history, provenance, and the in the textile industry invariably impact upon the fashion
processing journey to finished fabric. Additionally, it explores the industry, and vice versa. Fabrics are also incredibly powerful as
socioeconomic factors that may have influenced the importance a strong visual indicator of a brand, often defining aspects of a
of a specific fiber, in order to create an awareness of how one’s brand identity.
choice of material may impact upon ecological, sustainable, and The fashion designer’s relationship with fabric is at the
ethical issues. heart of the creative process. The right choice of fabric is
Each section provides an extensive database fundamental to good design and is instrumental to its success.
of terminology, to encourage informed and effective The better the understanding of the material, the more effective
communication with industry professionals. This is is the symbiosis between the design and fabric.
underpinned with information about processes generic to
all fibers regardless of origin. The importance of color is
explored within a separate section, and the final chapter “The future of fashion lies in fabrics. Everything comes
contextualizes the interrelationship of all the components that from fabrics.”
make up the fashion industry. Donna Karan

“The bond between fashion and textiles is one of mutual

dependency and reciprocal influence; a shared destiny based
upon our need for clothing.”
(opposite page) A stunning
Fashion and Textiles: An Overview
creation composed of layers of
Colin Gale and Jasbir Kaur (Berg Publishers, 2004) different fabrics, encrusted with
beadwork and embroidery over
lace and tulle, by Japanese
designer Tamae Hirokawa for
4% 3% Somarta.
1%

5%
OTHER SYNTHETICS
ACRYLIC
POLY
PRO
PO

PYLE
LYA
M

NE
ID

PO
E

LY
E ST
ER

POLYESTER
45%

COTTON
CO
TTO
N
32%
OT WO
H ER OL
NA
TU
RA
LS
OT

1%
HE
RC

RA
ELL

YO
ULO

NS

4%
SIC
S

This chart shows recent figures for global textile fiber

demand, illustrating the current worldwide dominance
of low-cost synthetic fibers. In the natural and bio-based 1%
4%
fiber sectors, cotton is the most popular choice.
Statistic source: The Fiber Year, 2010, Oerlikon

Introduction
 9

Introduction
10
Fabrics: the raw material Recent decades have seen a growing appreciation of
natural fibers at accessible price points. Today, exciting potential
of fashion is offered by leaps in technology with natural fibers, man-made
artificial regenerates, and refined synthetics. They offer exciting
options for an increasingly complex range of consumer demands.
Throughout history people have clothed themselves with natural
Sophisticated developments in man-made textiles offer a look
fabrics made from animal or plant fibers. Man’s ingenuity in
quite different to traditional, natural materials, and do not work
developing and processing these raw materials has become more
against them but alongside them instead. Combinations of
sophisticated over time.
microfibers (the new generation of ultra-fine synthetics) with
The twentieth century heralded the invention of synthetic
regenerated yarns, silks, cottons, and linens provide new looks
fabrics, originally developed to mimic the attributes of natural
and performance potential. The emphasis placed on recycling
fibers, and provide inexpensive alternatives with a low-
in our everyday life has influenced current research into the
maintenance appeal. Brand names such as Dacron, Terylene,
development of biodegradable synthetics.
Orlon, Acrylan, and Crimplene are examples of materials
that were made from the main generic synthetics group that
includes polyamide, nylon, polyester, acetate, and acrylic. These
fibers and filaments are primarily derived from coal and oil-
based raw materials. The cotton and wool trade organizations
have invested in fiber development technology and proactive
marketing campaigns to regain the market share initially lost to
the man-made materials.

The future of fabrics

As well as aesthetic considerations, there are many issues to take
“Fashion designers are alert to the recent
into account when working with fabrics. This showpiece from the
developments in fibers and fabrics and the exhibition “Wonderland” (opposite page) explores alternative
importance of the right choice for their collections.” approaches informed by factors such as biodegradability and
Sarah E. Braddock Clark and Marie Mahoney, the life span of a product.
Techno Textiles 2 “Wonderland” is the result of a dynamic collaborative project
between Professor Tony Ryan from Sheffield University and
designer Helen Storey, incorporating the work of textile designer
Trish Belford. The project brings together the worlds of art, fashion,
and science in an engaging installation first opened as an
exhibition at the London College of Fashion in January 2008.
“Wonderland” was conceived as a series of disappearing
dresses made from textiles that slowly dissolve in water to create
a visually arresting metaphor for the central themes of the
project. Each dress behaves differently as it enters the water,
resulting in vibrant underwater fireworks that express the beauty
of biodegradability.
The disappearing dresses provoke inquiry into the
environmental sustainability of our current fashion industry and
how we deal with waste. The original focus of the collaboration
was the problem of plastic bottle waste and the concept of
“intelligent” packaging. This has resulted in the development
of a material that dissolves in hot water to form a gel in which
seeds can be sown, with the potential to revolutionize the
packaging industry.

Introduction
 11

Introduction
12
Fibers to fabrics

Fibers to fabrics
As an introduction to the world of natural fabrics, this chapter
examines the processes involved in the manufacturing of textiles,
Yarn
from the raw fiber through to the finished material, ready to use.
Yarns, or threads, are fibers that have been spun together to
It is a generic account irrespective of fiber category, whether
create a continuous length of interlocked fibers. They are usually
derived from animal or vegetable sources. Each fiber type will be 13
knitted or woven together to make fabric, and may be dyed
examined in detail in its respective chapter.
before or after this process.

Fiber to yarn Carding

All natural fabrics begin life as fibers. These natural fibers,
Carding is the process of brushing raw or washed fibers to
whether animal or plant in origin, are spun into yarn, which
prepare them for spinning. A large variety of fibers can be
in turn is constructed into fabric.
carded, including all animal hairs, wool, and cotton. Flax is not
carded, but is threshed, a process of beating cereal plants in
Fiber order to separate the grain from the straw. Carding can also be
used to create mixes of different fibers or of different colors.
Hand carding uses two brushes that look a little like dog
The term “fiber” can be applied to animal, vegetable, or mineral
brushes. The fibers are brushed between them until they all
substances, and describes a long, thin, flexible structure.
align, more or less, in the same direction. The fibers are then
Fibers exist in a natural or synthetic form and can be processed
rolled off the brushes and evenly distributed into a rolag, a loose
into yarns.
roll of fibers, ready for spinning.
The machine-carding device is called a drum carder and
can vary in size from tabletop to room size. The fibers are fed
into a series of rollers that straighten and align them. When the
fibers are removed from the roller drums they form a flat orderly
mass known as a bat.

Combing
Combing is usually an additional operation after carding, and
gives a better, smoother finish to the fibers and to the eventual
fabric. Combs are used to remove the short fibers, known as
noils, and arrange the remaining fibers in a flat bundle, all facing
in the same direction.

(opposite page) Yarns or threads, Wool fiber dyed in a range of Hand carding and blending fibers. Blending fibers of different
visible in these frayed fabric edges, glowing fall shades in preparation Association of Weavers, Spinners, characteristics together creates
can be made of both natural and for the spinning process. This image and Dyers. innovative new yarns that can
man-made fibers. Color can be captures the characteristic springy embody the best aspects of each
applied to either finished fabric or ringlets of wool fiber. fiber. The mixture of alpaca and silk
the yarn, which is then knitted or in this example creates a mélange
woven together to make the fabric. of both texture and color; the
alpaca lends warmth and softness
while the silk sharpens the texture by
lending it luster.

Fiber to yarn
 Spinning
Twisting fibers together by spinning binds them into a stronger,
longer yarn. Originally fibers were twisted by hand, then a
14 handheld “stick,” or spindle, made the process a little more
comfortable. The invention of the spinning wheel allowed
continuous, faster spinning. Used in a domestic environment,
spinning wheels were hand or foot operated. Water-driven
spinning machines were followed by steam-driven machinery,
which took domestic spinning out of the home and into the
factory. The invention of electricity made the spinning process
much more sophisticated and, with the exception of handicraft
spinning, made it a full-time commercial enterprise.

(above) Hand spinning—in this by means of a handheld wooden Twist and ply
case llama wool in Peru—is a spindle, using methods that remain The direction in which the yarn is spun is called twist. A “Z”
labor-intensive process that is fundamentally unchanged since twist shows a right-hand angle, while an “S” twist has a left-
today only practiced for specialty early spinning techniques that hand angle. The tightness of the twist is measured in TPI (twists
craft purposes. The yarn is spun predate the spinning wheel.
per inch).
Two or more spun yarns may be twisted together to make
a ply, a thicker yarn, or as a way of introducing an alternative
yarn to create a mélange effect.

Useful terminology

Blend A yarn containing two or more different fibers.

Bouclé yarns Curled or looped yarns.
Cellulose fibers Natural and man-made fibers regenerated
(left) Sophisticated modern
from plants.
spinning in a pristine industrial
Chenille yarn Woven fabric is cut into warp strips and used environment.
as yarn, which has a velvet-like, “caterpillar” appearance.
Cotton system Spinning system for cotton and similar fibers.
Crêpe yarn Highly twisted yarn with a granular texture.
Crimp Natural or artificial wave to the fiber or yarn.
Filament A single, continuous strand of fiber. Any man-made
yarn of one or more strands running the entire length of the yarn.
Hank Unsupported coil of yarn. The two ends are tied together
to maintain the shape. Also called a skein.
Marl yarns Two different-colored yarns twisted together.
Metallic yarns Yarns containing metal threads or metallic
elements.
Roving A long narrow bundle of fiber with a slight twist to
hold it together.
Scouring Removal of natural fats, oils, and dirt from a yarn.
Skein Coiled yarn with tied ends to keep the shape.
Spandex Generic name for stretch yarn. (above and right) Spinning frames
Tow Mass of man-made filaments without twist. processing single-ply and two-ply
yarn at Lightfoot Farm in Maine, USA.
Yarn count Numerical expression for size of yarn, denoting
a certain length of yarn for a fixed weight. The higher the count,
the finer the yarn.

Fibers to fabrics
 Outfit in double-faced 100 percent
wool jersey. The face of the cloth is
a marl, or mélange, jersey and the
reverse is a looped fleece, which
resembles the fabric more usually
associated with casual cotton 15
sportswear. Designer Julien David
has fashioned a luxurious take on
the ubiquitous gray marl in this
version of the sports-luxe trend.

(above) Direction of yarn twist.

“Z” twist and “S” twist

(right) Plying yarn. Simple “S” twist

with two single yarns,“S” twist with
three single yarns, and “Z” twist with
two two-ply yarns

Warp and weft threads. Warp threads run along the

length of the fabric. Weft threads run across the width
of the fabric from selvage to selvage. Weaving can
be described as the incorporation of the weft threads,
which are sometimes referred to as picks or filling yarns.

Fiber to yarn
 Fabric construction Twill weave
Twill weave has a visual diagonal line or rib effect, caused when
the weft yarn crosses over and under two or more warp yarns.
Fabric is a flexible material comprised of natural or artificial
The diagonal line may also be referred to as a wale. The visual
fibers that have been spun into threads or yarns. Textile fabric
16 effect is most obvious on a heavyweight cotton fabric. By
can be manufactured in several ways. The primary techniques
contrast, on a lightweight shirting cotton the diagonal rib will
are weaving or knitting, although yarns can also be knotted or
be hardly visible.
interlaced, for example by crocheting, lace making, or macramé.
Unlike plain weaves, twill-weave fabrics have a different
Felting, the process of pressing together and matting fibers so
appearance from the face (right side) to the reverse or back, the
that they interlock, is another alternative.
face side having the more pronounced wale. Twill weaves are
harder wearing than plain weaves of the same yarn and count,
Weaving and are therefore particularly suited to utility wear. Denim is
possibly the most famous of all the workwear fabrics, and true
denim is of twill-weave construction.
Weaving is the process of interweaving two sets of threads, the
Any fiber type can be woven in this way, however the
warps (vertical) and the wefts (horizontal), on a weaving loom.
term is generically used to describe cotton fabrics.
Three basic weave types, plain, twill, and satin, form the
Twill fabrics are more pliable and have a better drape than
majority of woven fabrics. There are also several alternative
similar plain-weave fabrics, and they also tend to recover better
weaving techniques that create more complex fabrics.
from wrinkles. Higher/finer yarn counts can be used for twill
weaving and can be packed much closer together, therefore
Plain weave
producing higher-count fabrics that are more durable and water-
Plain weave is the most basic and possibly the oldest type
resistant. An example is the traditional Burberry trench coat,
of weave construction. The warps and wefts crisscross each
which was designed and made for army officers and worn in the
other at right angles, with each weft thread passing over one
trenches of World War I.
warp thread then under the next warp thread. Plain weaves are
Types of twill-woven fabrics include serge, flannel,
sometimes referred to as taffeta weaves.
denim, gabardine, cavalry twill, and chino. Traditional iconic
A plain weave can be coarse or smooth in texture,
herringbone and hound’s-tooth design fabrics, as well as Scottish
dependant on the fineness or coarseness of the thread count
tartans, are all of twill-weave construction.
used to weave the fabric.
Basket weave is a variation on plain weave, where two
or more threads are bundled together and woven as one in
the warp and weft directions, resulting in a more pronounced
“basket” construction.
Types of plain-woven fabrics include chiffon, organza,
taffeta, and canvas.

(above and right) Plain weaves.

Weft threads pass under and over
alternative warp threads forming a
crisscross construction.
(above) Weaving frame. (right and far right) Twill weaves.
Weft threads pass over and then
under two warp threads (2x2
twill) and are staggered by one
thread per row creating the visible
diagonal construction. If the wefts
pass over three and under one
(warps) it would be referred to as
1x3 twill.

Fibers to fabrics
 17

This striking rescaled hound’s-tooth Designer Derek Lam sculpts

abandons its tailoring connotations and feminizes the appeal of this
when expressed in oversized traditional wool herringbone, a
sequins. This A-line shift with cut-out fabric that is usually associated with
shoulders references 1960s op men’s outerwear.
art aesthetics. Fall/Winter 2008
collection by Ashish. An updated classic hound’s-tooth The alternating diagonal ribs of this
fabric from Linton Tweeds. traditional woolen tweed fabric,
with a twill-weave construction, are
executed in two colors, creating
a classic herringbone design. The
scale of design and the contrasting
colors have almost limitless
possibilities.

Up-cycling

This term describes the reappropriation of fabric

that has already had one life for one purpose,
and reworking, reassigning, or reinventing it to
give it a new life serving a different purpose or
aesthetic. Here, cotton twill is glamorized through
this process. This conceptual evening dress
from Gary Harvey Creative was constructed to
showcase the concept of up-cycling. Vintage
Burberry trench coats are used to model the skirt.
Raincoats were originally made from a tightly
woven fine yarn-count twill weave to provide a
drapable and water-resistant fabric.

Fabric construction
 Satin and sateen weaves
The most visible aspect of a satin weave is its high sheen and the Corduroy
way it reflects light. Sateen, in contrast, has a dull sheen and does
not shimmer. Both, however, have a very smooth surface, due to Corduroy is described using the term “wales;” these refer to the
18 similarities in the way they are woven. One has a predominance raised ridges or ribs that run vertically down the fabric parallel
of warp threads to the face or right side of the fabric, while the to the selvage. The wider the wales, the lower the numerical
expression, and vice versa. The number of wales that fit into 1
other has a predominance of weft threads; this prevalence of
inch (2.5 cm) is the wale count. 21-wale corduroy implies there
threads running in a single direction accounts for the smoothness are 21 wales per inch. Counts range from 1.5 to 21. 16 and
of the resulting fabric. above can be referred to as pin cord, while 3 and under is
The construction also contributes to the level of sheen sometimes referred to as elephant or jumbo cord. Corduroy was
in the fabric, although the deciding factor is the choice of fiber. originally made from cotton. Bedford cord has a flatter surface
with a minimal raised wale, originally made from cotton or wool.
Historically, silk yarns were used to weave satin fabrics, while
cotton was used for sateen. Today, high-quality satin is still made
from silk, while less expensive alternatives utilize man-made fibers.
Cotton or cotton-rich yarns are used for sateen.

Pile weaving
When pile weaving, the warps that will eventually create the pile
are woven over rods or wires that have been inserted into the
gaps or “loops” of the raised alternative yarns. These then lie in
loops over the rods. When the rods are removed the loops can 21 wale
be cut to create a pile fabric, or left intact to create a loop-back
fabric. Velvet and corduroy are examples of pile woven fabric.

0 inch 1 2 3

16 wale

0 inch 1 2 3

10 wale

This sample of sateen jacquard A magnified image of cotton

weave is a cotton-and-rayon blend. sateen showing a predominance
Rayon is a less expensive alternative of weft threads to the face of the
to traditional silk that offers similar fabric. In this example, each weft
visual characteristics. The sheen is loops over four warps. It is this
achieved by a combination of the predominance of wefts to the
sateen weave and the rayon fiber; face side of the fabric that gives
the cotton component of the design sateen its smooth finish and helps
has a more matte finish. reflect the light, which gives it its
characteristic sheen. 0 inch 1 2 3

Fibers to fabrics
Double-cloth weaving
Double-cloth weaving creates a fabric that has two face or
right sides (double face) and no wrong or reverse side. The
fabric is constructed by using several sets of warps and wefts,
interconnected to form a cloth of two layers held together by 19
additional binding wefts.
Examples of double-cloth weaving date back to pre-
Columbian Peru, where cotton and alpaca yarns were woven to
create a warm alpaca outer layer and a comfortable cotton under
layer, all as a single fabric.
Double-cloth weaves make up well into self-lined or
double-faced coats and jackets, closed off with quasi-invisible
hand stitching that eliminates the need for facings or bindings
to finish off the raw edges.
Examples of double-cloth weave include brocade fabric,
blankets, and satin ribbons.

Men’s silk velvet quilted baseball-

influenced jacket and multicolored
straight weave trousers by Ioannis
Dimitrousis. The sporty styling lends
this traditionally luxe woven pile
fabric a casual appeal.

Gloverall double-faced check-back

cloth. The cloth is woven and held
together with draw threads. After
being woven the cloth is teasled
up to create a face pile, then it
is cropped/brushed and finally
finished off. The little torn threads on
the edge of the solid red face side
of the fabric are the draw threads
that hold the two sides together.

Fabric construction
 Jacquard weaving Tapestry weaving
The jacquard loom enables the automatic production of an Considered an art form, tapestry weaving is done on a vertical
unlimited variety of designs. Prior to the jacquard process the loom. It is sometimes called weft-faced weaving because all the
warp ends had to be manually selected and lifted by a second warps are hidden, unlike fabric weaving where both the warps
20 operator apart from the weaver. This was a slow and labor- and the wefts may be visible. By only having the wefts visible
intensive process that limited the complexity of the design. it is possible to create more precise designs. Historically the
With the jacquard loom selected warps are programmed to lift imagery was usually pictorial and very often allegorical.
independently of each other, thus creating far greater versatility Kilims and Navajo blankets and rugs are all forms of
of design. tapestry weaving.
This form of weaving was developed and perfected by
French inventor Joseph Jacquard (1752–1834), at the advent of the
nineteenth century. The mechanism allowed for the production
of sophisticated patterns without lengthy, repetitive manual
processing. The original machines were mechanical, with the
fabric design punched onto cards that were joined to form a
chain that would direct the machine. In the early 1980s, Italian
manufacturers introduced the first electronic jacquard machines.
The term jacquard is not specific to any loom, but indicative
of the added control mechanism that automates the design. It
refers to a type of weaving process and is also descriptive of a
type of fabric. The term can be applied to both woven and knitted
fabrics, as well as some fully-fashioned knitwear.

(left) Jacquard loom showing the (above) The floral pattern created
production of a complex double- by a jacquard loom is apparent
layer jacquard weave. Image in the light-reflective satin weave
provided by CELC Masters of Linen and contrasting plain weave in
(Confédération Européenne du Lin this Alexander McQueen oyster silk
et du Chanvre). jacquard dress with tulle underskirt.

Fibers to fabrics
Ikat weaving
Before weaving, the warps or wefts are dyed different colors at
predetermined intervals along their length, using a form of resist
or tie-dyeing process. Double ikat implies that both wefts and
warps have been dyed. 21
If the dyed threads are warps the pattern is visible to the
weaver, who can adjust them to line up to each other. In some
cultures the patterns will be aligned to perfection, while in others
misalignment is preferred. Weaving with dyed wefts makes it
much harder to control the design, therefore this technique
is used when precision is not the objective. Double ikats are
the most difficult to produce. The most precise forms of ikat
weaving are the Japanese oshima and kasuri.
There is evidence of ikat weaving in pre-Columbian
Central and South America as well as many regions of South
and East Asia. However, the name ikat has its origins in the
Malay language. Today, through extensive common use, the
word describes both the weaving technique and the fabric itself.

Useful terminology
Bias Fabric cut at 45 degrees to warp and weft. This cut exploits
the natural stretch of the fabric so that it drapes well over the
curves of the body.
Cut pile Cut loops of yarn that form a pile, as with velvet
and corduroy.
Drape The behavior of the fabric, how it falls and hangs,
affected by the yarn, weave construction, weight, and finishing
processes.
Grain The straight of the fabric or warp.
Hand The touch of the fabric, warm, cool, smooth, granular,
fluffy, etc.
Left-hand twill Diagonal ribs run up from bottom right to
top left on face.
Loop pile Uncut pile fabric, such as terry cloth. Ikat weave silk skirt featuring the
characteristic “blurred” edge of
Nap Raised surface of fabric.
the woven motif by Tamerlane’s
Piece A complete length of fabric as purchased from a mill Daughters, launched in 2004 by
or wholesaler. Karina Deubner. The designer’s own
European and Asian background
Reversible Fabric that can be used either side up.
influences the signature aesthetic
Right-hand twill Diagonal ribs run up from bottom left to top of cultural fusion that her unique
right on face. pieces embody. The label pays
homage to traditional crafts and
Selvage The firm side edges of the fabric running parallel to
vanishing cultures by creating one-
the warp.
off pieces incorporating nineteenth-
Union fabric Fabric with wefts and warps of different fibers, century textiles from Central Asia
for example a cotton warp and wool weft. and Europe.

Fabric construction
 Knitting Units of measurement for fine knits
The term “knitwear” refers to any fabric that has been knitted,
In the US and the UK very fine knitting, as used for hosiery, is
regardless of how fine it is. Fully fashioned knits are constructed
22 described using the term denier, which defines opaqueness.
on a knitting machine or by hand knitting. Cut-and-sew knits It is a unit of measurement for the linear mass density of fibers
(T-shirts, jerseys, sweats, etc) are cut and made from fabric that composed of filaments, and is defined as the mass in grams per
has been knitted. Integral knitting using advanced technology 9,000 meters.
used for seamless men’s underwear and women’s brassieres.
1 denier =1 g per 9,000 m
= 0.05 g per 450 m (1/20th of above)
Knitted fabrics
Knitted fabric is constructed from yarn by means of a series DPF, denier per filament, refers to one single filament of fiber.
of interlinked loops. This can be achieved by hand using Several filaments together are referred to as total denier.
individual needles, by using hand-operated machines, known A fiber is generally considered a microfiber if it is 1 denier or less.
as hand-frame knitting, or by power machine, simply called
Tex is the international system and is more prevalent in Canada
machine knitting. The introduction of machine knitting turned and Europe. Tex is a unit of measure for the linear mass density
hand knitting into a craft that has gone into and out of fashion of fibers and is defined as the mass in grams per 1,000 meters.
depending on social moods of the time.
The size of the stitch, whether hand or machine knitted,
dictates the fineness or chunkiness of the fabric, and is dependent
on the size of the needles and the thickness of the yarn. In hand
knitting the needles are described by a number, while in machine
knitting the term gauge is used, but is also reflective of the needle
size. In both cases the higher the numerical expression the finer
the knitting. Standard gauges in commercial knitting are: 2.5 for Fully-fashioned knitwear
chunky outdoor sweaters; 7 and 15 gauges are mid-weights; 18 All hand knitting is fully fashioned. This means that the garment
and 21 gauges for fine knitwear; 28 gauge is used for rugby shirts is made by increasing and decreasing the number of stitches in a
and heavier-weight loop-back fabrics; 30 is classified as superfine; row to create the desired shape.
32 gauge is used for T-shirts, jerseys, sweats, etc. Machine knitting, irrespective of gauge, is further divided
into fully fashioned or cut and sewn. With fully-fashioned
machine knitting, as with hand knitting, the garment is shaped
by the increment and decrement of stitches. The amount of
fashioning used depends on the quality of the product and
machinery. Fully fashioned is more viable with expensive yarns
such as cashmere, and yarn usage and labor is decreased when
garments are fully fashioned. A really good piece of knitwear will
be totally fully fashioned, while a mass-market product may be
only fashioned at the armhole, to eliminate wastage.

(above and right) The face side (above and right) The reverse side
of jersey knitting is referred to as of jersey knitting is referred to as
plain stitch. purl stitch.

Fibers to fabrics
 Iconic knitting styles
Fair Isle
This traditional technique originates from Fair Isle, a small island 23
between the Orkney and Shetland Islands in the very north of
Scotland. Originally, these sweaters were knitted using Shetland
wool by fishermen’s wives, and were worn at sea. They traditionally
use five to seven colors to create complex horizontal patterns, with
each sweater featuring a different pattern and color-way. Fair-Isle
knitting is notorious for its many floats of yarn, meaning that on the
reverse of the fabric the yarn “floats” across several needles. The
floats need to remain short to avoid snagging. Fair-Isle patterns
can now be replicated on a jacquard system without the floats,
however these are intrinsic to the authenticity of the product.
This pale gray sweater by SANS Traditional Fair Isle intarsia knit
explores the differing needle sizes designs inspired this hooded
or gauges possible in knitwear, sweater in neutral tones by
and alternates plain and purl knits Hildigunnur Sigurdardottirs.
to create the three-dimensional
“striping.” The armhole is fully
fashioned.

Argyle (also Argyll)

The Argyle pattern, believed to derive from the tartan of the
Campbell clan in western Scotland, is made up of diamond
blocks of color laid out as a diagonal checkerboard, overlaid
with a further “diamond” line called a raker. This particular design
uses the intarsia technique, a single flat knit with several colors in
one row of knitting. The pattern is formed by stopping one color
and twisting in a new color over the needles each time there is
a color change. This was traditionally done by hand-frame
machine or by hand knitting, but now can be done by
computerized flatbed machines.
Argyle knitwear has seen a renaissance in popularity, thanks
Ashish glamorizes the traditional to its use by Pringle of Scotland.
Argyle pattern by rescaling the
motif and playing with texture.

An installation artwork by Alfreda

McHale showing extremely large-
scale knitting, exhibited at the
Stitching and Knitting Fair, Alexandra
Palace, London, 2008.

Aran
Aran is a style of Gaelic knitwear originating from the Aran Islands
off the west coast of Ireland. This style of knitting is believed to
originate from the early 1900s, although the three-dimensional
motifs used for the stitch formation have ancient megalith origins.
The knitwear was first shown in British Vogue in the 1940s, and
became an instant success in the United States.
Traditionally, authentic Aran is hand knitted with undyed
cream wool, and occasionally natural black wool, both of which
still contain natural sheep lanolin, which provides an intrinsic
water-resistance.

Cream giant trellis knit oversized

sweater in 100 percent merino
wool. From the menswear
collection “Modern Medieval
Soldiers” by James Long.

Fabric construction
 Cut and sew
Cut-and-sew knitwear is fabric that has been knitted and is then Useful knitting terminology
cut and sewn in a similar way to woven fabric styles. Cut-and-
sew knitwear is mainly used for styling inexpensive yarns due
Cable knitting Three-dimensional twisting effects that mimic
24 to the wastage incurred. ropes, braids, and plaits, made by crossing over stitches.
Generally shirt and sweatshirt styles are cut and sew.
Circular knitting Mainly for T-shirt fabrics, knitted on a circular
To fully fashion very fine 30-gauge garments would require
machine resulting in tubular fabric. Garments tend to spiral after
the use of very expensive yarn, and the process would be time- washing unless opened up and stented—the process of passing
consuming, therefore manufacturing production runs would the fabric through a hot-air cabinet, which stabilizes it.
have to be very long. Course The row of loops that runs along the width of the fabric,
The majority of T-shirts are either of single jersey or equivalent to the weft in a woven fabric.
interlock fabric construction. Rib fabrics can be used for close
Double jersey All needle rib knitted fabric where both the face
body-fitting styles. and reverse side are the same.
Jacquard Intricate design where every color of yarn used
is knitted into the back of the fabric when not in use.
Jersey Generically used to describe many types of knitted
fabric. Single jersey is plain knit on one side and purl on the
reverse and is used for tops. Double jersey is plain on both sides
and can be double in weight. It does not unravel when cut so is
fine for cutting and sewing more complicated styles.
Inlaid yarn Yarn that is held in place by the loops of the knitting
rather than being knitted in, making a rigid fabric with no stretch.
Plain knit The face side of basic jersey knitting, the reverse side
is known as purl.
Plated A double face knitted fabric. This technique uses two
different types or colors of yarn. One is thrown to the face side
and the other to the reverse side .The fabric is knitted using a
plating device fixed to the bed of the machine.
Purl The reverse side of basic jersey knitting, the face side is
known as plain knit.
Single jersey Another term for plain knit.
Tuck stitch In knitwear, a held stitch giving a raised effect.
Welt A form of edge finishing on knitwear, usually knitted as
a separate piece, e.g. pocket.

Alexander McQueen knitted

wool jacquard style poncho
with horizontal-banded design
referencing traditional ethnic
motifs and weave techniques.

Fibers to fabrics
Felting
Felt is a nonwoven cloth produced by matting, condensing, and
pressing fibers together to form the structure of the fabric. Felted
fabrics are the oldest known to mankind and today may be soft 25
and supple or tough enough for industry use. The technique of
felting is still practiced by nomadic tribes of Central Asia, while
in the Western world felting is seen as an expression of art in
textiles with strong eco-credentials.
Wet felting is the traditional process whereby the natural
fibers are stimulated by friction and lubricated with water and
alkaline, usually soap. This causes the fibers to interlock and
matt together.
In industry, felting is done by a chemical process or by
using felting needles. A felting effect can be achieved using a
hot cycle on a domestic washing machine. Felting should not
be confused with fulling, which is a felting-like process, carried
out after the fabric has been constructed, similar to washing
a sweater in a washing machine at a high temperature.
Inexpensive felt is usually made with artificial fibers,
although a minimum of 30 percent wool is necessary for the
fabric to hold together adequately.
Loden fabric, from the Alpine regions, was originally a
felted fabric, however today lodens are usually woven, the name
referring to the feeling of the fabric rather than its true definition.

(above) Traditional felted wool

boots from Russia are known as
valenki. These boots express a
pure aesthetic due to the practical
and comforting molding of the felt
around the foot to achieve effective
and seamless insulation. The result
is a perfect meeting of form and
function that transcends fashion.

(above) Wet felting. The merino (right) Hand-operated needle

wool fibers are layered at 90 felting. Needle felting is the
degrees and hot soapy water and alternative to wet or chemical
friction cause the wool’s natural felting. Industrial needle felting
scales to interlock and felt. involves machines with hundreds
of tiny barbed needles, which
push up and down punching and
entangling the fibers together. Many
nonwoven fabrics are made by
needle felting or needle punching.

Fabric construction
 (left and below) Dress and
waistcoat from Ravensbourne
graduate Sue Pei Ho’s collection.
The pieces feature wisps of wool
fibers fused onto silk—a technique
26 originally developed by textile
artists Polly Blakney Sirling and
Sachiko Kotaka.

(left) Anne Kyyrö Quinn expresses

the exceptional sculptural qualities
of felt in this cut-edge three-
dimensional application on
felt cushions.

Fibers to fabrics
Crocheting
Crocheting is the process of creating fabric from yarn or thread
using a hooked needle to pull loops of yarn through other loops.
Although scholars theorize that crochet has Arabic origins, 27
there is no real evidence of it being practiced before the eighteenth
century in Europe. Ireland and northern France were centers of
crochet making, much of it done to support poor communities
whose livelihoods had been compromised, and hence it was often
considered a domestic craft. However, crocheted items sold well
to the new emerging middle classes. Crochet experienced a revival
of interest in the mid-1960s with the new-wave hippy movements
and their embracing of rural cultures.

(above) Unique crocheted

wearable sculptures by Polish
artist Agata Olek highlight the
surreal aspect of creating “molded”
clothing (such as crochet or knit).
Amateur knitters often find that their
work “grows” and takes on a life
of its own. Premiered in New York
at the Williamsburg Arts and
Historical Society Surrealist Fashion
Show in 2003.

(left) Agata Olek has extended her

exploration of the craft of crochet
to footwear with this whimsical,
historically inspired crocheted shoe.

Fabric construction
 Lace making
Lace is a lightweight fabric patterned with open holes and can be
hand or machine made. The holes may be created by removing
28 threads of previously woven cloth, however more often the holes
are created as part of the lace-making process, where thread is
looped, twisted, or braided to other threads independently from
any backing fabric. Lace was first used by priests for religious
rituals, then popularized in the sixteenth century when it was
highly valued as a symbol of wealth and status.
Originally linen, silk, gold, or silver threads were preferred,
however today cotton is also used, as are synthetic yarns for
machine-made lace.

(above) Up-cycled dress featuring

a bodice that incorporates different
types of reclaimed and vintage
cotton lace with a silk dupion skirt
designed by London College
of Fashion graduate Rachael
Cassar. Her designs aim to use 90
percent recycled materials in their
Vintage inspired slip dress in linen composition, and to challenge
by designer Marina Shlosberg. preconceptions of the term
Linen is the ideal fabric to showcase “recycling.”
the Venetian-style drawn thread
openwork embroidery shown on (left) Hand-worked lace border
the front of the dress. showing a section in process.
Dozens of color-coded bobbins
show the complexity of this craft
technique. Myriad overlapped and
twisted threads form the intricate
patterns that are indicated by the
designs marked out on the card
underneath. Pins are used to hold
the threads in place while the
patterns are formed.

Fibers to fabrics
 Modernizing lace, Rae III, 2002,
features cotton lace and spandex
and is from a photographic series
by Georgina McNamara that
explores the relationship between
the body and the imagination. 29
The traditional associations of lace
clothing and how it works with the
human form are inverted in this
super-structured realization.

Types of lace
Some of the popular types of lace include:
Needle lace Made using a needle and thread, and the most
flexible of the lace-making techniques. It can be very time-
consuming and is regarded as the purist form of lace art. Today
it is impossible to reproduce some of the fine antique lace. Types
of needle lace include punto in Aria, point de Venise, point de
France, Alençon, Argentan, Armenian, Limerick, and hollie point.
Cutwork lace Constructed by the removal of threads from
a woven background fabric. The remaining threads are then
worked on with embroidery. Types of cutwork lace include
Battenberg, broderie Anglaise, and Carrickmacross.
Bobbin lace Made using bobbins and a pillow. The bobbins
hold the threads, which are laced together and held down
onto the pillow by pins. Types of bobbin lace include Antwerp,
Flanders, Bayeux, Chantilly, Genoese, Venetian, Maltese, Bruges,
Brussels, and Milanese.
Lace knitting Technically knitting with many “holes” in the design
work that create the lace effect. It is considered the highest
form of knitting and was especially popular in the nineteenth
century when Queen Victoria practiced it. In parts of Russia lace
knits form part of the wedding dowry, the finest of which can be
pulled through a wedding ring.
Machine-made lace Any type of lace made by mechanical
methods rather than by hand.
Tatting A type of lace construction first introduced in the early
As a physical material, black lace are understood by unraveling nineteenth century to imitate needle-lace work. It is created by
has diverse cultural implications threads; mesh structures are also a series of chain knots and loops, mainly used as lace edging,
in relation to sexuality, death, reconstructed through crochet and collars, and doilies.
and gender. In these artworks netting. Lace fragments are also
by Anne Wilson the webs and scanned, filtered, and printed out
networks of found black lace as paper images. These computer-
are deconstructed to create mediated digital prints are then
large horizontal topographies or rematerialized by hand stitching
“physical drawings” that are both and are placed in relationship to
complicated and delicate. The the found and remade lace in the
structural characteristics of lace topography.

Fabric construction
 Macramé
Macramé is created by the interlinking of knots. It is believed to
have Arabic origins, and was used to decorate the excess lengths
30 of yarn along the edge of hand-loom textiles. It was taken to
Spain with the Moorish conquest and eventually spread to the
rest of Europe, reaching England by the late seventeenth century.
It may also classify as a form of lace making.
Macramé was a popular pastime among British and
American sailors all through the nineteenth century; the
preference was for substantial square knots, which they used
to make hammocks and belts.
As well as cotton and hemp, leather is often used. Most
friendship bracelets are a form of macramé.

James Long subverts the craft

connotations of macramé in this
outfit that features the intricate
knotting technique worn over a
silk tulle T-shirt for his menswear
collection “Arabian stallions.”

Fibers to fabrics
Dyeing
Dyeing is the process of transferring colorant to fibers, yarns,
fabrics, or ready-made garments. Colorants take the form of
dyes, which are in liquid form, or pigments, which are in fine 31
powder form.
Until the mid-nineteenth century the primary source of
color dye and pigment was animal, plant, or mineral; the plant
kingdom being the most prolific provider in the form of berries,
roots, bark, and leaves. These natural colorants were used with
very little, if any, processing. The first synthetic dye, a mauvine
or aniline purple, was invented by accident in a failed medical
experiment in 1856.
The Industrial Revolution was the catalyst for the mass
development of the textile industry, and in turn the development
of synthetic dyes. This resulted in a larger range of colors with
a higher level of color consistency. In addition to this the colors
were more stable under continuous washing and wearing. Today,
different classes of dye are used for different generic fabric types,
and also for different stages of textile production.

Yarn dyeing
Yarn is dyed to a color of choice before it is either woven or
knitted into a fabric. The two most common ways to yarn dye
are at package form for cotton yarns and at hank form for wool
and acrylic yarns.
Yarn-dyed fabrics tend to give a much better level of
colorfastness in wearing and washing than fabric-dyed items.
Any fabric with a stripe, check, or other type of design woven
into it will be yarn dyed. Good-quality suiting fabrics and
shirting fabrics are almost always yarn dyed, even if they are of a
solid/plain color.
Yarn-dyed fabrics are almost always more expensive than
their fabric-dyed equivalents. The process of yarn dyeing takes
longer and the minimum quantities to be ordered are always far
greater than with fabric-dyed orders. Within the design process
the selection of colors for yarn dyeing also has to be done much
earlier in the season, because the mill lead times, to weave and
then finish the fabric, are far greater.
Before a larger sample batch of yarn is dyed—known as
a dye lot—small pieces of yarn windings are sample dyed to
colors for approval. These samples are known as lab dips, and
designers and merchandisers, as well as technologists, may all be
involved in the approval process.

Crushed-effect, random dye

technique from the Ta-ste label
designed by Tanja Steuer. The
bodysuit and jacket are made from
differing weights of cotton jersey
and are soaked in water before
being placed in a dye bath. They
are then pressed together to form
folds and creases, which inhibit the
absorption of the dye, resulting in
random concentrations of color.

Dyeing
 Fabric dyeing
Fabric dyeing is also referred to as piece dyeing, and in this
instance the fabric is dyed after it has been woven. The
32 advantage of fabric dyeing is that you are able to buy much
smaller quantities than is necessary for yarn-dyed equivalents,
making it much easier and far less expensive to carry an
extensive color palette of fabric in stock. Furthermore, the lead
time involved is far shorter. For the fabric supplier or converter
there is less of a risk, because the fabric can remain in its greige—
undyed—state indefinitely.
Piece-dyed fabric is perfect for solid color, woven cotton
goods, as well as knitted cotton fabrics such as lightweight jersey
and interlock fabric, heavier interlocks (sweatshirts), and fleece
loop-back fabric. Plain colored swimwear and underwear fabrics
are often piece dyed. Woolen fabrics for heavy outerwear, if of a
solid (plain) color, are usually also piece dyed.
Before a final dye is agreed, lab dips are made by dyeing
pieces of fabric in a small vessel or beaker. Three shades of
the requested color are submitted for designer approval before
dyeing the sample lengths, which are usually done in 50-m vats.
Bulk production dyeing would follow after an approved sales order.

(top) Piece-dyed fabrics on drying

racks. For solid color fabrics piece
dyeing is far less expensive and
also less time-consuming than the
alternative yarn-dyeing process.

(above) Before placing a bulk order

for either fabric or yarn, a color
lab dip must be approved. Several
variants of the hue are presented
to the client for color matching and
approval. Once the selection has
been made, both the factory and
the client keep a sample swatch,
which is used to quality check
against the bulk production.

(above) Hand dyeing fabric in a (right) Dip-dyed fabric lengths hung

traditional dye shop in India. This up to dry in an Indian workshop. In
form of hand dyeing is today only the developing world, piece-dyed
used for small dye lots and specialty fabrics and special dye treatments
fabrics. Constant immersion in such as tie-dye are often processed
the liquid dye has permanently in small lengths in a similar
discolored the dyer’s hands. environment.

Fibers to fabrics
Garment dyeing
Garment dyeing, the dyeing of a ready-made garment, is the
least colorfast method of dyeing, but it does give a very specific
visual look. This technique also gives the manufacturer greater 33
product color flexibility, because ready-made garments can be
made and kept in stock, then dyed to specific colors. The most
common product in this category is likely to be low-cost shirts
and tops.
Garment-dyed products tend to have a residue of dye
sitting along the raised seam edges, and if the sewing threads used
to assemble the garment are of a different color and composition
they will resist the dye, resulting in contrast top-stitching.

Resist dyeing
Resist dyeing refers to various methods of patterning fabric by
preventing dye reaching certain parts of it. Common methods
include the application of wax or paste and stitching areas
together. An alternative method is to use a chemical agent
within a dye that will repel a second color when applied.

Wax and rice paste

Wax or rice paste is painted or applied to the fabric, forming
a design, prior to dyeing. Once the resisting agent has dried it
is removed by ironing to reveal the color underneath. This can
be repeated numerous times to build up a complex design of
several overlaying colors.
Several variations of this method can be found among
different cultures around the world, for example batik from
Indonesia, Malaysia, and India; and roketsuzome, katazome,
yuzen, and tsutsugaki from Japan.
(above) This crisp retro-futuristic
sunray-pleated Metropolis dress
features a shocking pink dip-
dyed hem designed by Kamila
Gawrońska-Kasperska. From a
collection inspired by Art Deco
style and the film Metropolis by the
director Fritz Lang. The dress is made
from hand-pleated and hand-dyed
silk organza.

Batik, a type of resist dyeing, is

an ancient craft and can be
an intricate and labor-intensive
process. It involves the use of molten
wax or rice paste, which is applied
directly onto the fabric and allowed
to dry. This prevents the dye from
reaching the treated part of the
fabric. Intricate multidimensional
effects can be built up by repeating
the processes.

Multicolored batik silk design by

textile artist Isabella Whitworth.
Here, the batik wax resist technique
is expressed in a painterly and
free-form approach showing the
characteristic “crackle” that occurs
when dye seeps into cracks in the
cooled wax.

Dyeing
 Stitching and tying
Fabrics can be stitched or tied in specific areas to shield them
Mordants
from dye. Variations of these techniques from different cultures
A mordant is used after some dyes as a method of fixing the
include ikat from Indonesia and Malaysia; tie-dye from India;
color to the fabric. Historically mordants were used as a means
34 and adire from Africa.
of altering the color and intensity of natural dyes, as well as to
improve their colorfastness. Environmental concerns have now
Chemical resist
restricted the use of some types of mordant, in which case they
A resisting agent is added to the first dye color that is applied.
have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes that
When the second color is applied it will be repelled where
do not require a mordant.
it crosses the first color. This is a common method used in
T-shirt printing.
Reversing the dyeing effect
To remove unwanted dye a process called stripping destroys the
dye by the use of a powerful reducing agent, which may damage
the substructure of the fiber; the alternative is to over-dye to a
darker color, such as navy or black.

Twist-dyed silk scarf by Isabella

Whitworth. The silk fabric is tightly
twisted in one direction and tied,
stretched, folded in half, twisted
in the counter direction, and tied.
Dye is applied and allowed to
absorb through the layers. When
dry the fabric is untied to reveal
the final design.

Fibers to fabrics
 Useful dyeing terminology 35

Acid dye Class of dye used on protein fibers such as silk

and wool.
Alum Mordant for natural dyes.
Aniline dye The first synthetic dye, made from alcohol and
coal-tar derivatives.
Azo or azoic dye Petroleum-based dye typically used on
cellulose fibers.
Basic dye Class of dye used on some synthetic fibers.
Batch dyeing A large batch of yarn is dyed in the same vat.
The batch is called a dye lot.
Bleeding Loss or transfer of color.
Changeant An effect whereby the color appears to “change”
depending on the angle it is viewed from. Also called two-tone
or shot effect.
Chrome dye Class of dye used on wool.
Continuous dyeing Processing fabric in sequence through
all dyeing stages to give continuous output.
Direct dye Class of dye used on cellulose fibers.
Disperse dye Class of dye used on some synthetics, such as
polyester and acetate.
Fugitive Color that washes out or “bleeds,” i.e. not colorfast.
Hank dyed Dyed as yarn in hank format.
Indigo Possibly the only natural plant dye still in mass use.
Match Two samples in which the color match is commercially
acceptable.
Mordant dye Alternative to chrome dye.
Off-shade Not an acceptable match.
Ombre Graduated color from light to dark.
Reactive dyes Class of dyes used on cellulose and
protein fibers.
Shading Defective dyed fabric featuring lighter and
darker shades.
Shot A fabric that appears to change color when viewed
from different directions, an effect of cross-dyeing yarn.
Strike-off Preliminary small sample for approval of color
and print.
Tendering Adverse reaction of dye to light.
Vat A dyeing vessel.
Vat dyes Common cotton dyes.
The discipline of classic tailoring is
given an edgy, painterly appeal
in this summer jacket, trousers, and
shirt made of cotton by Salvatore
Ferragamo. The hand-painted dye
treatment is applied directly to the
finished garment in graduated
shades of red and coral.

Dyeing
 Surface decoration
This generic term refers to any form of decoration applied to a
ready-made fabric to embellish it with texture and/or color. The
36 two most important methods of surface decorating are printing
and embroidery.

Printing
Printing is the process of creating a design on fabric by the
application of color.

Hand-block printing
The blocks are engraved with the design, which is used to
transfer the dye onto the fabric. The registration of each repeat
design is carefully positioned by hand.

Silk-screen printing
This is the original hand-printing technique and is based on
stenciling. A fine woven mesh (originally silk) is stretched over
a frame and an impermeable stencil is applied to it. The surface
to be printed is then placed underneath and ink or dye is drawn
across it and thereby forced through the areas of open mesh
circumscribed by the stencil. A series of such screens can be
used for successive layers of color.

(above) Giant T-shirt photographic

silk-screen print on an oversized
100 percent cotton jersey dress by
Undercover.

(left) Trompe l’œil enlarged “bias

weave” silk-screen print by Ioannis
Dimitrousis.

(top) Indonesian hand-block

printing.

(above) Batik treated fabric

overprinted using copper blocks.

Fibers to fabrics
Rotary-screen printing
Rotary-screen printing is less expensive than roller printing and
is suitable for large repeats and complex designs with more
than five colors. It is also good for printing on knitted fabrics.
37
Roller printing
A fast technique suitable for large print runs. Set-up costs
include engraving the copper rollers—one per color. Pigment
prints are referred to as dry prints because the fabric is
cured by heat, while fabrics printed with dyes are referred
to as wet prints.

Heat-transfer printing
Fabric and pre-printed paper are passed between heated rollers,
transferring the dye from the paper to the fabric. This is a
low-cost technique suitable for short print runs.

The screen-printing process. Print House Inc. is a state-of-the-art

A film positive is used to expose manufacturing facility providing
and harden light-sensitive emulsion full-service product development for
to create the stencil design. screen-printed clothing.

(top) Traditional hand silk-screen

printing.

(above) Mechanized silk-screen

printing for lengths of fabric.

(left) Mechanized silk-screen

printing for individual garments,
most commonly T-shirts.
A fine mesh is
stretched over
screen frame.

Ink is pressed
through the
stencil with the
squeegee to
make the print.

Surface decoration
 Mordant printing
A mordant—dye fixative—is preprinted as a pattern prior to Useful printing terminology
dyeing the fabric. The color adheres only where the mordant has
been printed. Devoré A fabric containing two or more fiber types is printed
38 with a substance that burns out or destroys one or more of the
Resist dyeing fibers. The result is usually a fabric that is partly sheer.
A resist substance such as wax is printed onto the fabric, which Flock print An adhesive agent is printed onto the fabric and
is then dyed. The waxed areas will not take the dye, leaving flock particles are applied.
uncolored patterns against a colored ground. Glitter print An adhesive agent is first printed, followed by
glitter particles.
Discharge printing Ground color The base color of the fabric, or predominant color
A bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to of the print.
remove some or all of the color. Half tone Color graduation within an area of a single color.
Metallic print Printing with metallic pigment.
Digital printing
Digital printing has reduced the cost and time required to Over-print A design motif printed over an existing all-over print.
produce samples, allowing more experimentation. With digital Pigment print A print made from pigment and binder rather
printing there is no limit to the number of colors possible in a than dyes. Tends to sit on the fabric rather than being absorbed.
single print, and no issue with the scale of the design repeat, Placement print An image printed in a designated position
so photographic quality is the norm. Specialist software allows on a garment.
accurate color matching directly from the monitor, eliminating Repeat One complete unit of a design. A small repeat has
manual color matching. an all-over effect, while large-scale repeats need to be carefully
Digital printing is perfect for JIT (just-in-time) considered for positioning before cutting the fabric.
production. Lead times are short with, usually, no minimum Run Complete length of printed fabric.
print run. This enables companies to produce new designs Transfer print The color image is transferred from one material,
frequently, since they are not tied to stock fabric. Most digital or paper, onto the garment or fabric, usually by heat.
printers can print on any fabric by using appropriate ink. Fabric
passes through the printer on rollers, and the ink is applied
in the form of thousands of tiny droplets, then set by heat or
steam. In some cases the fabric is also washed and dried.
Water consumption is reduced by as much as 50 percent,
there are no screens or rollers to wash, there is little ink
wastage, and discharge into drains is reduced.

Hallucinations from the “State of

Mind” series by Myka Baum.Vinyl
placement print on 100 percent
cotton sweatshirt.

Fibers to fabrics
Devoré
The technique of devoré (from the French dévorer “to devour”)
is also known as “burn out.” It describes the effect achieved
when part of a fabric composition is eaten away by the 39
application of a corrosive paste to produce a design. The acidic
dévorant paste will eat away the areas of the fabric that are
cellulosic (rayon, cotton, or linen for example). The base weave
(silk or synthetic) will remain. The technique is particularly
effective with pile fabrics, such as a silk/rayon velvet, where the
contrast between the sheer silk ground and the texture of the
pile is pronounced.

Laser cutting and engraving

Laser cutting and engraving offers exclusivity to small-scale
designers, which would be impossible if buying stock fabrics.
Fabrics can be cut or engraved to very intricate designs with
the guarantee of a precise copy of the shape or design, as
often as required. Most fabrics can be laser cut. The high
temperature of the laser beam seals as it cuts, thus eliminating
fraying, design work can be achieved on rolls of fabric and
individual panels, and there is no limit to the complexity
of cutting or engraving that can be achieved.

(above) Double-layer laser-cut

dress by Agatha Ruiz de la Prada.
Laser cutting allows designers to
create lightweight positive and
negative decorative effects with a
range of fabrics. The process also
tends to “seal” the laser-cut edges,
particularly with some synthetic
fabrics, negating the need for
embroidery to finish edges.

(above) Structured digitally printed

dress by innovative London-based
designer Mary Katrantzou. A
complex series of digital prints in
one garment creates arresting
visual effects and emphasizes
different parts of the body.

(right) This Dragonfly dress from

the “Mimesis” collection by Polish
designer Kamila Gawrońska-
Kasperska showcases the precision
of digital printing. The delicate
dragonfly wing motif is digitally
printed onto silk organza. The lower
part of the dress is constructed from
Original devoré design on a silk more than 100 pieces of printed
velvet fabric by Hayley Cheal. cut-edge fabric.

Surface decoration
 Embroidery
Embroidery is a form of surface decoration made using threads
and yarns in various stitches and combinations of stitches. The
40 process may also include the addition of beads and sequins, as
well as other applied decorative trimmings.
There are many roots to the origins of embroidery, and
similarly many differing styles reflecting various cultures and
geographic regions.
Embroidery is classified depending on its under-fabric, or
according to the relationship of the stitches’ placement to the
fabric. Further divisions indicate whether the stitching is on top
of the fabric or through it.

Freehand embroidery
The designs are applied without regard for the weave structure
of the base fabric; it is also a form of surface embroidery.
Crewel-work and traditional Chinese embroidery are two
examples of freehand embroidery.

(above) Thickly worked wool yarn (right) Emerald green folklore-

embroidery applied on wool crêpe inspired jacket by Colette
creates a customized textile in this Vermeulen. The highly textured
dress by Ashish. The dress features fabric is constructed using a large-
a shaped bodice top and full skirt scale jacquard technique, and is
reinforced with a silk tulle underskirt. woven from mohair and rayon
raffia skeins. The embroidery is
applied to the jacquard after
weaving, and is executed by
hand using ripped strips of
pre-washed silk.

Fibers to fabrics
Counted-thread embroidery
The warp and weft threads of the base fabric are precounted by
the embroiderer before inserting the needle and embroidering
thread. Designs tend to be symmetrical. Needlepoint embroidery
and cross-stitch are two examples of this style of embroidery. 41

Canvas work
Threads are stitched through canvas to create a dense pattern and
completely cover the under-fabric. Canvas work requires the use
of an embroidery hoop or frame to stretch the fabric. Needlepoint,
petit point, and bergello are examples of canvas work.

Smocking
Smocking is an embroidery technique used to gather fabric,
developed in England in the Middle Ages. The gathered fabric
is held in place with decorative stitch work. It derived its name
from the tunic or smock worn by the farm laborers who favored
this technique. Before the use of elastic, smocking was used for
cuffs and necklines in place of buttons, and gave the garment
a degree of stretch.

(above) Embroidered brocade

coat by Josep Font. The encrusted
“freefall” sprinkle of beads and
sequins highlights the collar and
shoulder area.

(left) Fine gray wool tunic by

Carta e Costura showcasing a
modern interpretation of the craft of
smocking. The fabric is contoured
and molded to the body by
graduated elastic shirring, which
causes tiny gathers and bubbles in
the fabric and lends it great stretch.

Up-cycled dress composed of

reclaimed Indian cotton crochet
lace encrusted with beaded
embroidery on a nylon–Lycra
blend base by Rachael Cassar. The
designer’s aim is to produce one-off
pieces that comprise 90 percent
recycled materials and to challenge
the preconception that luxury and
sustainability are mutually exclusive.

Surface decoration
 Machine embroidery
Embroidery designs can be stitched with automated machines.
Today logo badges on T-shirts, sweatshirts, and polo shirts make
the greatest use of machine embroidery.
42
Appliqué
This needlework technique uses pieces of fabric stitched or
embroidered onto a base cloth to create a design. The technique
is French in origin but extensively used in North America for
traditional quilts. West Africa and parts of India and Pakistan are
also famous for appliqué quilting.

Quilting
The technique of stitching through two or more layers of fabric
with a layer of batting in between to produce an insulative and
decorative three-dimensional effect.

(above) Nude organza dress

with hand-stitched raw-edged
appliqués, cut from woven
silk-striped fabric. From Vivienne
Westwood’s Spring/Summer 2009
“Do it Yourself” collection.

(right) Pewter dress by French-born

designer Julien David, who trained
in New York and is now based
in Tokyo. Made from a silk and
polyester circular metallic voile, the
garment’s sculptured, bell-shaped (above) Fine worsted wool suit by
silhouette is supported by batting Ichiro Suzuki. The London College
inside the quilted fabric. of Fashion and Royal College
of Art graduate plays with the
optical graphic effects of the
traditional pinstripe and subverts the
expectations of classic tailoring by
creating three-dimensional stiffened
patchwork structures across the
shoulders.

Fibers to fabrics
Finishing processes Useful finishing terminology
There are many processes that can be applied to fabrics after
Antibacterial Inhibits bacterial growth.
they have been made, from traditional operations such as
brushing the surface to make it feel warmer and to compact Anti-soiling Makes stain removal easier. 43
the weave, to chemical impregnation, making the fabric water- Blowing Steam is blown through the cloth to remove creases,
repellent, or even adding fire-retardant properties. Most of these and gives a specific look to the fabric.
treatments are for woven fabrics, but also include knitted fabrics, Bonding Two layers of fabric are attached or fused together,
and are executed at the manufacturing mill, although some with or without a middle layer, for depth and warmth, for
specialty finishes may require the fabric to be sent out to example foam sandwiched between two layers to provide
a specific finishing plant. structure and insulation.
Brightening agent Increases whiteness or brightness of fabric.
Calendering Process of adding luster and smoothness to
Waterproofing treatments fabric by passing it through heated steel rotary cylinders.
Chemical finishes Any number of treatments applied to give
These treatments are applied to the fabric to enhance its rain- and a specialty finish.
general weather-proofing properties. It is important to understand Crease-resistant A treatment that improves fabric recovery.
the difference between the terms “proof” and “repellent.” Water-
Easy-care Minimal ironing needed to finished garment.
or rain-proof implies there will be no ingress of water; this term
applies to both the fabric and the manufacturing process of the Emerized Emery-covered rollers produce a suede-like finish
garment. The manufacturing process that makes a garment to fabric.
waterproof requires either seam-taping to stop water ingress Enzymes Naturally occurring proteins that catalyse chemical
through the stitching holes or, alternatively, the inclusion of a reactions.
membrane fabric. This is a middle layer referred to as a drop liner, Milling A process that blends colors, obscures weave, and
which sits between the outer fabric or shell and the inner lining. makes the fabric more compact.
Oiling and waxing wear away with time and will need to Mill washing Any of a number of washing treatments that
be reapplied. softens and ages fabric.
Oiling (cloth) Water-repelling treatment applied to fabric.

Enhancing treatments Pre-shrunk Fabric that has been shrunk at the weaving mill
and should not shrink further.
Scouring Process of removing the grease and natural fats from
There are many treatments that change the basic appearance yarn, giving fullness to the fiber and bulking up the fabric.
of the fabric.
Shower-proofing Any number of applications to proof fabric
Milling and washing are generic terms for numerous
against water.
specific variations all of which will give quite different effects.
These treatments are often an inexpensive way to give added Waxing Impregnating fabric with wax to make it shower-proof.
design value to base fabrics. Denim is a fabric that benefits from
experimental washing treatments.
Brushing will raise the surface of the fabric and give a
softer color bend; calendering and mercerizing will add luster
to a fabric.

Additive treatments
These are treatments that enhance the performance or
endurance of a fabric or yarn. Some treatments will make a fabric
easier to care for; other treatments will inhibit the fabric’s natural
tendency to crease. Fire-retardant treatments are often required
on children’s nightwear and on display fabrics.
Examples include antibacterial, anti-soiling, easy-care, and
crease-resisting fabrics.

Finishing processes
44
Introducing color

Introducing color
Color is a powerful communicator, as complex A white surface will reflect all light rays that strike it,
as language or music. while a black surface will absorb them. A colored surface,
such as red, will reflect the red light, but absorb all the other
Color is fundamental to the way we experience the world; it is light rays. It could be said that white is pure light, while black
central to our visual and emotional sense of our surroundings. is the total lack of light, and both are not actually colors.
Color is the first thing we notice, usually perceived before shape Physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642–
and detail, and as children we are primarily stimulated and most 1727) pioneered the study of light in laboratory conditions
responsive to high-contrast combinations of color. Color can and formulated a logical framework for understanding color.
45
provoke strong emotive associations and reactions, even making The proof of Newton’s theory, that sunlight is composed of
things feel warm or cool, exciting and stimulating, or soothing the colors of the spectrum, is apparent each time a rainbow is
and tranquil. Color has the suggestive power to affect mood formed, or when the sun’s rays are dispersed on the skin of
and enhance our experiences. It enriches our sense of the world a bubble, or by a film of oil on a puddle.
and how we perceive it by helping us to interpret our visual
language. It may camouflage us in times of danger, and is an
effective tool, a code that may alert us to hazardous situations Visible spectrum
and steer us to safety, even if only subliminally.
When a ray of light enters a prism, the array of colors that is
refracted through the prism appears in the following order:
Color theory Red
Orange
The ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles (492–431 BC) was Yellow
the first person to formulate a color theory. It was his hypothesis Green
that color is not the property of the object, but that it exists in Blue
the eye of the observer. This seemingly philosophical leap of Blue-violet
understanding was proven centuries later. The science of color is Violet
also known as chromatics, which takes in the perception of color
by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials,
color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation
in the visible range—or what we commonly refer to as light.

Color and light

Color from the viewer’s perspective may be referred to as a
“sensation,” but it is technically contained within light. The
individual’s perception of color is synthesized in the mind.
The concept of color is a reaction to the sensation of light,
which is transmitted to the brain through the eye. Light is made
up of waves of energy, which travel at different wavelengths;
the brain interprets these into the complex nuances of color and
processes these minute differences in wavelengths.
Pigment is pure color, but even the color of a pigment is
essentially the color of the light it reflects. Whenever we look at
a color we are viewing colored light, because pigments have a
special ability to absorb specific wavelengths from the light that
falls on them, and to reflect others to the eye.

(opposite page) Room-sized (right) Design duo Basso and

installation,“Tribute,” by Alain Guerra Brooke create an extravagant
and Neraldo de La Paz, constructed explosion of sunset colors by using
from a rainbow-hued heap of analogous hues from the “warm”
discarded clothing. section of the spectrum in this
multilayered evening gown.

Color theory
 These constituents of light are known as the visible spectrum.
Each color has a different wavelength. When light strikes Color groupings and systems
a surface certain wavelengths are absorbed, and others are
reflected by its pigments or coloring. Most light sources emit The various terms used within the color-wheel models.
light at many different wavelengths, a process that gives a
surface its color. Primary colors
The term primary refers to a color that cannot be made from
In 1860, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–
other colors. Red, yellow, and blue form the primary triad.
1879) showed that light was a form of electromagnetic energy.
46
The eye is able to receive light waves between 400 and 800 Secondary colors
million cycles per second, and we perceive these cycles as color. Secondary colors are the result of mixing two primary colors,
Violet is the shortest and red the longest. for example blue and yellow mixed to produce green. The
secondary triad consists of green, orange, and violet.

Hue Tertiary colors

Tertiary colors result when a primary and an adjacent
secondary color are mixed together.
The first dimension of color is hue. A hue is the name or type of
Subtractive color system
a color. When we refer to a color by its name we are referring to
The subtractive method of creating colors is based upon
its hue. A pure hue is one which has no other color mixed in. pigments or dyes, and explains the way these colors mix by
Certain hue combinations conform to standard absorbing some wavelengths of light and reflecting others.
categorizations.
Monochromatic: Of a single hue. Additive color system
This is the process of mixing colored light, as in theatrical or retail
Analogous hues: Colors that are adjacent to each other in
applications. An additive system begins with no light—black—
the spectrum. and light is added to make color.
Complementary hues: A pair of opposite colors as viewed
on a color wheel. Mixing complementary colors lowers the Partitive color system
saturation, or richness, and value, or luminosity, of the resulting The partitive color model is based on the viewer’s reaction to
colors when they are placed next to each other.
color, in other words it has a darkening effect.
Triadic hues: Any three equidistant colors on the color spectrum
when it is configured as a circle of hues. Red, yellow, and blue
form the primary triad. When the full spectrum of color is
presented as a wheel the relative positions of red, yellow, and
blue conform to a perfect equilateral triangle.

Ensembles of garments in
monochromatic colors.

Introducing color
Color wheels The Itten wheel
Devised by Swiss teacher and artist Johannes Itten (1888–1967),
the Itten wheel shows a logical and easily remembered format
The color spectrum can be organized into wheels to help
for working with color pigments. Itten was captivated by color,
rationalize and predict color interactions. Color wheels are the
from both a scientific and a spiritual point of view, and taught
first basic tools used in the analysis and discussion of color.
at the influential Bauhaus School in Germany in the 1920s. He
There are many variations on the visual organization of color,
observed that colors can be classified as warm or cool shades,
some are simple in format and others highly complex, but their
and looked at how the two combined can affect each other.
principles are all linked. 47
Theoretical elements, including the Itten color wheel, generated
from the Bauhaus teachings still inform art instruction around
Pigment colors
the world today.
In subtractive, or pigment, mixtures, the primaries are traditionally
The Itten color wheel organizes the basic theory of
said to be red, yellow, and blue. If two primaries are mixed, they
the interrelationship between the primary, secondary, and
theoretically produce the secondaries orange, green, and purple.
tertiary colors in a practical graphic format. The triangle in the
If all three are mixed, they theoretically produce black.
center shows the three primary colors, yellow, blue, and red,
which cannot be created by mixing any of the other pigments.
The pigment and process wheels
Surrounding them are the three secondary colors, which are
On the conventional 12-color wheel of pigment hues, the
produced by mixing the primaries. The wheel that encircles the
primaries are red, blue, and yellow; the secondaries are orange,
primaries and secondaries is divided into 12 sectors. Six of these
green, and purple; and the tertiaries are mixtures of adjoining
are primaries and secondaries, and between each of these is
primaries and secondaries. If colors are mixed with their
another color. Itten referred to these as tertiary colors. A tertiary
complement (the hue lying opposite on the wheel), a neutral
color is the result of mixing a primary and a secondary color.
gray should be created, as indicated in the center. The 12-step
pigment wheel is the basis for working with subtractive color;
textile artists will use a subtractive wheel to create colors of yarn
and textiles by dyeing.
The 12-step process wheel also deals with subtractive
color but the three basic primaries are purer—yellow, magenta,
and cyan—that upon mixing also result in purer hues. This
arrangement is the standard employed in color printing and
photography, as well as pigment manufacture.

(above) The Itten color wheel

organizes the basic theory of the
interrelationship between the
primary, secondary, and tertiary
colors.

(left) The 12-color pigment wheel.

Color theory
 Light colors
The Munsell wheel
These colors are additive rather than subtractive (like pigments).
Albert Munsell (1858–1918) developed a partitive color system
If primary-colored lights—red-orange, green, and blue-violet—
(below) based on five primary hues, or as he referred to them,
are projected in overlapping circles, they mix to form the light
principal colors of yellow, red, green, blue, and purple. These
secondaries yellow, magenta, and cyan. In additive mixtures, the
primaries are based on after-image perceptions—when the brain
secondaries are paler than the primaries. Where all three primaries
supplies the opposite color after staring at a particular hue—that
overlap, they produce white. This system is used for lighting and
derive from hues we see in nature.
also forms the basis for video and computer graphics.
48
-
reen yello
w-g yellow ora w-
yello ellow nge
y
w- or
llo n an
ye ree ge
g
-
ee low
gr -yel

or
re ge
n

an
d-
n
ee
gr n

red
gree
green-blue-

red-violet-
green

red
The Munsell wheel

viole-
blue n

t
gree

red
-
blu blu

let d-
vio t-re
e-g e

le
re

vio
en
-

bl
ue let
vio
blue e-
-vio t-blu
blue let- blue- viole let
vio
violet

The visual wheel

The 16-step visual wheel (below) was arranged by the Italian
artist Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), whose understanding of
complementary colors greatly influenced Renaissance painting. Light colors are additive (above),
It is a partitive and subtractive color wheel. and react differently to pigment
colors, which are subtractive
n- yellow (below).
ree yel
llow-g w ora low-
ye yello nge
ee w-
gr llo
n

or
ye

an
ge
-
gre ellow

ora
en

red e
y
en-

ng
-
gre
green

red
gre reen

vio -
let
red
en-
g
blu
e-

bl ree

et
ol
ue n
g

vi
-

blu
e-g e-
r
blu een- blu et
l
e
blue vio

Introducing color
Perception of color Cultural reference
Our perception of color is fundamental to our ability to define The meaning or emotional impact a color imparts will vary
our world and our emotions. Experience teaches us to connect across different cultures and can fluctuate over time, acquiring
certain colors with cool or warm sensations. Color can help both positive and negative connotations throughout the ages.
us identify freshness and levels of ripeness or decay, can be an Fashion also exerts a significant influence on the associations we
indicator of potential illness, and help us recognize fear, anger, make with various colors. Anyone involved in the use of color
or embarrassment. for the development of fashion products needs to be conversant 49
with the “codes” that different colors can communicate.
Symbolic color associations rely on an audience that
Mind and matter shares the same cultural experiences. The idea that blue, green,
and violet are “cool” in temperature, and red, orange, and yellow
Three elements are needed to appreciate color: a light source, are “warm” colors is shared by many cultures worldwide. This
a subject, and a viewer. The brain interprets as color the waves association is rooted in our shared physical experience with
of light that are received by the lens of the eye. The information water, shadow, and icy climates, or fire, sun, and deserts. The
received by the eye is conveyed to the brain, so the perception meaning of color seems to be generated from a psychological
of color is therefore a mental, psychological, and physical reaction to a physical experience.
phenomenon. Our perception of color is affected by the context
it exists in: what surrounds it, what other colors are next to it
and the lighting conditions under which it is seen. It is the human
eye in conjunction with the brain’s ability to synthesize that
informs how we distinguish the type of color seen.
Our ability to perceive texture, distance, and three-
dimensionality is affected by color: generally darker colors
appear to recede, or make things look smaller, while lighter
colors tend to have the opposite effect.

Yellows and greens tend to be seen before other

hues, while reds and violets are the most difficult
to perceive.

A men’s coat by Japanese designer

Ichiro Suzuki uses a stiff white cotton
drill as a base for digitally printed
op-art forms inspired by the work of
artists including Bridget Riley and
M.C. Escher. Parts of the body of the
coat are patchworked and others
use cotton printed with an all-over
check pattern.

Perception of color
50

Chromatic Convergence by
Myka Baum illustrates the principle
of simultaneous contrast.

Introducing color
Color communication: No one knows exactly how precise color terms developed
in different languages, but there seems to be a correlation
the vocabulary of color between the importance of a particular commodity, or the
need to describe environmental factors, and the complexity
of descriptive color terms. Where precision is found in color
The human eye can differentiate between several million colors
language it is often influenced by a society’s environment, for
of varying hue, saturation, and tone, and we recognize that color
example, desert tribes have a large range of terms for yellows
has more than one visible quality by the adjectives we use.
and browns, conversely Eskimos possess a wide vocabulary that
The vocabulary used to describe color is often imprecise. 51
enables them to differentiate the colors and variations of snow
We say red, but red can be yellow or bluish in cast, shockingly
and ice. The Maoris have over 100 words in their vocabulary for
intense, cloyingly dark, or tender and bordering on pink.
what we would call “red.” Many African tribes have extensive
Differences in colors are not adequately communicated by a
color vocabularies for their most significant possessions, cattle.
broad color name alone. Therefore, color names, such as red,
Old Germanic people’s reliance on their horses is reflected in
are often coupled with evocative adjectives that enhance the
their many horse adjectives, a tradition that has passed into
communication of the color “feeling,” for example hellfire red,
English, which also boasts a large variety of descriptive words
cherry red, or blood red.
for the coloring of horses, including roan, bay, chestnut, piebald,
and skewbald. In most cultures human hair and skin color are
Cultural necessities also descriptors that can reflect quite complex shade variations to
establish a person’s heritage or caste.
Thinking about colors as moods and feelings inspires
evocative or emotive language and descriptive
adjectives that can provoke recognition of very
Color trends
specific colors.
The consumer’s first response is to color. Selecting colors and
forming a defined color palette is one of the first considerations
Many thousands of colors have been apportioned names, but
when planning a range or collection.
these are generally limited. The basic color vocabulary of even
Many industries depend heavily on our constantly
the richest language is surprisingly small, often fewer than a
changing taste in color. The prediction of color trends involves
dozen words. All other color terms are arrived at by qualifying
an ongoing assessment of all the subtle factors that influence
a basic word with the addition of “light” or “dark,” or by
consumer tastes.
illustrating the color by referencing it to an object or material,
Crazes in colors can be associated with a certain lifestyle.
such as ivory, lemon, coffee, or mahogany.
A group of colors can express a cultural attitude or inspirational
lifestyle fantasies such as “sporty,” “classic,” or “ethnic”. The
most enduring color trend of the twentieth century began in
the late 1980s. Inspired by the stark aesthetic of a new wave of
Japanese designers, black relentlessly encompassed all levels of
fashion, and became no longer a color to be associated with
mourning or glamor, but the ultimate expressive “noncolor” for
all aspects of contemporary urban life.

Simultaneous contrast
The effect produced by placing colors of the same intensity
together is known as simultaneous contrast (see opposite page).
Colors that oppose each other in the spectrum can create
striking optical effects, appearing to flicker, shimmer, or even
undulate depending on the proportion and sequence they
are used in. This effect will only be fully apparent if both hues
have the same intensity. The value of each color can appear
to change in relation to the color it is placed next to. In prints or
stripes this can cause an optical “flicker.”

Color communication: the vocabulary of color

 Color forecasting Matching color
The textile industries collaborate with a range of experts for The designer, product developer, merchandiser, and retailer need
guidance on trend direction. Part of the symbiotic relationship to be aware of the role that light plays in the perception of color.
between fashion and textiles is rooted in trends, and these Every color we view is modified and defined by its surroundings
influence the preliminary stages of the development of and by the type of light that illuminates it. Different types of
color palettes. light can radically alter the way a color looks. A fabric that looks
52 For the first view of the new season’s trends, the fabric fair grayish green under a fluorescent light in a retail environment
Première Vision is held twice-yearly in Paris. Here consultations can look bluish green under a domestic light, in context with
with industry professionals serve to predict and formulate future other colors. The lighting in a retail environment can affect
trends in colors and fabrics. The principal color organizations the way a color is seen, therefore color matching for this
are renowned for their precise and accurate color predictions. purpose needs to be well considered in order to avert potential
They are made up of international expert colorists that assure merchandising disasters.
a global perspective on color forecasting. The principal color Artificial light is also known as reduced spectrum lighting
consultants are the Colour Group of Great Britain, the because it is deficient in some color frequencies. Incandescent
International Colour Authority (ICA), the Color Association bulbs give a warm light that favors the yellow, orange, and red
of the United States (CAUS), and the Color Marketing Group frequencies. Warm colors will therefore look more vivid when
(CMG). Color forecasters analyze and interpret the underlying viewed with this light. Fluorescent light conversely favors the
social, cultural, and consumer preferences for color “moods” cool frequencies of blue and green colors; this light source
or families and make projections for the future. They do not will make the colors appear livelier. Light naturally behaves in
impose color selections upon markets, but are adept at analyzing a random and chaotic manner. Sunlight or electric light, for
and interpreting underlying trends that indicate the moods and example, can scatter a mixture of wavelengths in all directions.
preferences of consumers. Most predicted color palettes are ready If various components of product ranges are manufactured in
to be distributed to the textile and fashion industries at least one different countries and the color matching is done under light
or two years in advance of the retail selling period. sources that differ from those of the retail environment, the
resulting colors can appear dramatically different.

Eco considerations
Consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the impact that
their purchasing habits may have on the environment. Color
forecasters identified this attitude in the 1990s and it informed
the trend for “natural state” fabrics: undyed, unbleached textiles
and a feel for softer, more “real” colors.
The environmental and social impact of producing and
finishing colored textiles can be immense and there is no doubt
that certain chemicals, dyestuffs, and finishing processes have
a negative impact on the environment. The toxins discharged
by chemical dyes and the waste of natural resources involved in Color matching. Artist Isabella
processing are a major consideration when sourcing textiles. Whitworth has experimented with
Recent years have seen nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) natural dyes to complement the
driving legislative change that resulted in 22 carcinogenic azo ethically-farmed semi-wild Eri silk.
dyes being banned in Europe. Informed choices by consumers Her swatchbook documents the
and commitment by developers of products can help protect recipe as 4 cups of onion-skin, 2
the environment. parts water, and 2 tablespoons
of white vinegar, boiled for 15–20
minutes and allowed to stand for
a further 30 minutes.

Introducing color
 The surface of the material that a light source falls upon consistently matching colors of barely perceptible differences.
can also affect the way we perceive the color of that material. This objective standard eliminates differences in human
Corduroy, velvet, satin, and bouclé tweeds all have very different interpretation. The SCOTDIC (Standard Color of Textile
surface textures that will affect our visual perception of color due Dictionnaire Internationale de la Couleur) and the Pantone
to the level of absorption or reflection of light upon the fabrics’ Professional System are also widely used in the fashion and
textures. If a surface is rough or porous, it will absorb a greater textiles industry.
proportion of light waves hitting it, and the color will look
darker, while a shiny surface will reflect more of the light and
will therefore appear lighter. Combining color 53
Commision Internationale de L’Eclairage (CIE) is an
organization that was founded in 1931 at the International Colors are rarely seen or used in isolation. When working with
Commission on Illumination, following the exploration of color try to transcend the received wisdom of which colors
the need for a standardization of color. This system was based should and should not be seen together. Fashion constantly
on lights. A colorimeter was used to measure three variables demands a new perspective on color and needs to express new
of any color, the luminance (intensity of light given off), the ideas. When colors share similar visual qualities we perceive
hue, and the saturation. Together these values determine the them as harmonious or unified. Colors when juxtaposed can
“chromacity” of a color. The advantage of the CIE system is play tricks with our perception of them; they can appear to alter
that it provides the industry with the means of accurately and in cast, tone, or even size.

A color moodboard compiled to

develop a fall palette.

Color communication: the vocabulary of color

 Creating a color palette (opposite page) Monochrome
shadows form subtle variations
of gray. The palest can be clean,
Selecting colors and formulating a color palette is one of the first pearly, luminous, and discreet.
considerations in the design and planning of a fashion range. Faded and gentle tones have
a dusty, ashy, and powdery feel.
A color palette (or gamme) is a grouping of colors that shows Mid-tones are flinty, mature, refined,
the color offering of a fashion range. Some of the colors in the and serious. Cast with other hues
palette will take precedence and be used as base colors—these gray can take on a deceptive
54 may be the darker shades or neutrals—while others will be mercurial liveliness.
used more sparingly as highlight colors or within prints. It is
important to be aware of the effect that certain colors can have
against skin tones and how the strategic use of color can create
optical effects on the shape of the body.
Inspiration for a fresh approach to colors and forming
palettes can be found in the most unlikely sources.
Compiling a color library involves drawing from diverse
inspirational sources such as paintings, photographic imagery,
paint samples, colored yarn, found objects, and myriad textures
and materials.
Color resourcing requires the collection of examples
of colors. The direction the palette will take is often derived
from a combination of the inspirational material gathered while
researching a collection, coupled with trend information.
Connecting color choices to an inspirational mood or
“feeling” helps to define the character of the individual colors
and how they relate to each other in a collection. For example, Useful color terminology
the mood may be for a grimy, urban, degraded-looking
neutral palette contrasted with accents of acidic neons. Color Achromatic No hue present, without chroma.
selections can be refined by comparing shades from an archive Chroma The saturation or brightness of a color. This term can
and matching to professional color systems. Awareness of the also define the purity or strength of a color.
minute differences between shades helps create sophistication Chromatic Having a hue.
within tones. Chromotherapy The use of color for healing purposes.
Fashion demands novelty, and colors we think we have
CMYK system The four-color screen system used to reproduce
seen before need to be revisited; their tone, cast, and intensity
color photographs: cyan, magenta, yellow, black.
reinvented and placed in fresh combinations.
Color harmony Color relationships, colors in proportion
to each other.
Contrast The visual difference between colors. For example
black and white are high-contrast colors.
Co-primary triad The result of the primary triad when split into
three pairs consisting of cool and warm versions of each hue.
Muted color A subdued version of a hue.
Neutral Colors based on the tertiary hues.
Pastel A color tinted with white to produce a pale version
of a hue.
Secondary triad In subtractive colors: orange, green, and violet.
They are referred to as secondary, because combining two
primaries can make them.
Shade The color resulting from adding black to a hue.
Tint The color resulting from adding white to a hue, or a color
appearing to weakly modify another, for example “gray with
a green tint.”
Tone A “grayed” color.

Introducing color
 55

Color communication: the vocabulary of color

 White exudes ethereal purity and
ultimate light. Modern whites are
shimmering, reflective, and tinged
with dilute blue and ultraviolet.
Naturally sun-bleached, starchy,
and chalky hues have a transient
brightness. A creamy or misty cast
is evident in antique whites.

56

Introducing color
The startling, almost chemical,
astringency of citrus yellows and
acidic chartreuse are tempered
and softened by gilded flaxen tones
and orange-tinged saffron which
convey egg yolk, custard, and sun-
baked days.

57

Naturally fresh and verdant

chlorophyllic greens can possess
an intensely invigorating effect
that, when deepened, can verge
on poisonous.Verdigris and
saturated glowing emerald denote
sophistication, and cast with blue
become elegant jade. Ripened,
muddied, and moldy tones appear
in olive, khaki, and lichen.

Color communication: the vocabulary of color

 Pale, insouciant diluted pinks are
flirtatious, powdery and intimate.
Flushed with pigment they become
florid and hyper real. Lurid pinks
can appear to pulsate with a
searing flamboyant appeal akin to
red. Tinted with violet, pink can be
saccharine and cloying. Tinted with
yellow, pink becomes fleshy, limpid
58 and tender. Ripe, reddened tones
of orange convey a juicy fruitfulness
with an intense glowing warmth.
Tinted with browns they mature
into earthy, autumnal, rusted and
bronzed tones.
Full-spectrum saturated scarlet
raises the pulse in its most fierce
and fiery shades. Intense ruby and
vermillion deepen to become rich
crimson and claret.
Blued reds develop into
maroons and border on purple.
Reds sullied with browns and violets
take on a rustic appeal, developing
complex shades such as puce.

Introducing color
Icy or salt-bleached tints of blue
convey a languid ozonic clarity.
Pale, liquid and patinated hues
are almost reflective. Intensely
saturated blue can be electric
and invigorating. Shades with
a violet cast inject warmth, and
iconic indigo denim spans shades
from the merest tint through to the
deepest, blackened navy. 59

Color communication: the vocabulary of color

60
Section 1
Animal
fibers
61
62
Wool

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

Wool is the ultimate natural chameleon fiber,
embodying many diverse aspects.
Early history
The use of felted wool for clothing can be traced back tens
Wool can be satisfyingly soft, warm, cozy, and sensuous, or
of thousands of years. Taking inspiration from the matting of
rugged, tough, and functional, while its inherent drapability
the fleece that occurs naturally on the animal’s back, primitive
allows its finest fibers to appear lustrous, sleek, and elegant.
cultures worldwide developed processes of wetting, massaging,
and pressing the wool to produce a dense, matted felt “blanket”
that could be cut or manipulated into varying thicknesses, or
The history of wool molded into shape. Felted wool was commonplace in China and
Egypt long before the technologies for spinning and weaving
were developed.
Our relationship with this historic fiber is almost as old as
However, wool was the first animal fiber to be woven, and
civilization itself, and wool’s unique thermally responsive
by Roman times wool, together with linen and leather, clothed
and insulating qualities remain as relevant today as at any
Europe. Cotton was seen as a mere curiosity, while silk was
time in history. 63
an extravagant luxury. It is believed that the Romans invented
the carding process to brush, tease, and comb the fibers into
alignment to facilitate the smoother spinning and weaving of
the yarn. It is also believed that the Romans started the selective
breeding of sheep to provide better and finer qualities of wool.

(right) A contemporary expression

of a historic process, this red merino
wool “boxing” dress is hand felted
by US-based German artist Angelika
Werth. The boxing dress was one
of a series of 12 “Madeleines”
conceived by the artist to
express specific personalities. Her
interpretation of a baroque-inspired
dress exploits the sculptural nature
and robust qualities of traditionally
felted fine merino wool.

(opposite page) These wool ringlets

show the natural curl and lustrous
aspect of the fiber in this scoured,
washed, and dyed wool from a
Wensleydale sheep.

The history of wool

 Pre-industry Modern times
By the beginning of the medieval period the wool trade was the By the mid-nineteenth century the Industrial Revolution had
economic engine of both the Low Countries and central Italy, turned Bradford in Yorkshire into the center of the industrialized
and relied on English wool exports for cloth production. Wool world’s spinning and weaving industry. Bradford’s insatiable
was, at this time, England’s primary and most valuable export appetite for fine woolen fibers is said to have built and
commodity. Pre-Renaissance Florence’s wealth was similarly maintained Australia’s colonial economy. By the beginning of
built on the textile industry, which guided the banking policies the twentieth century Australian sheep rearing and its wool trade
that made Florence the hub of the Renaissance. had usurped Europe’s industry, and to this day Australia remains
By the time of the English Restoration, in the mid- the most important global producer of wool.
seventeenth century, English woolens had begun to compete The end of World War II was a catalyst for many
with silks in the international market. To help protect this socioeconomic and political changes. Man-made materials
lucrative trade the Crown forbade its new American colonies to were in tune with the modern world of working women, busy
trade wool with anybody other than the “mother” country. lifestyles, and greater social mobility. New sporting and leisure
64 Spain’s economy was similarly reliant on this valuable pursuits encouraged the use of easy-care fabrics. The synthetics
export, to such an extent that the export of merino lambs was first developed between the 1930s and 1940s were in general
only permitted by royal consent. Spanish merino sheep, with use throughout the 1950s and 1960s, and were considered
their finer quality fleece, became the most desirable breed. A sophisticated and in tune with postwar values.
great majority of today’s Australian merino sheep originated Acrylic was developed as a substitute for knitted wool,
from here, via a circuitous route as part of a gift to the Governor while polyester, or Terylene as it was known in tailoring, was the
of the Dutch Cape, and then onto Australia, where the vast perfect medium for drip-dry, non-iron, easy-care lifestyles.
areas of dry pastures perfectly suit fine-wool sheep breeds. The By contrast, by the mid-1960s new sociopolitical
Spanish also introduced sheep to Argentina and Uruguay, where movements were emerging in North America and Western
the climate and pastures were favorable for their growth and Europe; the flower-power movement questioned Western values
expansion, and today they represent a sizeable percentage of the and especially materialism. In the search for a new world order
two countries’ export revenue. many alternative lifestyles and cultures were embraced. One
outward sign of this was in a revival of traditional crafts. Wool
and cotton, both natural and traditional fibers, were favored,
preferably if homespun and ideally with an organic pedigree.
It may be said that the hippy movement was instrumental in
jump-starting the wool revival.

The hippy movement of the 1960s

questioned Western values and was
instrumental in jump-starting the
revival of fortune for natural fibers.
Fabrics with an organic pedigree
became de rigueur, an irony lost
in this advertisement of the period
using hippy imagery to promote
synthetic fabrics.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

 Modern interpretations of wool can provide the designer
Looking to the future with a broad, tactile vocabulary that can express a wide range
of design requirements, from classic, traditional, and authentic
While wool’s heritage and association with reliability and themes, through to the most challenging futuristic explorations
quality may be one of its defining strengths as a commodity, in performance fabrics.
contemporary consumers are now increasingly sophisticated Once upon a time wool care, for the consumer, meant
and demanding, with myriad lifestyle issues that fabrics and careful hand washing, a dedicated cleaning agent, and towel
fashion must strive to address. In the drive to be responsive drying. Today’s consumer is able to enjoy the beauty of woolen
to contemporary needs and also remain relevant, scientists products while caring for them in much the same way as they
and textile designers are researching and developing new would many other fibers.
technological solutions to extend the existing attributes of this The chameleon qualities of this versatile fiber can express
important, traditional fiber. Technological advances in textiles and respond to myriad fashion personalities, from urbane,
can provide natural fibers with adaptive aspects, which give an contemporary modern luxury to functional and technologically
already desirable raw material specific enhancements and new advanced sportswear.
benefits, allowing it to remain competitive and aspirational.
Current research aims to develop innovative treatments that will 65
enhance, extend, and manipulate wool’s properties in order to
respond to the increasingly shifting requirements of the twenty-
first-century consumer.
New-generation wool technology is no longer cost driven,
but is about adding alternative fibers, be they synthetic or high-
tech, as visual, tactile, or practical enhancements to give an
alternative aspect to wool. In the two decades after World War II Classifying wool
synthetics and natural fibers had no shared common goals, and
there was a cultural class divide between the selection of one
over the other. Today, natural fibers and synthetics can blend
harmoniously, both from a fiber and social viewpoint. Adding Fine
two percent LYCRA® will give fine-wool suiting a “memory,”
while LUREX™, for example, can liven up a flat worsted suit
under 24.5 microns
fabric; the options are endless.

Medium
24.5 to 31.4 microns

Fine cross bred

31.5 to 35.4 microns

Coarse cross bred

35.5 microns plus

Wool ready for grading

classification and carding at
Coldharbour Mill, Devon, England.

The history of wool

 Wool fiber Crimp
The natural properties of wool make it flexible, Wool fibers have a crimp, a natural wave that allows air to be
resilient, insulative, absorbent, hygienic, and trapped within the structure, giving wool its natural insulating
moldable. quality. Fine merino wool may have as many as 100 crimps per
inch, while a coarser karakul may have as few as one or two
Wool is an organic compound composed of keratin, an animal crimps per inch. In the spinning process the crimps of the fiber
protein that is also found in hair, nails, feathers, and horn. As wrap around each other, increasing wool’s already excellent
distinct from hair or fur, wool has many tiny overlapping scales, tensile strength, which can be stretched from 25 to 35 percent
all of which point in the same direction. of its length before reaching breaking point. The springiness of
The predominant natural color of wool is a creamy white, the crimp gives wool its inbuilt recovery, or “memory,” enabling
although some sheep breeds produce other natural colors, such woolen clothes to maintain their shape. Hanging a creased suit
as brown, black, and silver, as well as some random mixes. in a damp or steamy environment will allow the creases to drop
Wool fibers, while still on the animal, are coated in a out in very little time without any need to press or iron.
66 grease that contains lanolin, a slightly yellowish substance.
The lanolin is removed and collected during the washing
process of raw wool, and used in products such as cosmetics,
skin ointment, and waterproofing wax. On occasion the wool
may be processed without the removal of its natural oil, in which
case it retains excellent water-repellent qualities. Traditional
Aran wool does not have its lanolin removed and was originally
used by Scottish and Irish fishermen because it offered excellent
protection from the elements.

(above left) The three-dimensional (above) This deconstructed Aran

stitch work of this traditional Aran wool knit by Natalie Jacobs
sweater helps to trap the air for modernizes the traditional knit
added warmth. Aran wool has not technique by displacing the
had its natural lanolin removed. direction of the knit and dispensing
with formed sleeves.
(left) Wool fibers have an outer
layer composed of tiny overlapping
scales, which are hydrophobic
(having a tendency to repel
water). The interior of the fiber is
hygroscopic (having a tendency
to attract water), allowing garments
made from wool to maintain their
natural insulating properties even
when wet.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

Resilience Sheep
The exterior of the wool fiber is hydrophobic and tends to repel
Sheep are universally domesticated animals that produce a
water, while the interior of the fiber is hydroscopic and attracts
unique fiber. They can be separated into two principal types:
water, which means it can absorb up to 30 percent of its bulk hair sheep and wool sheep. Wool sheep are then subdivided
weight in moisture vapor without feeling wet. This gives wool into three further types.
its comfort factor, because it can still feel warm while wet, which
is one of the reasons nomads, herdsmen, and fishermen living Hair sheep
Hair sheep are the ancestors of today’s domesticated sheep.
and working in harsh intemperate climates use it.
These originally had coarse hair and a downy or woolly
Wool has natural flame-resistant properties so needs high undercoat. Through years of selective breeding the hair
temperatures before igniting, and does not disintegrate until disappeared and the woolly undercoat developed to become
about 90°C. the outer fleece we recognize today. It is estimated that today
Wool that has been felted and treated with lanolin is only about 10 percent of the world’s sheep population are
hair sheep, the majority of which are to be found in Africa. Hair
water-resistant and air-permeable, as well as being slightly
sheep are used for meat consumption and the manufacturing 67
antibacterial, which helps the wicking away of odor; airing a of leather. Sheep leather is referred to as sheep napa (or nappa)
woolen product will remove much of the build-up of odor, and lamb is referred to as lamb napa.
eliminating the need for constant laundering.
Wool sheep
Wool sheep are subdivided into three main categories:
the down breeds or short wools, which prefer warmer,
drier climates;
the long wools, which thrive in the wetter regions, with their
richer pastures;
the mountain breeds that exist comfortably on exposed hills.
Merino Perform™ Advantage Fabric The land and pastures that feed the sheep influence the
properties of their fleeces. Wool sheep are bred for wool
23° production and also for meat.

24°

25°

26°

27°

40 minutes 28°

Synthetic Fabric 29°

30°
A Sportswool™ garment viewed (above) Wool fiber under
under a thermal imaging camera magnification, showing the many
shows the natural thermally tiny overlapping scales all pointing
31° responsive regulating aspects in the same direction. The natural
of the fiber. It helps to raise the wave or crimp allows air to be
body’s temperature when in a cool trapped within the structure and
32° climate, and cools the body when lends the fiber its natural insulating
the ambient temperature rises. quality.

33°

34°
40 minutes

Wool fiber
 Wool production Wool classes
Over 60 percent of global production is destined for the clothing Prior to spinning, wool is separated and graded into different
industry. Australia is by far the largest producer of wool, of quality classification categories known as wool classes. The
which the majority is from merino breeds. New Zealand is diameter of the fiber is measured in microns and is the principal
the second largest producer, mainly from crossbred varieties. component in determining the classification category. Generally,
Organic wool is becoming popular but represents a very small anything under 25 microns is used for light clothing, while
percentage of global production. medium grades are used for heavy outerwear and coarse grades
for rugs. Finesse, crimp, fiber length, cleanliness, and color
Sixty percent of all global wool production is are other key ingredients for consideration; grading is also
destined for the clothing market. dependent on the breed of sheep and the end purpose of the
wool. At this stage, and until the wool has been scoured and
cleaned, it is referred to as grease-wool, or wool-in-the-grease.

68
Shearing Finally the wool fibers are compressed into bales ready for
packaging and transportation to the mills that will carry out the
The fleece of a sheep is carefully shorn and removed in one piece. next round of processes.
Shearing represents the single greatest expense of the entire wool-
production cycle, constituting approximately 20 percent of the Wool scouring
total cost. The best lambswool is obtained from the first shearing, Scouring is an essential cleaning process that removes both the
taken at about six months of age when the fleece is at its softest grease and debris from the wool prior to spinning. Scoured
and finest. Thereafter sheep are shorn at yearly intervals. wool is usually about 70 percent of the weight of prescoured or
An alternative to shearing with hand blades or electric grease-wool.
clippers is the protein injection. A retaining net is fitted over the
sheep before injecting a protein substance that forms a natural
break in the wool fiber. After a week the net is removed and the
wool fleece pulled off by hand.
After shearing the fleeces are thrown clean-side down
onto rotating tables in the shearing sheds, where impurities and Shearing and classifying
any foreign matter are removed. Referred to as grease-wool throughout these stages

Shearing

(left) Drafting with view of pin feed

s
at Lightfoot Farm, Maine, USA. Removal of foreign matter

(below) Bobbins of rovings ready

for final spinning into yarn. The
wool is from a breed of domestic
Dorset Down sheep and is in its
s
Classification for quality purposes and
natural color. Coldharbour Mill, possible end user. Compressed into bales for
Devon, England. transport to spinners

s
Spinning mills
Scouring—carding—drawing

da
Woollen spinning Worsted spinning
Drawing Combing
Twist Drawing
Twist

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

Carding, combing, Wool yarn count
Yarns are bought and sold by weight, not by length. Because of
and drawing this, sizes (numbers or count) are used to express a relationship
between the weight of yarn and its length. This relationship also
reflects the diameter or thickness of the yarn.
Carding, combing (see page 13), and drawing are three
Wool count refers to the number of hanks of yarn (each
independent processes that together form part of what is termed
560 yards or 512 m in length) that it is possible to spin from
the spinning process—which also includes spinning itself. All of
one pound of clean wool. The finer the count the more wool
these processes are carried out in a spinning mill, which may be
it is possible to obtain from one pound. The number of hanks
simply referred to as the “spinners.”
produced gives the wool its count.
In tailoring-fabric terms, the prefix super refers to fabric
Drawing and finisher drawing
that has been woven from yarns counted as 100 or more.
The two processes of drawing and finisher drawing may be
Therefore a super 120s fabric has been woven from finer yarns
applied to both woolens and worsteds to further improve the
than a super 110s fabric. The finer the wool count the softer the
evenness and regularity of the yarn, prior to final spinning.
fabric is to the touch. 69
Woolen spun yarn will also need to go through condensers
to separate the web or batt (multiple sheets of fibers) into
Spinning
predetermined weight strands. Each technique gives a uniquely
The final stage of the spinning process is the application of twist
different character, in both appearance and feel, to the fabric and
to the yarn, giving it greater tensile strength and added flexibility
end product. The choice of selecting one over the other is purely
in preparation for the subsequent knitting or weaving processes.
a creative decision.
Adding twist can also be a way of achieving myriad different
visual effects. Twisting several shades of a color together will
produce a tone-on-tone mélange effect, while twisting together
complementary colors can result in innovative color solutions.
Alternatively, different types of yarn can be twisted together to
achieve more complex textures. Twisting a LUREX™ yarn with
a traditional woolen yarn gives an element of shimmer that takes
a traditional woolen or worsted fabric into another dimension.
Yarns spun of differing thicknesses will, when woven, give
interesting and complex textural surfaces.

(above) A classic 1964 Chanel

jacket believed to be cut from
Linton tweed. Chanel loved the
heritage and practicality of British
tweeds and collaborated with mills
to modernize them with lighter yarns
and unexpected color.

Wool production
 Twisting yarns of differing natural fiber sources is
an interesting proposition from both a fabric and fashion
perspective, as well as being a potential marketing lever for
a brand. Twisting silk and wool together offers interesting
retail marketing possibilities, expounding the contrasting but
complementary qualities of both fibers. By contrast, a brand
that is at a price-competitive level of the market could use a
cashmere and wool mixture and market the luxury aspect of the
product while not dramatically increasing the price.
In the search for something new to offer the designer, and
ultimately the end consumer, traditional woolen yarns have been
twisted with everything from cellophane to metallic yarns in the
quest for creativity and to promote the use of traditional fibers
with added technology.
70
Woolen spun yarn
Yarn that has gone through the carding and drawing processes
is referred to as woolen spun yarn. As a result of these processes
the fibers tend to lie in all directions, giving a fuzzy, textured
appearance. Woolen spun yarns are perfect for knitwear of
almost any machine gauge, producing sweaters that are soft,
supple and comforting, while woolen spun fabrics tend to have
a coarser hand with a less visible fabric structure than worsteds
(above) Gray cropped coat with (see right). The fibers used are thicker and less even in length,
contrast sleeves in wool flannel by making woolen spun fabrics a perfect medium for textured
New York designer Michael Angel.
surfaces with high tactile fabric interest, such as tweed.
The bold graphic appeal of the
chunky proportions is emphasized
by the color blocking of the
charcoal and dove gray, worn with
a beige marl-effect box-pleated
skirt in a wool and silk blend.

(right) Sleek, androgynous styling

exemplifies a take on the modern
urban uniform, here in a fine wool
and polyester mix suit by Kostas
Murkudis.

(right) Softly draped, balloon-

skirted dress in a salt-and-pepper
tweed blended with a subtle
highlight of gold metallic yarn by
Korean designer Son Jung Wan. It
is worn with a charcoal gray wool,
turtleneck cropped sweater.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

Worsted spun yarn
Yarn that is carded, drawn, and, in addition, then also combed
is referred to as worsted spun yarn. The fibers lie almost parallel
to each other, so worsted spun fabrics tend to have a flatter,
smoother finish and a much more visible fabric structure, and
could be described as having a cleaner-cut appearance than their
woolen spun equivalents. They are used for fine tailoring and
dressweight fabrics, as well as some speciality knitwear, where
a flatter, less “woolly” texture is desired. The fibers used are finer
and more even in length, making worsteds a perfect vehicle for
fine tailoring.

Worsted wool
Worsted wool is the ultimate cloth for expressing precise and
urbane classic tailoring. New wool blends lend contemporary 71
deconstructed tailoring a drapeable and supple elegance that
molds to the body and is supremely comfortable.
Traditional wool tweeds can provide an authentic rugged
durability or a soft and comfortable sporty feel in softer yarns.
New fiber technologies have enhanced the natural thermal
properties of wool and make it an ideal choice for performance
and fashion sportswear.

(above) This oatmeal layered outfit

by designer Nicholas K plays with
volume and texture provided by
different qualities of woven and
knitted fabrics. The draped cape-
shouldered jacket is made from
plain-weave wool, and the fine-knit
asymmetric cardigan from a
merino blend.

(left) Worsted suit by Edward Sexton,

2008 collection. In the late 1960s
Edward Sexton and Tommy Nutter
rejuvenated the once stuffy Savile
Row with the spirit and verve of
swinging London, and attracted
a new wave of rock and pop
celebrities.

(left) A fine gray worsted wool suit

by Kris Van Assche highlights the
natural drape of this classic tailoring
fabric, conveying ease and
elegance.

Wool production
 Producing fabric: Wool fabrics
weaving and knitting The fabrics listed here represent the most popular woolens and
worsteds in use, and would give the designer or merchandiser an
Once the yarns have been spun they are ready to be either extensive selection for designing a range or building a collection.
knitted or woven into fabric. Specialist knitting factories and The list, however, is not exhaustive. The fabrics are all primarily
weaving mills will use selected yarns to produce the woolens, made from woolen yarns, though some names are shared with
worsted fabrics, or knitwear. Biannual yarn trade fairs will other natural and/or synthetic yarns.
showcase their latest developments and new fashion colors.
These trade fairs are ideally suited to knitwear and fabric
designers, much more so than fashion designers. Each season’s
trade fairs are really the start of a new season’s collection.

72

Textured traditional
These textured, historic fabrics, with a hand-loom provenance,
express an authentic, robust, coarse, rugged aspect.
Tweed Generically describes coarse-textured woolen spun
fabrics from Scotland, Ireland, and Yorkshire, although Scottish
in origin. Today they have been made lighter in weight and are
available in all fashion colors. Tweeds are often prefixed with the
town or area from whence they originated.
Harris tweed Originally hand-loomed tweed using vegetable
dyes, from the Scottish Hebrides.
Donegal tweed Originally hand-spun, with colored slubs woven
into the fabric. Now a generic term for any similar fabric.
Cheviots Traditionally twill-woven outerwear fabrics made from
Cheviot or crossbred wool varieties.

(above) Irish designer Paul Costelloe

Smooth and compact employs the russet tones in the

weave of this large-scale checked
Harris tweed to enhance the form of
These woolen fabrics have a lightly pronounced surface the body in a dress inspired by the
structure, a clean-cut touch, and firm hand. silhouette of dancers’ costumes.
Barathea May be of woolen or worsted construction. Very flat
(left) Herringbone is a classic two-
in appearance with a very slightly raised surface.
color design. Reversing the twill
Cavalry twill Twill weave with a more pronounced double twill. weave at regular intervals produces
its distinctive “zigzag” effect.
Gabardine Twill weave with clear surface and fine diagonal
rib effect.
(right) Prince of Wales is a
Serge Even-sided twill weave. Although originally an Italian silk traditional Scottish Glen Urquhart
weave, it is now almost exclusively worsted and used for tailoring. check, usually woven in black and
white and featuring a characteristic
Venetian Firm touch sateen close weave with a slight
colored windowpane overcheck.
matte sheen.
The design was popularized by
the Prince of Wales in the early
twentieth century.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

 (left) This yellow tweed suit by
London College of Fashion
graduate Mary Binding
is made from pure wool Harris
tweed. The unexpectedly fresh
palette of yellow, orange, and
cream shades lends the classic
Donegal weave a contemporary
personality.

(right) This traditional wool tartan

men’s suit by New York brand Rag
& Bone represents a contemporary
take on the influence of traditional
British tailoring and iconic heritage
fabrics. The use of this Royal Stewart
tartan communicates an instantly
recognizable connection to its 73
Scottish provenance, lending the
outfit a classic appeal.

Raised surface
Hopsack Basket weave, or sometimes plain weave, with a
pronounced surface resembling its name.
Panama Lightweight plain weave with a very lightly pronounced
cross effect.

Iconic fabric designs

(right) Two colors are used in a The historic fabric designs shown on this page and opposite
twill-weave construction creating originated in the woolen textile industries of Scotland and
a “star” effect known as dogtooth England. They have been reinterpreted in other fibers,
or hound’s-tooth. The same effect both natural and synthetic. They are constantly revisited by
on a smaller scale is referred to as designers and have become instantly recognizable, even
puppy tooth. when their traditional status is subverted by reproportioning and
reinterpreting the designs in print, knit, and even embroidery.

Shown here are:

Hound’s-tooth
Prince of Wales
(left) Tattersall check, a traditional
equestrian fabric, derives its Glen Urquhart check
name from an eighteenth-century
Tattersall
racehorse auctioneers at London’s
Hyde Park Corner, long before it Herringbone
became London’s premier address.
Tartans/plaids
Today the term “Tattersall” applies
to fabrics of any fiber and checks
of any scale, as long as they
maintain the equestrian feel of
the original fabric.

Producing fabric: weaving and knitting

 (below) This elegant oatmeal (right) A whimsical draped and
wool ensemble by Korean folded emerald green loden (felted
designer Son Jung Wan features wool) dress, by Viennese brand
a raw-edged, waterfall-ruffled Femme Maison, playfully references
blouse in fine wool crêpe, with folk-tale imagery. Loden was
contrasting chunky hand-knitted originally produced as a loosely
wool caped sleeves. It is worn with woven cloth, which underwent
wool mélange,“sweatshirt” fabric, a lengthy process of shrinking,
slouchy-fit trousers. brushing and clipping to form a
thick, water-resistant fabric with
a short pile.

74

Loopy
Fluffy, airy, or granular in texture.
Bouclé The French word for “curly,” the fabric may be woven
or knitted. The term is applied to a yarn or finished fabric with
a curled surface.
Crêpe An all-over granular effect with a very dry touch.
Moroccan Heavy crêpe effect.

Insulative
Warm and brushed with a cozy, tactile surface.
Flannel Used generically for many worsted spun fabrics. May be Sensual
of plain or twill weave with napped surface to one or both sides.
Loden Brushed, raised surface, coating weight, originally from Glamorous, light, and fluid with expressive drape.
Tyrol. The name also implies a specific shade of green that
Challis Very lightweight plain weave with a soft touch.
camouflaged well into the local landscape.
Georgette Lightweight plain weave with a very fine
Melton Thick, diagonal-weave fabric with a raised surface.
crêpe effect.
Quite firm to the touch and used for outerwear.
Mousseline Generic term for very fine, semiopaque fabric.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

 75

(above) The bias cut and oversized

blouson styling of this coat by
Alexander McQueen emphasize
the inherent drape and almost
weightless character of this brushed
wool and mohair fabric.

(right) This outfit by Colombian

designer Haider Ackermann skillfully
layers a spicy palette of different
qualities of wool in varying weights,
including melton, flannel, and
tweed, to create an urbane and
elegant ensemble.

Producing fabric: weaving and knitting

 Luxury wool and lambswool Merino
Luxury wools are considered to have special and more desirable Merino wool is a statement of luxury. It is soft and
attributes than standard wool varieties. Luxury wool fibers will supple with year-round comfort.
usually be supplied with specialty labeling, a logo, and appropriate
brand advertising. This is a shorthand code to communicate The wool from the merino sheep is most prized, and considered
the desirability of the product to the consumer. It also gives the the ultimate in wool luxury. The lightness, softness, and
confidence and knowledge of the product’s key benefits. springiness of its crimp make merino yarn a perfect vehicle for
fine-quality luxurious clothing.
Superfine merino is one of the finest and softest fleeces of
Lambswool all, while ultra-fine merino wool is often used for blending with
prestigious fibers such as silk, cashmere, and alpaca.
Lambswool is taken from the first shearing, when the lamb is An important characteristic of merino wool is the tightness
about six months old, and is especially fine and soft. It is ideal and spring of its crimp, as well as the length of its staple, which
76 for extra-fine knitwear, especially when fully fashioned, and varies from 2 1/2 to 4 inches (6 to 10 cm) in length. Each sheep
for superfine suiting fabrics. In the designing and production produces between 6 1/2 and 13 pounds (3 and 6 kg) of wool per
of a collection the use of lambswool should carry its own year. Over time merino breeds have been genetically engineered to
dedicated label. produce improved qualities of wool and, more recently, following
fashion demand, lighter and finer counts of wool.

Classifying merino

Ultra fine
under 17.5 microns

Merino sheep are valued for their

fine wool. The finer the micron count,
the more valuable the product. Super fine
up to 18.5 microns

Fine
under 19.5 microns

Fine medium
up to 20.5 microns

Medium
up to 22.5 microns

Strong
over 22.6 microns

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

 The merino was originally indigenous to Asia Minor,
then introduced into Spain via North Africa by the Romans, Woollen underwear
where the breed developed and became an integral part of
the economy. The sheep were so important to the Iberian In the late nineteenth century Dr Gustave Jaeger (1832–1917)
economy that from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries pioneered “the scientific theory of hygienic dress,” which
they could only be exported with royal consent. Merino sheep maintained that wool was the ideal fiber to wear next to the
also flourished in parts of England, France, and Saxony, now skin. He promoted the wearing of woolen undergarments for
southeast Germany. optimum health, based on the theories of wool’s antibacterial
properties. This practice was upheld in many countries, to
In the 1790s a small flock of Spanish merino sheep was some extent, through to the middle of the twentieth century.
given as a prized gift to the governor of the Dutch Cape (South
Africa). Eventually some of these were sold on and in turn
transported to Australia, landing in Botany Bay. The temperate
climate and lush pastures were perfect for the breed to thrive and
prosper. Sheep rearing became so important an economic factor
that it was a fundamental influence in Australia’s key role within 77
the British Commonwealth, with much of its economy linked to
the breeding of merino sheep and the export of their wool.
Merino sheep are now successfully reared in New
Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, Uruguay, and in the west
of the United States; however it is Australia that is the most
important producer and exporter of merino wool.
The term “merino” was originally only used for Spanish-
bred merino sheep, but the superior quality of the Australian,
and later the New Zealand, strains means that the name is now
used to describe merinos irrespective of country of origin.

Retro proportioned knitted

hand-framed bodysuit by Finnish
art brand IVANAhelsinki, whose
ethos and production philosophy
are based on ethical and
ecological choices.

Luxury wool and lambswool

 Australia’s merino And wool is also marketed under the name Botany wool
Australia has four basic strains of merino. to denote wool originating from Botany Bay. The term is
suggestive of very fine woolen knitwear and carries its own
Pepin: Considered to be the most important strain, thriving in dedicated specialty labeling.
drier inland regions, however its fleece falls into the mid-range
of merino wool quality. Merino clothing is made from the very best yarns,
Saxon: Prefers cooler wetter regions; it is physically the smallest however in knitwear the term mainly refers to
strain but produces the finest, most prized, and most expensive garments made from worsted spun yarns.
quality of wool.
South Australian: Thrives in the most temperate climate and
is physically the largest of the strains. The wool produced falls
into the coarsest of the categories.
Spanish: The smallest in numbers and shares similar attributes
to the pepin.
78

Sumptuous hand-knitted,
heather gray, oversized sweater
in 100 percent merino wool by
New York designer Michael Angel.
The giant scale of the knit makes
an exaggerated statement,
emphasizing the coziness and
luxury of the merino yarn.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

Rambouillet or French merino Shetland wool
The Rambouillet breed is believed to have originated around Shetland sheep are the smallest of all the breeds in the British
1786, when Louis XVI either received or purchased a flock of Isles. They are of Scandinavian origin and believed to have been
Spanish merinos from the king of Spain. The sheep were crossed brought over by the Vikings.
with English long-wool breeds on a royal farm at Rambouillet From the cold climate of the Shetland Islands, Shetland
near Paris, producing a well-defined breed that differed in several fleece has a distinctive fine fiber quality in a range of natural
important points from the original Spanish merino. They were shades, from off-whites to reddish brown, gray, dark brown, and
now of a far greater size, with larger wool clips and a longer through to black, colors that traditional Shetland patterns are
wool length. based on; furthermore the many natural colors of Shetland are in
In 1889 the Rambouillet Association was formed in the tune with current market demands for ecological yarns that have
United States with the aim of preserving the breed. Today about not been chemically dyed.
half of the sheep on the western ranges of the United States Traditionally, Shetland fleece was hand plucked from the
are of this strain. Rambouillet studs have also been of great sheep at the time when they would naturally shed their seasonal
importance in the development of the Australian merino industry. fleece, resulting in fine and soft wool. 79
Shetland wool conjures up romantic notions of traditional
country tweeds and knitwear, often in muted colors that
camouflage so well with the countryside. Warm, comforting,
and with a slightly wiry texture, Shetland wool fabric remains
popular to this day.

Shetland colors
The different strains of Shetland sheep still carry the Old Norse
names, which are also often used to describe the shades or
colors.
Bleget Whitish gray.
Emsket Dusky blue to gray.
Eesit Shades of ash.
Extravagant Mongolian sheep- Moget Light brown, dark belly.
wool coat by Huwaida Ahmed.
Shaela Shaded wool from dark to light.
The exceptionally long and curly
corkscrew locks are characteristic Skeget Striped sides.
of Mongolian sheep wool.
Skjuret Mixed brown and gray.

Luxury wool and lambswool

 Under London label Colenimo,
Japanese designer Aya Nakagawa,
for the Fall/Winter 2008 capsule
collection, references the attitude
of 1950s teddy boys and girls, and
plays with feminizing masculine
silhouettes and revisiting robust
traditional fabrics. Here, a vintage
100 percent Shetland wool conveys
its rugged appeal and shows a
contemporary take on the use of
authentic fabrics.

80

(right) Undyed Shetland wool fiber

from Hand Weavers Studios. This
distinctive fiber comes in a natural
color palette ranging from off-white
through to reddish brown, mid- to
dark brown, gray, and black. In
addition to the traditionally crafted
iconic country tweeds and knitwear,
Shetland wool fabric has now
become the perennial favorite
of designers, attracted by the
romance attached to the heritage
surrounding the fiber.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

 The Icelandic sheep has the largest natural color shade
Icelandic wool range of any breed, from white to gray to a large selection of
browns and black. Some sheep have a differing shade of inner
In the late ninth century the Vikings brought sheep to Iceland. fleece to their outer fleece. Left unshorn the fleece would
Over 1,000 years of isolation from contact with other breeds has grow to about 18 inches (45 cm) in a year, and therefore tends to
maintained the purity of their gene pool, resulting in one of the be shorn twice a year.
purest and rarest breeds in the world. The sheep are reared in
the high mountains where they produce fleeces considered to be
among the rarest in the world, their rarity compounded by the
fact that their numbers are diminishing annually.
Karakul wool
Icelandic wool fleece is double layered, made up of a fine,
Karakul, or Persian lamb as it is often known, is from Central
soft, insulating inner fiber and long, glossy, coarser outer fiber.
Asia, and is considered to be one of the first domesticated
The inner fiber is as soft as cashmere and classified as fine wool,
breeds, associated with the felted fabric that predated knitted or
while the outer fiber is classified as medium wool. The structure
woven fabric. Today a large percentage of South African wool
of the outer fiber allows water to run down and not penetrate
is from Karakul sheep. The wool has a tight curly pattern and 81
and its irregularity traps air, giving warmth.
tends to be in shades of gray to black. As a woolen yarn it is
Icelandic wool is lighter than most other wool types, and
much sought after for expensive millinery, however it is most
its minimal crimp makes it perfect for worsted spinning, the
prized for its pelts.
resulting yarn being lofty in appearance. The two fibers may
be spun separately to create yarns of different weights that are
suitable for different end uses, or spun together for a yarn that
when knitted or woven would give maximum protection from
the elements.

Useful wool terminology

One-hundred percent virgin wool or 100 percent pure new
wool The product has been produced from fibers that have not
been previously processed.
One-hundred percent wool The product is all wool, but possibly
recycled or reprocessed.
Mungo Fibrous woolen material generated from waste fabric.
Wool blends A mixture of different wools and/or other fibers.

This geometrically draped dress by

Haider Ackermann is made from a
deluxe wool–silk blend, creating a
fabric that fuses the glamour of silk
(which provides the satin face of the
cloth) with the insulating softness of
wool. The resulting textile expresses a
contemporary glamour and ease.

Luxury wool and lambswool

 Wool market Marketing wool
Australia is singularly the largest wool producer, supplying The marketing and promotion of wool is an important issue,
around 25 percent of the world’s consumption, most of which which has been addressed nationally by the formation of various
is exported to make yarn for the weaving and knitting industries. wool boards or associations that represent the wool growers of
The greater majority of Australian wool is from merino their respective countries. Collectively these offer a guaranteed
sheep breeds. standard of quality of the raw material that goes to the spinners
New Zealand is the second largest exporter of fine wool, and in turn to the fabric manufacturers. This quality standard is a
but is however the world’s largest producer and exporter of selling and promotional tool for the design company, and in turn
crossbred wool. The majority of the crossbred wool (31.5 microns to the end consumer.
plus) goes to China to supplement its domestic production.
China produces both fine wools and crossbred varieties.
However, due to its importance as a global manufacturing hub Australia: Woolmark
it consumes the majority of its domestic production for its
82 own manufacturing industries; the eventual end use is finished Woolmark is a registered mark used for branding different types
clothing for export. It is also a major importer of all wool of Australian wool, and is used as a means of guaranteeing a
qualities, which it uses to manufacture end products for export. standard of quality. The Woolmark brands and sub-brands are
Uruguay is the third largest wool-producing–exporting designed to give the consumer confidence and knowledge of
country in the world; however it is the second largest producer the product, as well as communicating the key benefits and
of clothing-weight wool. Around 10 percent of its wool promoting an awareness and understanding of the product’s
production is kept for domestic fabric consumption, which is full potential. This is essential information for the designer
ultimately also for export. because the choice of fabric, with the appropriate level of
Argentina and South Africa are also key exporters of brand recognition, may give added value and increase the sales
wool, followed by Turkey and Iran. Great Britain and Sudan potential of the collection over that of a competitor.
produce around two percent each. The United States—notably
Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado—produces around one
percent of the world’s output.
The principal consumers of the good-quality merino are
Italy, France, Germany, Great Britain, and Japan, of which Italy
and Japan use the very best for their sophisticated fully-fashioned
knitwear industries.

This sweater was buried by the New

Zealand Merino Company in order
to compare the biodegradation
behavior of its merino wool fibers
with that of synthetics. After nine
months the sweater had lost
99 percent of its mass. By contrast,
during the same time frame a
polyester garment showed no signs
of degradation.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

 The Woolmark trademark logo. The Woolmark blend trademark Wool blend logo products are Pure Merino Wool is premium
logo. high tech new wool mixes of quality wool. Naturally fine and
30 to 49 percent new wool that silky, it is super-soft, lightweight,
maintains the natural qualities and comfortable to wear.
of wool combined with offering
comfort and performance.

83

Logo for new generation of Wool plus LYCRA® is a dynamic Logo for pure new wool with Light wool is super-lightweight
lightweight fabrics and knitwear. mix of new wool and LYCRA®. enhanced natural stretch. wool that is truly cross-seasonal.
Through a special selection of Its ultra-fine yarns make for the
fibers, this wool gives woven sheerest knitted and tailored
fabrics extra ease of movement, clothing.
comfort, and the elasticity to
recover from daily wear.

Wool and cotton logo. A special blend of yarns The Gold Woolmark denotes IWTO (International Wool Textile
providing all the performance an exciting new standard, Organization) is an International
benefits of natural fibers. differentiating luxurious organization covering all
garments made of the finest aspects of marketing wool for all
quality superfine Australian wool. major producers.

The Woolmark logo is a registered symbols have been quality tested

trademark of The Woolmark by The Woolmark Company for
Company that is owned by compliance with its performance
Australian Wool Innovation and and fiber content specifications
indicates high quality of woolen (Woolmark indicates 100 percent).
products. The Woolmark is an The Woolmark is one of the most
assurance by the manufacturer recognized symbols globally and
that a product is made of pure new represents the world’s largest fiber
wool. End products carrying these quality assurance scheme.

Wool market
 Ecological and ethical Ecological criteria
considerations The International Wool Textile Organization (IWTO) has categorized
eco-wool and organic wool for clarification at retail and
Wool is, or fundamentally should be, an ecologically sound consumer level. The three categories for classifying eco-wool
product, but the increase of production and desire for are: eco-wool; eco-wool products; and eco-wool containing
consistency of quality, together with the concern for maximum products. The three categories for classifying organic wool are:
return on investment, will mean that some aspects are not as organically grown wool; organic wool product; and organic
wool containing product.
ecologically or ethically sound as today’s informed and aware
consumer might wish. The guiding criteria for ecologically sound wool should consider
The designer or company manufacturing the designs the following points.
needs to have its target customers in mind when selecting the Correct grazing for the flocks Appropriate field rotation
source of its fabrics. This is not always straightforward, because minimizes soil erosion and reduces the chance of the sheep
the supply chain from sheep rearing to fabric manufacturing incurring internal parasites. Often sheep are crowded onto land,
84 has many stages that could have ecological and/or ethical resulting in overgrazing, and thus destroying the vegetation.
implications. How deeply these issues are considered is really When a field becomes barren the grower brings in dry feed that
can add additional veggie-matter to the fleece, which needs to
dependent on the brand’s ethos and the target customer’s be destroyed by means of harsh acids that can leave wool dry
expectations. and overcrimped.
A fabric manufacturer or spinner that uses yarns from
Clean water Unpolluted drinking sources.
ethical and ecologically sound sources will place emphasis on
these virtues, especially since the fabrics will tend to be more A predator friendly environment Using well-trained sheep dogs.
expensive. The eco-factor may be the USP (unique selling Healthy veterinary practices Using only certain types of
point) to justify the price differential. Similarly, sheep farmers medications and supplements.
that practice a more humane form of animal husbandry as Soil chemical control Not using herbicides and pesticides
well as sounder ecological grazing methods will also promote on fields that sheep graze on.
these aspects. Livestock chemical control Sheep are bathed in chemicals
to ward off pests and insects, which may leave a residue and
contaminate the ground water if used improperly. After shearing,
harsh toxic chemicals are often used to clean the wool, as
well as bleaching agents to whiten the wool during and after
scouring.
Carbon footprint The distance of travel from primary source
to final destination.

Hanging On, an exercise in

deconstructed Fair Isle knit socks
by Myka Baum, from the series
“A Load of Rubbish,” inspired by
San Franciscan performance artist
Michael Swaine.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Wool

Recycling wool Make do and mend
The recycling of wool has always been part of the industry’s
The “make do and mend” ethos popularized during the
production cycle. Old wool can be mixed with raw wool and
First and Second World Wars gradually became obsolete as
wool noil, or alternatively with other fibers such as cotton. clothing became cheaper. Now, the choice to make, fix, or
This is done to increase the average length of the recycled fiber, customize our clothing is an emotionally driven decision. The
because the tearing process involved in its recovery tends to act of repairing our most cherished clothing is a statement in
result in shorter fibers, making respinning and weaving difficult. itself, not only as an expression of frugality and a desire to be
less wasteful, but also because it speaks of our relationship
Recycled wool is often used as weft yarns on products with
with our clothes and the memories they hold.
cotton warps. Contemporary casual clothing brands have long
Fiber reclamation mills grade incoming materials into embraced the artfully “worn” aesthetic. Much research and
types and colors. The color sorting means that little, if any, development is invested in ripping, fading, degrading, and
redyeing will be necessary, thus saving on energy and pollutants. patching techniques, particularly in the jeans market. These
brands seek to replicate the wear and tear of workwear
The textiles are then shredded into shoddy, wool that is of
and its desirable visual appeal. These “worn” products are 85
inferior quality to the original wool product, made by tearing perceived as authentic and steeped in an honest history,
apart existing wool fabric and respinning it. Fibers are blended even though that history does not always reflect the life
with other selected fibers, depending on their intended end experiences of the wearer.
use. The blended mixture is carded to clean the fibers and mix
them together before being spun. Alternatively, the fibers can be
compressed for mattress production or shredded to make filling
material for car insulation, roofing felts, loudspeaker cones, or
other similar products.
A buyer or designer will need to check the fabric content
label to ascertain the full composition of the fabric. Although it is
a requirement that all fibers are disclosed, occasionally a content
label may state two or three percent marked as “other fibers.”
This is because it is not always possible to know the content of
merchandise that may have already been previously recycled.

Recycling has long been part of The wool shredder is an important The “Door to Door Darning” concept by San Franciscan performance
the industry’s production cycle. part of the recycling process. artist Michael Swaine. He started the mobile “free mending library” fixing
Fiber reclamation mills grade clothes, telling stories, and provoking the interrogation of our throwaway
incoming materials into types society.
and colors, thus saving energy on
unnecessary reprocessing before
shredding into shoddy.

Ecological and ethical considerations

86 Luxury animal fibers

Section 1: Animal fibers – Luxury animal fibers

The allure of these precious “golden fleeces” is The fibers that make up this luxury segment of the market
rooted in their exotic and romantic past. Their rarity are derived from several different groups of animals. The
is inextricably linked with a superlative level of enduring appeal of these noble fibers is that despite amazing
quality and luxury that no man-made substitute can developments in textile technology, their classic luxury status
ever match. remains unchallenged.
The creatures that produce these fibers have evolved
coats of supremely soft and warm material, uniquely adapted
to cope with inhospitable extremes of heat and cold. The coats
contain the finest of hairs and an all-important under-fleece that
is almost heavenly to the touch. Fabrics made from these fibers
possess an inbuilt elegance that expresses refinement and the
ultimate in luxury.

87

Musk ox
Qiviut

Angora rabbits

Angora goat—Mohair
Nigora and Pygora
crossbreed goats Camel (Bactrian/2 hump)
Cashmere goat
Yak (Tibet)

Angora goat—Mohair

Alpaca Cashmere goat

Llama Alpaca
Vicuña
Guanaco Principal spinning, weaving, and
knitting manufacturing countries

Principal markets for fabrics and

finished products

The animals that provide some of that have evolved in response to

our most valued and luxurious raw the climatic challenges presented
materials inhabit a diverse range of by different geographical locations,
climates. Each of the animals shown whether in natural or cultivated
(opposite page) Hand-knitted on this map have coats that possess habitats.
mohair. Referred to as “golden complex and unique properties
fleeces,” in acknowledgment of
their rarity and desirability, the
luxury animal fibers have whisper-
light properties that lend them
an ephemeral delicacy and
exceptional thermal properties.
Luxury animal fibers
 Camelids were a crucial and treasured component of ancient life, used as
beasts of burden and for their meat and wool. Now the alpaca is
the principal South American fiber-producing animal.
A number of luxury fibers are harvested from a group of animals
biologically known as the South American Camelidae family,
which consists of four types of llama. The history of alpaca
In the early 1800s Spain “rediscovered” the beauty of the
alpaca’s fleece, and imported the fiber, sending it to France and
Alpaca Germany for spinning.
Alpaca was first spun in England in the early nineteenth
century, but was considered to be unworkable. This was in part
Alpaca yarn is ideal for loose spinning to produce
due to the type of fabric being woven. By 1836, in Bradford, the
a hard-wearing and very light garment, with great
center of the English woolen textile trade, alpaca’s true potential
insulating properties.
was realized when it was woven using cotton warps.
The trade in alpaca remained at a domestic level until the
The alpaca (Vicugna pacos) is a South American mountain
early 1950s, when proactive marketing of the processed fiber began.
animal; however, prehistoric remains have also been found in
The United States and Canada first imported alpacas in
both the Rocky Mountains of North America and the Sierra
the early 1980s, followed by Australia and New Zealand later in
Madre mountains of Central America. Principally found in Peru
the decade. The more sophisticated animal husbandry practiced
88 and Ecuador, smaller numbers are also found in the northern
in these countries has proven successful as the alpacas are fast
parts of Bolivia and Chile.
multiplying, and through selective breeding are now producing
Superficially resembling a small llama, alpacas were
heavier fleeces and finer fibers.
domesticated by the Moche and Inca peoples of Peru, thousands
of years before the Spanish conquest of South America. They

(above) An evocative image

of alpaca fiber sorting in Peru.
Sorting fibers into colors and
qualities is a skilled operation
requiring a discerning eye
and dexterity of hand.

(left) Contrasting fleeces from

the suri and huacaya alpaca.
Sorting through the fleece is
skilled specialized work, which
is done by hand.
(above) Sam the suri alpaca,
courtesy of Marsha Hobert at
Suri Network.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Luxury animal fibers

Alpaca fiber Fashion demands have made white the commercially most
There are two types of alpaca. The huacaya (pronounced desirable color, and therefore the most expensive. This has led
wua’ki’ya) produce a dense, soft sheep-like fiber with a uniform to selective breeding, resulting in the darker colors being almost
crimp. They are the most common in both their natural South bred out of the species. There is now a revival in the demand
American habitat and in the countries that have since imported for the darker shades, which breeders are trying to reintroduce,
them. The suri (pronounced soo’ree) have silky, pencil-fine, however the quality is not quite as fine as that of white.
mop-like locks. Suris make up the remaining 20 percent of the
population and are prized for their finer, longer fibers. Both types Alpaca’s illusion
are highly valued and regarded to be just below that of vicuña Alpaca is an enigmatic fiber, prized for its fine, soft, and silky-like
(see page 91) in quality. An alpaca–llama crossbreed, huarizo, is characteristics. The impression of fineness in alpaca is generated
also valued for its fine fleece. by the low scale height of the cuticle cells, which allows the
Fiber from the huacayas is marketed as alpaca fleece, hand to slide easily over the surface of the fiber.
while the fiber from suris is marketed as alpaca suri. The second part of alpaca’s illusion is the apparent
In textile terms “alpaca” refers primarily to Peruvian alpaca, softness of the fiber. Technically it is not soft; in fact the
which is marketed with a dedicated symbol of authenticity. resistance to abrasion of the cuticle cells is more than twice
However, the term is also used, more broadly, to describe a genre that of wool, a very hard surface. The “softness” stems from its
of fabric. Sometimes Icelandic wool is referred to as alpaca because springiness and resistance to compression: resisting forming into
of its similar visual appearance. Alpaca fleece does have some a solid mass under compression gives the impression of lightness
89
similarities to sheep’s wool but it appears much lighter in weight, of weight. In wool production this is achieved only by scouring.
silkier to the touch, warmer, and less prickly. It has minimal lanolin, The enigma of alpaca lies in that it appears fine but is
making it nearly hypoallergenic. It is also impermeable, thermally not, appears soft but is actually hard and strong. It has excellent
responsive, and has a low flammability point. thermal properties with apparent lightness of weight; it is
durable and silky in texture.
Alpaca production
Alpaca farming is of low impact to the environment and
therefore an interesting alternative for some sheep farmers. The
animals are sheared annually, producing a fleece grossing about
15 pounds (7 kg); after removal of the guard hairs the net weight
is about 6 1/2 pounds (3 kg). In their native Andean habitat
alpacas are generally sheared once every two years.
Alpaca fibers are processed in a similar way to sheep wool
fibers (see pages 69–70).

Color range
Alpacas naturally range in color from jet black through warm
browns, fawns, and cool grays to creamy whites at the lightest
end of the spectrum. The large range of colors and shades is
a special characteristic of the breed and hence color sorting
is highly skilled work carried out by hand and eye: the most
important part of the business. Depending on country of
classification, fleeces can range from between 12 to 52 natural
colors and shades: Peru classifies 52; the United States 22; and
Australia 12.

(right) Oversized chunky alpaca

and leather crochet coat worn with
gunmetal metallic high-waisted
knitted trousers by Julia Neil.

(far right) Heirloom inspired alpaca,

leather, and crystal sweater
dress worn with violet cashmere
vest and leggings by Julia Neill.
Victorian chandelier crystals are
integrated into the knit in crocheted
frameworks.

Camelids
 Llama Technically llama fiber is not wool because it is hollow
and has a structure of diagonal “walls”; however, it is referred
to as llama wool. The fiber is strong and light and has good
The llama (Lama glama) is the largest of the South American
insulation properties. It is thicker and coarser than alpaca fiber,
Camelidae family, believed to have originated in the mountains
with a diameter ranging from 20 to 40 microns. If the micron
of North America 40 million years ago and to have migrated
count is under 28 it may also be described as alpaca. By way
south around three million years ago. They became essential pack
of comparison, merino wool is between 12 and 20 microns.
animals as well as a source of protein for the indigenous Indian
peoples of the Andes. The Spanish conquistadors used thousands
Llama production
of llamas as a means of transporting the spoils of warfare.
Llamas are low-maintenance animals with little impact on the
At present there is only a very small commercial market
environment.
for llama fiber, and it tends to be favored by hand spinners for
They are efficient and adaptable frugal foragers and adjust
organic and craft clothing.
well to free-choice feeding or once-a-day feeding schedules
based on owner convenience. Llamas are shorn either once a
Llama fiber
year or once every two years. Their fleece comes in four main
The four types of llama are the curaca and ccara, or classic “light
colors, ranging from white through gray, brown, and black,
wool” llamas, and the tapada and lanuda, or “heavy wool”
and is grease free.
llamas. Nearly 70 percent of the world’s llamas live in Bolivia,
90 with a smaller number in Peru. However, because the first
llamas imported into Europe were from Peru, it is the Peruvian
terminology that is in common use today. Of the Bolivian llamas
nearly 80 percent are of the heavy, woolly-coated type, which
have fleeces suitable for making yarn.

A llama in its indigenous Andean

habitat, dressed in locally
handcrafted adornments.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Luxury animal fibers

Vicuña More recently, vicuñas have been crossbred with alpacas,
resulting in offspring called paco vicuña. Introducing vicuña
into alpaca genetics has created a fiber that is as fine as that of
Inca legend states that the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) is an
the alpaca (14 to 16 microns) but with a fleece longer than that
incarnation of a beautiful maiden courted by an ugly old king.
of the vicuña, making it easier to shear. It can also be shorn
She would only concede to his advances if given a coat of pure
annually rather than only once every three years. All the other
gold. The vicuña’s fleece is still referred to as the “golden fleece,”
characteristics of the fiber are the same as that of the vicuña,
an accolade that is reflected in the stratospheric prices paid for
making it just as desirable.
the fabric.
The vicuña was the first of the Camelidae family to be
Vicuña fiber
domesticated by ancient Andean tribes of Peru. The Incas raised
Vicuñas have the finest of all animal fibers, with a diameter of
the vicuña for their wool and protected them by law, under
between 6 and 14 microns. The outer guard hairs are about
penalty of death. The esteem in which these animals were held
25 microns, and are easily removed with sticks from the shorn
ensured their mystique, and only Inca kings and the royal court
fleece. The wool is very sensitive to chemical treatments, so it is
were permitted to wear garments made from vicuña wool.
always left in its natural color, which is a rich, golden honey.
Vicuña fibers are extremely warm, due to the structure of
Endangered and reinvigorated
tiny scales that surround the hollow, air-filled fibers, which lock
The huge commercial demand for vicuña fiber and unrestricted
together and trap insulating air.
hunting in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries resulted in 91
The fleece yield of a vicuña is about 1 pound (500 g) per
the species becoming almost extinct. In 1960 there were only
year, in comparison to the 15 pounds (7 kg) of the alpaca.
an estimated 6,000 vicuña left in the wild; it was declared an
endangered species in the mid 1970s, and trade of the vicuña
Vicuña production
fiber was prohibited.
A vicuña fleece weighs about 7 ounces (220 g); it can take one
Anti-poaching efforts in Peru, Argentina, and Chile, and
person a week to de-hair. After washing, the remaining fiber will
to a lesser extent in Bolivia, led to a dramatic comeback, and
be about 3 1/2 ounces (100 g).
now there are an estimated 130,000 in the wilds of Peru, 30,000
in Argentina, and possibly 30,000 between Chile and Bolivia.
Vicuña market
All four countries relaxed the laws in 1993, and commercial
Peru is the principal exporter of vicuña, and garments and fabrics
harvesting is now being practiced. Vicuña is now a “cash crop”
are registered with the Peruvian government authority, the only
that can benefit some very poor communities.
international body recognized for the task; it also assures quality
Peru has taken the lead in vicuña conservation. It has
and purity of fiber.
introduced a labeling system that shows that a garment has
Current prices for vicuña fabric are from $1,800 to $3,000
been created through a government-sanctioned chacu, an Incan
per meter. Yarn is priced at around $500 per kilogram, and is the
tradition that guarantees that the animals are captured, sheared,
most valuable natural fiber. Italy is the primary global importer
and released back into the wild; furthermore they will not be
of vicuña cloth, while Germany is the primary global importer of
sheared again for another two years. The program ensures that a
vicuña clothing.
large percentage of the profit goes back into village communities
and to fund further research into the animals’ protection.
Poaching, however, still persists, and 55,000 pounds
(25,000 kg) of fiber is still annually exported illegally. The animal
Guanaco
is difficult to shear, so it is likely that they are killed for their
A larger cousin of the vicuña, the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) is
fleece. To help prevent this illegal export, some countries have
found in the high plains of the Andes from the north of Peru to
introduced a blanket ban on all vicuña fibers and fabrics.
the south of Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. It is fast, wild, and of
a rich cinnamon honey color. At the time of the Spanish invasion
Paco vicuña
they numbered approximately half a billion, today they number
The vicuña is the smallest of the wild South American camelids,
a few hundred thousand.
and lives in the plains, grasslands, and mountain regions of
The guanaco is double coated with coarse guard hairs and
the Andes. DNA tests show that alpacas have vicuña ancestry,
a soft undercoat similar to the alpaca, and is second only to the
possibly due to selective breeding 6,000 years ago. Today 80
vicuña in quality. The guanaco is a protected species that needs
percent of vicuña have llama DNA.
a permit for hunting, to ensure that the fiber has been obtained
from an approved source.

Camelids
 Camel hair Camel-hair fiber
Camel hair has thermostatic properties that keep The fibers of the camel’s down undercoat are between 3/4 and 4
the wearer warm in winter and cool in summer, and inches (2 and 10 cm) in length, and do not felt easily. The outer
is believed to contain anti-rheumatic and anti- coat has coarse long hairs that are used for carpets and bedding.
arthritic properties. Among the indigenous peoples of the area, the guard hairs
are used to weave waterproof fabric for clothing, to withstand
Bactrian and dromedary are two species of camel, both Afro- extreme weather conditions.
Asiatic relatives of the South American family of camelids. The mane of the camel is used for interlinings for good-
The dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) is the one-humped quality tailoring. For clothing only the softer undercoat is used,
desert-dwelling Arabian camel, which was the first of the two either as pure camel hair or blended with lambswool. If it has
to be domesticated. The bactrian (Camelus bactrianus) has two been tri-blended with wool and a synthetic, then the camel hair
humps and was first domesticated some 2,500 years ago in what is likely to be of an inferior quality, or possibly even recycled.
are today the regions of northern Iran, Afghanistan, northern The very best camel hair comes from the underside of
Pakistan, and Turkistan, where temperatures are at hot and cold a Mongolian baby camel. The fibers are approximately 1 to
extremes between summer and winter. Apart from some wild 2 1/2 inches (2.5 to 6 cm) long and 16 to 21 microns in diameter.
bactrian camels in the Gobi Desert, and feral dromedary camels At this standard it is almost comparable to cashmere (see
92 in Australia, camels are now completely domesticated. page 94), and is the result of years of selective breeding. By
Camel hair for commercial consumption is obtained comparison, adult camel hair has a diameter of approximately
only from the bactrian camel. The bactrian camels with the 21 to 25 microns.
best-quality hair live in the extreme climatic conditions of Inner Camel hair is traditionally used in its natural color, golden
Mongolia (northern China) and Outer Mongolia. Camel hair tan with varying tones of red. Contemporary developments
also comes from Afghanistan, Iran, Russia, and Tibet. Camels in dyeing technology allow it to respond to dye equally as
are not native to New Zealand or Australia but have been successfully as wool; however, if dyed, it is often preferred in a
introduced to supplement their domestic fiber selection. range of faux natural colors, from blond to brown.

Fine fiber from the Asiatic bactrian

camel, processed, cleaned, and
ready for spinning. As a fiber with
a traditional appeal, camel hair is
prized for its natural color of golden
tan with varying red highlights.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Luxury animal fibers

Camel-hair production
The production of camel hair is a five-step process of collecting,
sorting, de-hairing, spinning, and finally weaving or knitting.
Camel hair can be collected by combing or shearing, or
gathered by hand when it sheds during the molting season,
which lasts for about six to eight weeks during late spring. The
camel sheds its un-needed winter coat in clumps of outer hair
and inner down, which grows back in the fall.
The hair is sorted by separating the coarse hairs from the
fine, soft hairs, then washed to remove all dirt and debris. The
de-hairing stage is a mechanical process that removes the balance
of the coarse hairs, dandruff, and any vegetable matter, before
sending the raw fiber to be spun, prior to weaving or knitting.

Camel-hair market
93
Italy is the principal destination for camel-hair fiber; the superfine
baby camel-hair fiber goes to Biella, northwest of Milan, a center
for spinning and weaving fine woolen and worsted fabrics.
The remainder goes to Prato near Florence, which is another
important center for Italian fabrics. The principal final destination
of camel-hair clothing is the United States: no other global
market has developed the same appreciation for camel-hair
clothes, especially within the menswear sector.

(above) Baby camel-hair jacket by

Timothy Everest.

(left) The distinctive red-cast

golden tones of camel hair
convey enduring associations
with classic luxury outerwear. The
natural color palette of camel
hair can span pale, sandy blonds
and tans through to quite vibrant
or deep ginger tones. The fiber
itself responds well to modern dye
technology but it is usually dyed
in a range of faux natural colors
to enhance or deepen the natural
warm golden tones that make
camel hair so desirable.

Camel hair
 Goat fiber Cashmere
Goats are from the Caprinae subfamily of the Bovidae family Cashmere goats originated high up in the plateau regions of the
of animals, and are relatives of sheep. The domesticated goat Himalayan mountains. The local Kashmiri population would
is a subspecies of the wild goats of southwest Asia and eastern spin the fiber from the goat’s downy undercoat, weave it into
Europe, and is among the oldest domesticated species, dating fine fabric and make it into shawls known as pashmina—a term
back over 10,000 years. derived from the Persian word pasham, meaning “goat wool.”
Most goats have the capability to yield fiber; however, The pashmina shawls were highly valued by the colonial British
the most important fiber-producing goats are the cashmere and who ruled Kashmir during the eighteenth and nineteenth
angora goats. Additionally, within the last few decades three centuries, and were exported all over Europe. The fabric from
hybrid goats have been developed that also produce commercial which they were made was referred to as cashmere, named after
quantities of fine fiber. the province of Kashmir from where they originated.
In India and Pakistan the fiber is still referred to as
pasham, while the rest of the world knows it as cashmere, a
name synonymous with luxury. Unfortunately, by association
with inferior man-made copies, pashmina now commonly
refers to a style of shawl, as opposed to the rare fiber itself.
94 A genuine pashmina shawl is still hand-spun and made of
pashmina wool—cashmere.

Cashmere fiber
Cashmere is not a breed of goat, but a description of a goat
that has been carefully bred to produce a fine downy undercoat,
the cashmere fiber. Many different breeds can produce cashmere
to some degree; however, it is the Himalayan mountain
goat (Capra hircus laniger) that is popularly known as the
cashmere goat.
For goat fiber to be considered natural cashmere it must
be under 18.5 microns in diameter. No more than three percent
of the down may be over 30 microns. The ratio of fine down
to coarse guard hair needs to be above 30 percent. The fiber
should measure at least 1 1/4 inches (3 cm) long, be low in
luster and have a good crimp. Cashmere from Outer Mongolia
and the Inner Mongolian parts of China is of the best quality.
Much of this is due to the extreme climate of this sub-Siberian
land, which seems to encourage the goats to grow a finer,
denser under-hair.
Through years of selective breeding, Chinese goats now
yield the most amount of fiber, producing over 2 pounds (1 kg)
of raw fiber per goat, of which the under-fleece (the cashmere)
is about 1 pound (500 g). The 50:50 ratio of cashmere down to
guard hairs represents an excellent yield; in some countries the
goats yield approximately 1 pound (500 g) of raw fiber of which
only 5 ounces (150 g) is the all-important under-down. This
30 percent ratio of guard hair to under-down is the minimum
allowed for classification as cashmere.

The proud and elegant cashmere

goat shows off its fine and valuable
coat. In Mongolia and parts of
China the age-old method of hand
combing the fleece is preferred to
shearing, which is a faster process
but results in a coarser hair content
and a lower pure-down yield.

Section 1: Animal fibers – Lux