BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN THE

CLASSROOM: A MODEL FOR TEACHERS

TO ASSIST LEARNERS WITH UNMET
EMOTIONAL NEEDS
by
FRANSCINA HESTER WEEKS

submitted in accordance with the requirements

for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

in the subject
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

Promoter: Dr E Prinsloo
November 2000

SUMMARY
Tbis study has as primary objective the development of an appropriate model to assist

teachers, in South Africa, to be able to understand and assist learners with behaviour
problems. The need for the study has its genesis within the current difficulties teachers
experience in dealing with behaviour problems in the classroom and the fact that increasing
numbers of children are involved. A key facet of the research is its accent on the unmet
emotional needs of learners that function as a behavioural determinant. The study is
analytical descriptive in nature and as such is based on two fundamental dimensions: - to
acquire a sound theoretical understanding of the concepts, causative 'factors and underlying
behaviour problems and the most appropriate means to deal therewith and substantiating
the insights acquired by means of interviews with teachers, school principals, and other
significant role players. An earnest attempt was made to analyse behaviour problems in
terms of the various theoretical frameworks presented within contemporary literature. The
ecological systems model was found to be the most appropriate for the development of the
. referenced model. This stands in sharp contrast to the traditional medical model which in
many instances still forms the basis of current theory and practice.

Learners with emotional problems experience behaviour problems which serve as barriers
to effective learning. Little attention however, has been attributed to putting appropriate
systems in place to assist these learners. A key consideration embodied within the new
Education Policy (NCS DOCUMENT 1997:10) is the issue of meeting the needs of all
learners so that they are able to actualise their potential -

this includes their emotional

needs. The findings of this study need to be seen within the light of meeting this objective.

In order to address the unmet emotional needs of learner, teachers must attend to the
cognitive mind maps which embody internalized feelings and cognition. A model for
understanding the cognitive maps has been developed as part of this study and serves as
introduction to the model developed to assist learners with behaviour problem~.

The study provides a new perspective di'rected at understanding instead of managing

behaviour problems.

"'

Key terms
behaviour problems; behaviour disorders; conduct disorders; maladjusted behaviour; emotional
needs; needs of children; unmet emotional needs of children; affective education; psychological
needs; the need for new experiences; the need for responsibility; the need for praise and
recognition; the need for love and security; self-concept; self-image; self-confidence; feelings
about the self; cognitive map; cognitive development; internalisations; internalisation model;
internalised messages; emotional milestones; emotional developmental milestones.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.1

INTRODUCTION

............................................. .

1.2

CONCEPT CLARIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1

Behaviour problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.2

Emotional problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.3

Needs of learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.4

Learners with Special Educational Needs (LSEN)

1.2.5

Learners-at-risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.2.6

Inclusive learning environment .............................. 21

1.2. 7

Emotional neglect or deprivation or emotional ill-treatment ......... 25

1.2.8

Emotional abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.2.9

Psychological abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.10 Whole school development approach ......................... 27

1.2.11 Community-based model
1.2.12 Collaboration

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.2.13 The ecological model

i .3 1
r

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

FACTORS GIVING RISE TO THE STUDY

........................... 36

1.4'.
...,._

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

.................................. 41

1.5

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY

................ 42

1.5.1

General outcomes of the study .............................. 42

1.5.2

Specific outcomes of the study

43

1.6

THE FIELD OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1.7

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1.8

PROGRAMME OF STUDY ...................... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1.9

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

-11-

Page

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT:

OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS
2.1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.2

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIOUR

2.2.1

.. 51

The biophysical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

[Link] Biological defect model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
[Link] Developmental theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
[Link] A critical appraisal of the biological defect theory .......... 58

2.2.2

The behaviourist model or learning theory

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

[Link] A critical appraisal of the contributions of the behaviourism

model .......................................... 65
2.2.3

The psychodynamic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

[Link] A critical appraisal of the psychodynamic model .......... 74

2.2.4

The sociological model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

[Link] A critical appraisal of the sociological model

2.2.5

............. 82

The ecological model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

[Link] A critical appraisal of the ecological systems model

2.2.6
2.3

THE NORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS

2.3.1

2.4

The countertheory model (the phenomenological model)

........ 90

.......... 92

...................... 94

General characteristics of the development of learners ............ 96

2.3.2

The early childhood years (0-6 years)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

2.3.3

The primary school years (6-12 years) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

2.3.4

The secondary school years (12-18 years)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

CHAPTER THREE: BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL CONTEXT

3.1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1_59

3.2

PROFILE OF THE LEARNER EXHIBITING BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN THE

CLASSROOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3

161

MANIFESTATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

SCHOOLS

................................................

166

-iiiPage
3.3.1

Manifestation of behaviour problems in primary and secondary schools

....................................................

3.4

167

SPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS EXHIBITED BY PRIMARY AND

SECONDARY SCHOOL LEARNERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.4.1

Disruptive behaviour

3.4.2

Excessive shyness, reservedness and loneliness

3.4.3

Telling lies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177

3.4.4

Stealing ..............................................

180

3.4.5

Depression v.-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

3.4.6

Aggressive behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

3.4.7

Juvenile delinquency

3.4.8

The use of addictive substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

3.4.9

Anti-social behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

3.4.10 Lack of motivation

3.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

CAUSATIVE FACTORS OF BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS OF PRIMARY AND

SECONDARY LEARNERS PERSPECTIVE

AN INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

3.5.1 Intrinsic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

[Link] Genetic deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
[Link] Brain damage and brain dysfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
[Link] Differences in temperament and personality ............. 207
[Link] Physical characteristics

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

[Link] Health and the satisfying of basic needs ................ 213

3.5.2

Extrinsic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

[Link] The family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
[Link]

Peers and friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

[Link] The environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

[Link] The school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.6

A QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN

SELECTED SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.6.1 Qualitative investigation of behaviour problems .................. 238
3.6.2 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
[Link] The selection and size of the school sample

............. 242

[Link] Selection and number of participants/interviewees ......... 243

3.6.3

Data collection strategies

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

-ivPage
244

[Link] lntervie\.Vs
[Link] lntervie\.Vs "W'ith teachers attending In-Service Training
Workshops (INSET) and focus groups "W'ith students
completing a certificate course in dealing "W'ith problem
behaviour of children
[Link] Researcher role
3.6.4

........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

Analysis of data and presentation of findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

[Link] Findings grouped in terms of questions posed to respondents

249

[Link] Identification and incidence of behaviour problems ........ 263

3. 6. 5

Conclusions of and recommendations derived from qualitative investigation

272

3.6.6
3. 7

276

Possible limitations of the qualitative study

CONCLUSION

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

CHAPTER FOUR: UNDERSTANDING AND ASSISTING LEARNERS WITH BEHAVIOUR

PROBLEMS IN THE CLASSROOM: AN EMOTIONAL NEEDS PERSPECTIVE
4.1

INTRODUCTION ............................................. 281

4.2

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A STRATEGY

TO

UNDERSTAND

AND

ASSIST

LEARNERS

WITH

BEHAVIOUR

PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3

284

THEORETICAL APPROACHES RELEVANT TO UNDERSTANDING AND

ASSISTING LEARNERS WITH BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS MORE EFFECTIVELY
300
4.3.1

The affective (feeling) component ........................... 303

[Link] Person-centred theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

4.3.2

[Link] Gestalt theory

................................... 312

Behaviour counselling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

[Link] Behaviouristic model .............................. 314

[Link] Reality therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
[Link] Individual psychology theory ........................ 31 ~
4.3.3

Cognitive approaches .. -' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

[Link] Rational emotive behaviour theory .................... 322
[Link] Cognitive behaviour theory

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

[Link]. Transactional analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

-vPage

328

[Link] The psycho-analytical approach

4.4

SATISFYING EMOTIONAL NEEDS OF LEARNERS

4.4.1

The need for love and security

.................... 337

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

[Link] The need for love and affection

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

[Link] The need for security (including the need for economic
security) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
[Link] The need for belonging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
4.4.2

The need for new experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

[Link] The need to be free from intense feelings of guilt
[Link] The need to be free from feelings of fear

4.4.3

The need for praise and recognition

......... 351

............... 351

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

4.4.3, 1 The need for praise and recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

[Link] The need for a positive self-concept and an understanding
of the learners' "life-world" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
[Link] The need for self-actualisation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

[Link] The need for sharing and self-respect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

4.4.4
4.5

The need for responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS AND BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN THE CLASSROOM

361
4.6

MODELS IMPLEMENTED IN THE CLASSROOM TO UNDERSTAND AND

ASSIST LEARNERS WITH BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS ................... 374

4.7

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

389

CHAPTER FIVE: GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS TO UNDERSTAND AND ASSIST LEARNERS

WITH BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS
5.1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

391

5.2

THE BEHAVIOUR OUTCOMES OF UNMET EMOTIONAL NEEDS ........ 400

5.3

AN EVALUATION OF EXISTING MODELS DEALING WITH BEHAVIOUR

PROBLEMS IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN SITUATION ................... 411

-Vl-

Page
5.4

GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS TO BE IMPLEMENTED IN THE CLASSROOM

IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND AND ASSIST THE LEARNERS WITH
BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

5.5

A MODEL FOR TEACHERS TO UNDERSTAND AND ASSIST LEARNERS

WITH BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS MORE EFFECTIVELY

................. 446

5.5.1

Aims of the model

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

5.4.2

Components of the understanding and assistance process

......... 452

[Link] Identification of the learner with behaviour problems ...... 453

[Link] The analysis phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
[Link] Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
[Link] The "Alter settings" phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
[Link] "Alter triggers" phase .............................. 471
[Link] The "alter actions" phase ........................... 474
[Link] The "alter results" phase ............................ 477
[Link] The "alter relationships" phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
5.5

POSSIBLE THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES TO BE.1 IMPLEMENTED BY

TEACHERS IN THE CLASSROOM ................................. 484

5.6

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

6.2

A SUMMARIZED OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION

6.3

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.4

497

........................................ 499

6.3.1

Further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

6.3.2

Practical application of the model by teachers in the classroom ..... 502

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND READING LIST

503

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

OTHER DOCUMENTS AND INTERVIEWS

..............................

371.93WEEK

523

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to the following persons:

Dr. E. Prinsloo for her unending patience, constant encouragement and professional
guidance and most of all for her faith in me - especially at times when it seemed an
endless task to complete the study. Thank you Erna, your enthusiasm inspired me and
in the true sense of the word, you satisfied my emotional needs so that I could
actualise my potential to the fullest.

My husband, Richard, who spent many hours proof reading text. Richard, without you
this study would not have been completed.

Dr. R. Potgieter for inspiring me via her research, insights and work with emotionally
abused and neglected children, and their parents. It was very reassuring to be able to
confirm that I was still on track by drawing on your extensive experience.

My two daughters, llza and Karen for allowing me the time to complete my studies
and to follow a career path. Your encouragement and understanding is appreciated

Prof. E. Lemmer, for the editing of the text, advice, inspiration and support. Thank you
Eleanor - I am very indebted to you and you will always remain a role model that I
can look up to.

Mrs. M. van Zijl, for correcting and editing the technical detail-thank you, Marieette,
I appreciate your kind assistance.

My mother, ms A.E. Streeter - thank you for your support and encouragement.

The subject librarians and the inter library staff members of the UNISA library. My
gratitude to you for all the assistance received in acquiring books and extracts from
periodicals, as well as the compilation of literature lists.

Last but not least, I want to honour the Creator of all Human Beings and especially of
children - children who were emotionally scarred by the wrongdoings of significant
other role players in their life-worlds, for an opportunity to make a difference to their
lives.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Systemic change is needed to enhance regional and
community capacity to the point where those
involved can meet all of the needs of troubling
youth. True collaboration and, with it, a
reorientation of our commitment to all children,
represent our best hope for an improved future for
these too-long neglected children and youth.
lllback (1996:24,30)

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Meeting the needs of a// learners and the actualising of the full potential of a// learners with
and without disabilities, are key components of the vision of the proposed new Education
Policy (NCSNET Document 1997:10). If these objectives could be realised, barriers of
learning would essentially be removed.

It is a universal fact that internationally the predominant objective of any education system,
in a democratic society, is one of providing quality education for all learners, in order to
enable them to realise their full potential and thereby meaningfully contribute to and
participate in society. The recognition that education is a fundamental right and
consequently needs to be freely available to all learners, underpins the notion that the
education system must provide for and sustain such learning for all learners (Constitution,

"{_

Act 108 of 1996, sec. 29: 1). This will, inter alia, include factors such as: the development
of educators so that they can meet the needs of all learners; that physical, psychological,
social and learning problems are prevented at all cost and that a supportive learning

'I

environment for all learners is created (NCSNET 1997 August & November:7, 11 ). It is
frequently contended that learners who experience behaviour problems suffer from unmet
emotional needs.

In terms of the proposed new Education Policy, teachers are supposed to be responsible for
a learner on a first phase level. More than was the case in the past, the teacher has to take
the initiative and be creative and knowledgeable as regards how to understand and assist the
learner in the process of removing barriers of learning, so that the learner's needs are
'}

fulfilled and he or she can actualise his or her full potential. Apart from practical problems
like larger classes, more responsibilities and curriculum reform, for example the Outcomes-

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

based Education Programme, which the teacher needs to master and implement, teachers

now have to cope in the mainstream classroom with the reality of inclusive education.

In the past learners with mild to serious behaviour problems were accommodated in schools
of industry, reform schools and places of safety, which were part of the Specialised
Education provided for learners. According to the new Education Policy (NCSN ET Document
1998:25), the separation of education into ordinary and specialised contexts, led to the
social isolation of learners from their peers, families and other members of the community.
The family's cohesion, the learner's sense of belonging in his or her community and a
diminished parent involvement in the education of their children (because of the long
distances that parents had to travel when they wanted to visit their children at these
specialised schools, e.g. schools of industry), impacted negatively on the learning context
of learners. Further criticisms of segregated specialised learning contexts relate to (NCSNET
Document 1998:25):
...

the negative effects of large institutions in contrast to smaller, localised units of

learning;

...

restricted career choices as a result of the scaling down of the general

curriculum;

...

an overemphasis on a medical-deficit approach in the support provided;

...

overspending on specialist intervention;

...

a lack of facilities in disadvantaged and rural areas; and

...

only a small percentage of learners with special needs were provided for by
these centres or schools to the detriment of thousands of other learners that
were totally excluded from these services, although also being in need of these
services.

It is argued that all learners have a right to be accommodated within one education system.
Equal opportunities 1 and education for all are important principles embodied within this
right. Learners in schools of indu,ry, reform schools and places of safety must thus be, in
terms of the new Education Policy, provided with a supportive and effective learning and
teaching environment.

The use of "bold" and/or "italics" in the thesis is utilised by the researcher to highlight very
important issues.

"'\,

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In the classroom many teachers appear to be experiencing substantial difficulty in coping

with learners with special needs. In many instances they do not know how to s[multaneously / '
understand and assist the learners' diversity of neeJs. They often experience themselves as
being disempowered, and lacking the necessary skills, expertise and knowledge to
understand and assist learners exhibiting behaviour problems (see Chapter 3, sec. 3.6 in this
regard).

lllback and Nelson (1996:24,30) refers to concepts like collaboration, involvement,

reorientation, commitment, regional and community capacity, in order to provide a

solution forthe problem of fulfilling the needs of learners and actualising their full potential.
These concepts can be categorised as falling within the frame of reference of the ecological
systems model. In this study the possibility of developing a model that will enable teachers
to more effectively assist and understand learners with unmet emotional needs resulting in

behaviour problems, is researched. This study focusses on understanding and assisting

learners with unmet emotional needs, resulting in behaviour problems, in contrast to

managing behaviour problems (e.g. "Managing behaviour in the Primary School" by

J.

Docking or" Managing difficu Itch i ldren" by L. Stone) as most researchers choose to research
to the effect that more and more learners are reported to exhibit behaviour problems. It is,
however, not the learner or the classroom that needs to be managed, but the environment 'L
in the sense that the teacher manages the involvement of all the significant other role players
in order to satisfy the unmet emotional needs of the learner so that the occurrence of
behaviour problems can be prevented or that existing behaviour problems can be attended
to. Concepts such as unmet emotional needs, emotional milestones or crises, temperament
types, collaboration, a community based model, "taking ownership", community
involvement, a whole school approach, and open systems, are researched for purposes of
incorporation within the model.

If an "improved future", as envisioned by lllback and Nelson (1996:24,30) in the

introductory quotation, is hoped for, teachers will need guidelines for assisting and
understanding learners with behaviour problems more effectively. This study proposes to
provide teachers with Behaviour problems in the classroom: a model for teachers to assist
learners with unmet emotional needs.

1.2

CONCEPT CLARIFICATION

The following concepts, frequently referred to in this study, are clarified and defined:

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.2.1

Behaviour problems

Ashman and Elkins (1994:294) and Wicks-Nelson and Israel (1984:6) regard the
identification of psychological or behaviour disorders as being complex in nature, as an array
of various different considerations can influence the identification thereof. Ashman and
Elkins (1994:294), in particular, maintain that learners with behaviour problems are the
most difficult group of learners, within the field of Special Educational Needs, to describe.
Haring (1978:125) and Gearheart, Weishahn and Gearheart (1988:306) argue that there is
no generally accepted definition of the concepts behaviourally disordered or emotionally

disturbed. People who have worked with disturbed learners have tended to create their own
working definitions of the concepts. Notably, Zionts (1985:9) contends that the teacher
dealing with learners with behaviour problems, has little difficulty in identifying these
learners - what teachers need is not a clear-cut definition, but guidelines on how to
understand and assist these learners. Teachers can observe in the classroom various degrees
of normal behaviour. This enables them to note when a learner's behaviour exceeds the
limits of normal behaviour.

According to Kerr and Nelson (1989:5), the concept behaviour disorders is preferred by the
Council for Children with Behaviour Disorders (CCBD), on the grounds of its greater
relevance within the context of education. Moreover, that it is less stigmatizing and more
representative of learners in society exhibiting behaviour problems, or as they phrase it, "are
handicapped by their behaviour". Concepts frequently used to label learners 'with behaviour
problems and that are regarded by the CCBD, as being very similar to that of "behaviour
disorders" are: behaviourally handicapped, behaviourally impaired, emotionally disturbed
and emotionally handicapped.

Apter and Conoley (1984:14), Ashman and Elkins (1994:294,295), Haring (1978:125, 126)
and Zionts (1985: 11, 12) present the fol lowing reasons forthe lack of conceptual clarity with
regard to behaviour problems:

No psychological tests are available that can measure personality, anxiety or

adjustment precisely enough to be used in determining behaviour disorders. Tests
that have been used in the past, namely projective tests, personality inventories,
behaviour rating scales, and screening tests, were not deemed valid and they
consequently could only be used to identify learners who might be experiencing

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

behaviour problems. Identifying learners with behaviour problems is therefore left

to the "experts" and their "clinical" judgements.

The conditions under which these tests are administered are not controlled and this
can consequently impact on the test performance.

The behaviour of a learner may well differ quite substantially during tests and
towards the psychologist, from how he or she wou Id normally behave towards
significant others in his or her life-world.

Unlike other aspects of special educational needs, for example the blind, no
generally accepted definition exists.

Different terminology is used in referring to the same concepts within different

countries (eg. in Australia, the concept behaviour of serious concern, disruptive,
disturbed), thereby

further adding to the confusion that presently exists. It is

therefore difficult to reach a consensus, as regards the definitions attributed to the

concepts concerned.

Many overseas and especially Australian definitions tend to concentrate on the

identification of negative behaviour, as exhibited by the learner, but they do not
provide any guidelines on how to remediate the behaviour problems concerned.
Consequently definitions like these frequently lead to classifications and
identification, which provide a reason for regarding the learner as a deviant, rather
than the behaviours being seen as disordered.

There is a lack of distinction between learners with mild behaviour problems and
those who experi,ence serious behaviour problems.

From the 1970s to the 1980s definitions of disruptive behaviour have changed.
Initially during the 1970s learners were regarded as being disruptive and during the
1980s disruptive incidents were regarded as the joint responsibility of schools and
learners.

Different opinions could be held by different persons, as to whether the learner

exhibits behaviour problems or not, for example a specific learner can be diagnosed
by a psychiatrist as being mentally ill, by a psychologist as emotionally disturbed
and by a special educator as behaviourally disordered.

Haring (1978:126) constructs a profile of the mentally healthy child:

he or she has a positive self-concept, has good interpersonal or social skills,

is capable of perceiving reality realistically, sets realistic goals for
him/herself, actions and thoughts are organised appropriately, achieves

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

scholastically what is realistic in terms of his/her potential, acts according to

chronological

age

related

norms and

is capable

of functioning

independently.

The profile of the learner with behaviour problems is thus construed to be the opposite of
the above profile of a so called "mentally healthy learner".

Disordered behaviour or problem behaviour can be viewed as "abnormal". According to

Webster's new collegiate dictionary (1973) (Wicks-Nelson & Israel 1984:2), ab means
"away", while normal indicates the "average", "the standard" and "regular". The concept
abnormal thus indicates away from the normal or average and according to common usage

it assumes that the direction of deviation is usually negative or pathological. Judgment is the
factor according to which behaviour is going to be determined as being disordered,
abnormal or problematic. Reinert (Apter & Conoley 1984:22) regards deviant behaviour,
namely acting out, stealing, and lying, as behaviour that can be attributed to so called
"normal" learners and consequently should

therefore not be associated purely with

behaviour problems or, as he phrases it, "troubled learners". Laslett (1977:29) talks about
maladjusted learners. He describes them as learners who "show evidence of emotional

instability or psychological disturbance and who require special educational treatment in

order to affect their personal, social and educational readjustment".

From experience teachers know that some of these so called "maladjusted learners" are
actually quite "normal" if their home backgrounds are taken into consideration. Their
behaviour is an expression of stress reactions to unsuitable, abnormal and harmful
environments. Serious difficulties can, however, arise when their behaviour changes into a
pattern that occurs regularly. In this regard Rutter (Laslett 1977:33) distinguishes between
the following psychiatric disorders that are commonly encountered amongst maladjusted
learners, namely neurotic, antisocial or conduct disorders, a mixed group that do not
accommodate either antisocial nor neurotic disorders, developmental disorders, the
hyperkinetic syndrome, child psychosis, psychoses that develop at or after puberty, mental
retardation and children at-risk because of socio-economic circumstances.

Wicks-Nelson and Israel (1984:2) recommend that a definite standard be defined, so as to

be able to decide whether the behaviour is qualitatively or quantitatively different from the
standard. Prinsloo (1995:7) in a similar vein argues that behaviour should always be judged
from within a specific frame of reference of norms, for example the laws of a country which

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

allow certain behaviour and forbid other behaviour. Religious norms also give rise to
different viewpoints, regarding to what is accepted as being correct and decent behaviour
and what is considered as indecent and incorrect Jehaviour. Different cultural groups also
have certain unique norms, values, traditions, customs, and beliefs. People from these
cultures are expected to live in accordance with these cultural determinants.

Behaviour that differs dramatically from "normal" behaviour, is easy to recognise, but
behaviour that appears to be less dramatic, is far more difficult to categorise. Grossman
(1990:80) holds the view that educators have a definite obligation to modify behaviour that
everybody identifies as problem behaviour. Grossman (1990:80) goes on to further suggest
that teachers need to keep in mind that factors such as their likes and dislikes, own value
system, and personal priorities, can in effect influence their views on whether a learner's
behaviour can be regarded as problematic or not.

Definite criteria are therefore needed to define these behaviour patterns, for example sociocultural norms; developmental norms; frequency of occurrence of behaviour problems; the
intensity of the problem behaviour; period of time over which the problem behaviour took
place; any changed and strange behaviour; the inappropriateness of behaviour in terms of
the time and place where it is taking place; the fact that the behaviours of these learners are
of greater or lesser magnitude than that of normal learners; and the fact that disturbed
learners usually experience numerous problem behaviours in more than only one area of
their daily functioning (Haring 1978:25, 126).

Behaviour problems can be categorised in terms of:

"

more serious behaviour, for example juvenile delinquency. These behaviour

problems affect only a smaller percentage of learners and are usually related to
psyshiatric problems, such as anorexia or child schizophrenia,
"

less serious behaviour, for example being disruptive in class. These behaviour

patterns seem to occur for a longer period of time. The causes of these
problems are more often than not deep-seated and will thus require the
professional assistance of a psychologist to unravel the underlying factors giving
rise to the behaviour problem, and
"

of a minor nature, such as not being punctual. These problems seem to be

present for some time and can be ascribed to certain disruptive circumstances
in the learner's life. They are however, only of a temporary nature and with the

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

necessary love, interest and support of significant other people within the life
world of the learner, these problems can be readily overcome.

Although at times difficult to distinguish between, behaviour problems can in certain

respects be categorised in terms of primary and secondary behaviour problems. A primary
behaviour problem is defined in terms of the root cause giving rise to the problem in the first
instance and then causing other additional problems to develop as a consequence thereof.
In essence, a secondary problem has developed as a consequence of the primary problem.

Labelling of a behaviour pattern as "problematic" usually occurs when the learner is

disturbing other learners. Adults are usually the persons inclined to label childhood
disorders. Factors that are important to keep in mind when this labelling process is engaged
in by adults, is the fact that their attitudes, sensitivity, tolerance and ability to cope, will have
a direct impact on the way they perceive the learners and therefore on how they will assist
them.

According to Morgan and Reinart (1991 :4), Bower's definition of behaviour problems is
widely accepted as relevant within various contexts. Notably, it is currently being used by
the United States Federal Government with slight modifications. In the literature that has
been explored for the purposes of this study, Morgan and Reinart's (1991 :4) contention
appears to be confirmed, as Bower's definition of behaviour problems is frequently used
and accepted by many of the researchers and authors concerned. Bower (1969, 1981) with
material received from Michigan (Ashman & Elkins 1994:298; Haring 1978:128, 129) has
compiled the following definition of learners with behaviour problems/disorders:

a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a

long period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely affects
educational performance in the following ways:

an inability to learn, which cannot be related to intellectual, sensory or health

factors;

an inability to keep up good, solid social relationships with peers and teachers;

inappropriate feelings or types of behaviour that are exhibited during normal

conditions;

a general, ever present mood of unhappiness or depression;

a tendency to develop psychosomatic symptoms, eg. fears or pains, that are

related to problems experienced within the school; and

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics: disruptive behaviour

in the classroom, over a longer period of time, as well as extreme withdrawal
from involvement with other learners over a longer period of time; the
manifestation of symptoms that can be categorised as psychosis, schizophrenia
or autism; the overall

presentation of disruptive and aggressive behaviour

which can eventually result in placement in a place of safety, awaiting

Children's Court procedure and placement in an industrial school.

England's Code of Practice (Farrell 1995:8) provides the following guidelines for identifying
learners with behaviour problems:

The learner

does not attend school regularly;

exhibits obsessional and unhealthy eating habits;

is dependent on a drug or drug related substance;

behaves in an uncontrolled, unanticipated, bizarre and disruptive way;

is inclined to bullying of other learners; and

is mentally not healthy.

Grosenick and Huntze (Apter & Conoley 1984: 16) regard the concept behaviour disorders
as being far more useful

than the concept emotional disturbance, in that behaviour

disorders constitute a larger and more useful "umbrella" under which a more complete set
of behaviour problems could be categorised. Behaviour disorders are also regarded as
denoting a more pragmatic and less stigmatizing label. Hewett and Taylor (Apter & Conoley
1984: 16) distinguished between the two concepts by stating that behaviour disorders are
indicative of mild behaviour disorders, whilst emotional disturbance indicates more serious
difficu Ities.

Barker (1983:58) defines conduct disorder as "involving aggressive and destructive

behaviour and involving delinquency. The behaviour should not be part of some other
psychiatric disorder such as a neurotic disorder or a psychosis but minor emotional
disturbance may be present". Conduct disorder emerges through socially disapproved
behaviour of the learner, "acting-out" behaviour towards people or property and behaviour
that is persistent and fails to conform to normal sanctions. Laslett (1977:33) defines conduct

disorder as those learners that do not fit in with socially accepted norms of behaviour and
who "fail to correct their deviation in response to social sanctions". Their behaviour is

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

10

socially not acceptable. Their behaviour becomes a way .to free them from their anxieties,
hostilities and jealousies towards other significant other role players in their environment.

Wardle (Laslett 1977:34), in a similar vein, maintains that severe anxiety states within the
learner causes the learner's behaviour to be disordered and he rather strikingly refers to it
as the "the cornered animal syndrome". The underlying feature of this syndrome may be
deemed to be a learner's unrecognised fears, the drawing of attention to a serious wrong that
the learner has suffered or is aware of, disillusionment with a significant other role player
in the environment of the learner, a reaction to intolerable stresses within the home, stresses
on the learner or one of the family members, the discontinuation of affectionate relationships
of the learner within the family, cerebral dysfunctions, depression and suicidal thoughts,
adolescent psychosis, or a sudden and identifiable deterioration in the learner's
performance. Wardle (Laslett 1977:35) proposes that such learners should be subjected to
"a prolonged period of intensive, extensive nurture of a much more basic kind" than usually
undertaken during psychotherapy sessions. This needs to be linked to progressive behaviour
expectations and training. Behaviour modification programmes appear to bring about
dramatic changes in the behaviour of these learners in the classroom, however, it is not yet
clear how long these changes last in practice (Laslett 1977:35)

Rutter (Laslett 1977:35) describes learners with

neurotic disorders as learners who are

experiencing personality problems. Neurotic symptoms would for example include,

disproportionate and persistent anxiety, depression, obsessional behaviour, compulsive
behaviour as well as phobias. These learners need individual attention and sympathetic
support from the teacher. Childhood psychosis, according to Stroh (Laslett 1977:36), is
identified by childhood autism, organic psychosis with autistic features, schizophrenia,
traumatic psychosis, psychotic depression, and obsessive-compulsive psychosis. Underwood
(Laslett 1977:36) provides a more vivid description of psychotic behaviour by describing
it as "conduct which is so profoundly disturbed that disruption of the normal pattern of
development takes place at all levels, intellectual, social and emotional. It is behaviour
which has led to descriptions of these children as having broken with reality, or at the best,
retaining a very slender hold on it". Undoubtedly, a feature of the behaviour of these
learners is such as to generate extensive tension in their relationships with other people___
/

sharing their life world. This will clearly have significant implications if they are to be
accommodated within mainstream schools.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

11

School principals frequently make use of the Provincial Gazette Extraordinary (1982:2) as
a guideline for dealing with disciplinary and behaviour problems in South African schools.
Learners who exhibit misconduct include "any ~onduct, committed in or out of school
uniform and within or outside the school premises, which tends to bring the school into
contempt or disrepute, or interferes with the governance and proper administration of the
school, or interferes with the conditions necessary for any school activity or is committed
with the intention of preventing any person from exercising his or her rights, powers or
duties as a member of the school community, or is committed in retaliation against such
exercise of which a punishment of suspension or expulsion may be imposed" (Provincial
Gazette Extraordinary 1982:2).

Apter and Conoley (1984: 15), Bos and Vaughn (1994:3-5) and Zarakowska and Clements
(1988:2) present the following characteristics that may act as criteria for identifying learners
with behaviour problems:

They continuously draw attention to themselves in the classroom because they

experience difficulty in learning and interacting appropriately.

They have a poor academic record - problems experienced in spelling( reading, or

mathematics can cause them to underachieve.

They experience attention span problems-they cannot concentrate for long periods
of time on a single task, they may also experience problems in following the
teacher's instructions, and their attention is easily distracted.

They are inclined to be hyperactive - they experience difficulty in staying in their

seats up to the end to complete a task. While they are concentrating on a task, the
least noise will distract their attention.

They have a difficult time trying to remember what they have learnt - they may
remember something on one day and forget it the next day.

They have poor motor abilities- poor coordination, spatial problems and fine-motor
problems, for example an inability to cut with scissors handicaps them.

They are inclined to be socially maladjusted and to act antisocially - learners who
could, but who do not want to conform to the expectations of society and who do
not experience any feelings of guilt or anxiety.

They experience conflict and stress due to their problems.

They are inclined to experience poor perceptual abilities, which causes auditory
and/or visual perception problems, for example visual discrimination difficulties.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

12

They exhibit poor language ability that causes them to have difficulties with
vocabulary, to understand concepts, use language adequately, express themselves
appropriately, or pronounce words correctly.

They act aggressively, either verbally or physically, for example by hitting or kicking
other learners or by insulting others. They become easily upset, are inclined to
overreact and make use of "acting out" behaviour to get rid of their frustrations.

They are inclined to be withdrawn and seldom interact with other learners. They
frequently do not even have any friends - they are real loners and choose to avoid
any contact with other learners.

They display bizarre behaviour, for example staring at objects for long periods of
time or they may sit and rock themselves continuously.

Their behaviour itself or the severity of their behaviour is inappropriate in terms of

their age and level of development.

Their behaviour results in danger to themselves, as well as others.

Their behaviour acts as a barrier to learning, as it inhibits the learning of new skills
or excludes the learner from important learning opportunities.

Their behaviour causes significant stress to themselves and to others in their lifeworld, and impairs the quality of these persons' lives, as well as their own quality
of life.

Their behaviour is contrary to socially accepted norms.

Apter and Conoley (1984:22.23), Bos and Vaughn (1994:4), Rich (1982:94,95) and
Zarakowska and Clements (1988:2) have listed the following questions that need to be
considered when determining the seriousness of a behaviour problem:
~

How long has the problem persisted?

How long does the behaviour episode last?

How often does the behaviour occur?

In how many types of situations does the behaviour occur?

How disruptive of the learner's other activities is the problem behaviour?

How easily can the circumstances that produced the behaviour be identified?

Does the learner have difficulty being accepted by peers?

How quickly is the situation leading to the episode forgotten?

Does the behaviour of the learner disrupt the activities of others?

Do others copy the problem behaviour?

Does the behaviour represent a loss of contact with reality?

How severe is the problem?

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

..

13

What are the comments of his or her previous teachers regarding his or her
behaviour?

..

What is the relationship between the teacher and the learner like?

..

What mechanisms did the teacher employ to assist the learner with learning or
behaviour problems?

..

What range of tolerance has the teacher for dealing with learners with
behaviour problems?

..

Has the teacher explored the possibility of other factors that could have an
impact on the learner's learning/behaviour problems?

..

Do the behaviour problems of the learner cause stress in the lives of the rest of
the members of the family?

..

Can the behaviour problem of the learner be judged as being socially

unacceptable in terms of accepted social norms or in terms of socially, accepted
behaviour?

..

Is the behaviour a reasonable response to the situation?

In terms of the preceding discussion, common characteristics shaping the profile of the
learner with behaviour problems, can be identified. They are summarised as follows:

A learner with behaviour problems is inclined to: set unrealistic goals for
himself; show an inability to learn; be unable to maintain good social
relationships with peers and teachers; experience inappropriate feelings or
types of behaviour; not act according to what is regarded as being age
related; be unhappy most of the time, feeling depressed and aggressive;
experiences minor emotional disturbances; express behaviour that is
uncontrolled, unanticipated bizarre and disruptive; bully other learners, act
destructively and exhibit delinquent behaviour; suffer from a bad self-image;
and be unable to function independently.

For the purposes of this study, the concepts misconduct, behaviour problems and emotional
problems will be regarded as being interactive and interwoven with each other, as the one
condition can be regarded as a causative factor to the other. For example, a learner who has
a poor self-image and experiences a need to be accepted (unmet emotional needs), can be
influenced by peers to exhibit misconduct, for example smoking on the school grounds
although they know that it is prohibited (misconduct) and at a later stage he or she could
even become involved with the peer group in depicting criminal behaviour (behaviour
problem).

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.2.2

14

Emotional problems

According to Grossman (1990:237) emotional problems can be identified as follows:

Learners whose emotional responses do not guide their behaviour appropriately.

Learners whose emotional responses are too intense (eg. you have to be careful
about what you say because they are devastated by the slightest criticism; a little
blood from a scrape on the knee or a small cut on the finger petrifies them;.Jbey _

~~~~~her..~~~~.:_~swer ques~~:.:- especially if it is in the

presence of other learners, or wnen they mUSfcompfete a test/exam; they are angry
about little things and react like somebody who has a chip on the shoulder; minor
delays, small obstacles or other irritants, frustrate them immensely; they get
depressed easily over little disappointments that do usually not bother other
learners).

Learners whose emotional responses are too weak (eg. when their peers mistreat or
abuse them, they will only experience resentment but not enough to enable them
to do something about it- usually a learner will eventually rise up and protest such
treatment; their failures and mistakes are not corrected by them, because they are
not concerned enough to try and correct them or to improve; pleasant things don't
particularly please them and make them happy).

Learners who experience incorrect emotions and have a mistaken view of reality (eg.
they worry about things that they know are extremely unlikely to happen; when
inflicting pain on other children, pets or animals, they laugh; they get involved with
dangerous activities and appear exhilarated by any possibility of getting hurt; when
others learners treat them with respect or show that they like them, they seem
uncomfortable and anxious).

Learners who experience contrasting/conflicting emotions and for whom it becomes

a problem to sort out their emotions to act one way or the other. These conflicting
emotions can have an immobilizing effect on learners when they have to make a
decision (eg. when they have to learn how to play an instrument, to build a project
or to form part of a team, they pretend that it does not bother them, while in the
meantime, they are scared of being a failure deep down; they will rather persist,
even though they know what they are doing is incorrect, than to ask for help).

Learners who experience emotional responses that are either too intense, or too
weak, or the incorrect ones, or in conflict, usually act appropriately for their
emotional response, but inappropriately for the situation. They experience a
mismatch between emotion and situation. Learners react in three different ways

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

15

instead of implementing appropriate solutions to the problems of everyday living,

namely they avoid facing up to challenging situations (eg. they will rather break up
relationships than to try and work somehing out when they are encountering
difficulties with other people), or they go on the defensive (eg. they are inclined to
blame their teachers and peers for their own failures instead of admitting that it is
their own fault that they were unsuccessful) or they suffer through the experience
without feeling capable of dealing therewith (eg. they are inclined to fall apart
during exams and are unable to function as they vyould have in a less stressful
situation). Learners' emotional problems are caused by emotional reactions, which
causes them to consistently avoid, defend or suffer with these problems, instead of
thinking creatively of solutions to solve the problems.

Behaviour problems differ from emotional problems in the following respects:

Learners with behaviour problems are able to behave differently, but they either do
not want to do so or think it is not necessary to do so. Learners with emotional

problems are not capable of behaving differently although they would like to. They
need to have opportunities to experience more appropriate emotional responses and
be capable of avoiding, defending and suffering in a lesser way and to resolve their
problems more effectively.

Learners who experience behaviour problems do so at the expense of others and to

the benefit of themselves in trying to have their emotional needs met by significant
other persons within their environment. They therefore have to learn that they
cannot always regard their own needs as being the most important. They need to
learn to consider other people. Learners with emotional problems are not necessary
acting in self interest - they must be assisted to discontinue behaviour

that they

derive no benefit from. (Please see Chapter 4 in regard to "emotional problems".)

1.2.3

Needs of learners

Charlton and David (1993:3) make the following statement:

The increasing challenge to schools, when they want to make a difference

and they want to be fit for the future, is to examine what they are offering
their learners, how it is offered and whether it meets the needs of the
learners and the public.

'j-

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

16

As may be ascertained from the above statement, "meeting the needs of learners" remains
an important aspect of consideration in analysing the occurrence of behaviour problems.
Grossman (1990:14) maintains that if learners' basic needs are fulfilled, they are more likely
to behave appropriately. Human needs may be conceptualised in terms of a hierarchy of
needs, which implies that if basic needs (eg. food, clothing, accommodation) are being met,
a person can take responsibility for realising higher needs (eg. the actualizing of potential).
According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory (Grossman 1990:14; Santrock 1992:65),
five fundamental levels of needs exist and these are arranged in order of importance,
namely:

at a basic level physiological satisfaction needs predominate (eg. hunger, thirst,

rest);

security Jnd

safety

(avoiding

injury,

physical attack,

pain,

extreme

temperatures, diseases, physiological abuse) feature at the second level of the

hierarchy, as being of predominant concern;

social needs such as love and acceptance, as well as a feeling of belonging gain
importance at the third level;

at the fourth level self-esteem, self-confidence, empowerment and a sense of

meaningfulness, is representative of a higher order of needs and

self-actualization is situated at the apex of the hierarchy of needs. Selfactualisation represents the full development of learners' potential.

When learners are preoccupied with their unmet basic needs, for example being hungry,
they cannot perform well academically. It might also affect their behaviour, as they can act
out in anger, resentment and frustration for having to suffer whilst their peers appear to
enjoy a state of relative well-being. This could lead to feelings of jealousy or result in theft.
Grossman (1990:15) urges teachers to attend to the learner's psychological needs, while
referring learners to a social worker to attend to their basic needs. He suggests that teachers
must on a personal level become involved with the learner, providing them with love,
acceptance and a feeling of belonging, while simultaneously encouraging other students to
react in this spirit towards one another. A sense of power can be enhanced by the teacher,
by allowing learners to participate in decision-making processes within the classroom.
Their self-esteem and self-confidence can be enhanced by providing them with opportunities
to solve their own problems, to resolve conflict situations with others themselves, as well
as being able to experience success in one form or another. The teacher must take care to
protect learners from each other, by discouraging teasing, rejection, ridicule, harassment,
or any other form of abuse. The teacher must refrain from any form of sarcasm or ridicule
that can impact on the learner's self-image.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

17

In summary, learners' needs are conceptualised in terms of a hierarchy of needs that impact
on their behaviour and therefore need to be taken into consideration in analysing any form
of behaviour problems. (Please see "Satisfying of emotional needs" as discussed in Chapter
4.)

1.2.4

Learners with Special Educational Needs (LSEN)

The term learners with special educational needs refer to "those learners whose education
requires additional planning and modifications in order to assist them to learn"

and who

are, according to the new Education Policy (NCSNET 1997:6, 7), described as learners who
are experiencing barriers to learning. LSEN includes learners who were previously identified
and referred to special schools (Du Toit 1996:2).

There are various forms of special educational needs. In other words, certain types of Special
Educational Needs (SEN) show similar symptoms or signs (also called manifestations). These
manifestations are important because they enable teachers to identify learners who need
special forms of assistance. The manifestations can be divided into the following groups:

Disabilities

This concept refers to permanent shortcomings in a person's make-up. Learners may be born
with such disabilities or they may be caused by some harmful factor such as an illness or an
accident. The following types of disabilities qn be distinguished:

Sensory disabilities: these occur when one (or more) of the senses has been affected.
A person may be blind or deaf, when his sense for seeing or hearing is affected.

Physical disabilities: a physical disability affects a person's outward appearance or

movements. For instance an arm may be missing, or a hand or limbs cannot be used,
with the result that the learner requires the use of a wheelchair or crutches.

Intellectual disability: a learner is intellectually disabled when he or she is less

capable to understand or to learn tha9 the average person.

Multiple disability: learners who suffer from more than one disability, are multiply
disabled.

The following facts regarding disabilities need to be kept in mind (Du Toit 1996:3):

Several forms of disabilities, such as epilepsy, autism and others exist.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

18

Disabilities are usually of a permanent nature. >

Disabilities can be identified at an early age.

Disabilities can be caused by internal factors (intrinsic factors).

External (extrinsic) factors can intensify disabilities - especially if not identified at a

young age and if parents did r:iot have the necessary support.

Learners with disabilities have the same rights as other learners.

Developmental problems

A learner is experiencing developmental problems, when his or her development does not
correspond to that of peers. In other words, the learner may be late in acquiring the socalled "developmental milestones", namely sitting, walking, talking, and reading, to but
name a few.

Developmental problems could manifest as:

a total delay in all or most of the developmental areas,

a delay in one or more aspects of development such as motor, perceptual,

language or intellectual development, for example a learner who cannot speak
fluently by the age of six, and

not being school ready at the accepted age for new entrants.

Learning problems

Learners experience learning problems when they find it difficult to master those learning
tasks which most other children in the class can manage. Learning problems are manifested
in all school subjects, only certain school subjects, or in certain aspects of a school subject.

The following concepts are associated with learning problems:

Underachievement: This implies that a learner does not do as well as one

would expect of someone with his or her intellectual ability. There is therefore
a gap between the /earner's achievement and what he or she is actually
capable of doing.

Learners who do not do well at school: They may be trying their very best but
because they lack good mental abilities, they cannot be expected to show
better results.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

19

Disadvantaged learners: This concept refers to those learners whose education

has fallen behind as a result of social, economic or political circumstances. In
many cases they start their school career with a disadvantage and this
disadvantage tends to increase with time.

According to the proposed Education Policy (NCSN ET 1997:6, 7), special needs are regarded
as resulting from barriers, in the way that the curriculum has been presented. It has thus
been suggested that the concept learners with special educational needs be replaced by
learners who experience barriers to learning. Barriers implies learners who experience some

form of difficulty in engaging in the learning process.

Learners who experience barriers to learning are deemed to be the following (NCSNET
Document 1998: 12-19):

learners who experience socio-economic barriers, e.g. inadequate numbers

of centres of learning; learners who experience a lack of access to basic
services, e.g. inadequate transport, inadequate access to clinics; learners
who experience poverty and underdevelopment, e.g. unemployment, the
inability of families to meet the basic needs of their children; factors that
place learners at risk, e.g. the emotional and social well-being of learners
due to violence, crime, HIV/AIDS; discriminatory attitudes towards learners
who are labelled, e.g. slow learners, drop outs; inflexible and inaccessible
curriculum and inadequate training of teachers as well as teaching styles that
do not meet the needs of all the learners; language and communication
where the medium of instruction is not the home language of the learner;
inaccessible and unsafe built environment, e.g. wheelchairs or blind
learners; inadequate and inappropriate provision of support services; lack of
enabling and protective legislation and policy; lack of parental recognition
and involvement; disability, e.g. the learning environment and the broader
society do not provide in the needs of these learners and a lack of human
resource development strategies, e.g. the absence of ongoing in-service
training programmes leads to insecurities, uncertainties, low self-esteem,
lack of innovative practices which in turn impacts on the attitudes of
teachers.

Jones and Southgate (1989:59) argue that special educational needs do not only arise from
various types of disabilities, but also from the violations of human rights. Jones and

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

20

Southgate (1989:56) maintain that a human rights perspective can be of use to the school
principal and teaching staff in order to help them to analyse needs and to develop more
relevant strategies for meeting these needs.

1.2.5

Learners-at-risk

Wood (1991 :24) maintains that learners-at-risk constitutes the fastest growing component
of the learner population. This factor in itself makes them the focus of growing concern. In
the past, different labels were used to identify these learners, for example the culturally
deprived learner, the marginalised learner, the underprivileged learner, the low-achieving
learner. Nowadays there is no clear consensus on how to identify the at-risk learner. These
learners are not necessarily disabled. Helge (Wood 1991 :25) constructed a profile of the atrisk learner. In terms of the profile these learners are:
"'

making misuse of drugs and other related dependancy substances,

"'

involved with crime,

"'

suicidal/depressed/exhibit low self-esteem,

"'

being abused (physical, emotional, verbal and/or sexual),

"'

poor,

"'

the children of alcoholic or substance users,

"'

members of dysfunctional families,

"'

illiterate or use English as their second language,

"'

migrants,

"'

in a disabling condition,

"'

dropping out of school,

"'

sexually active or pregnant,

"'

members of the minority group,

"'

experiencing health problems,

"'

performing significantly below their potential, and

"'

resident in a rural or remote area.

The Iowa Department of Education (1989) has defined the at-risk-learner as follows (Wood
1991 :25):

Any identified student who is at risk of not meeting the goals of the
educational program established by the district, not completing a high
school education, or not becoming a productive worker. These students may
include, but are not limited to, dropouts, potential dropouts, teenage

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

21

parents, substance users and abusers, low academic achievers, abused and
homeless children, youth offenders, economically deprived, minority
students, culturally isolated, those with sudden negative changes in
performance due to environmental or physical traumas, and those with
language barriers, gender barriers, and disabilities.

The impact that these risk-factors and combinations thereof can have on a learner will differ
from one learner to another. Wood (1991 :27), however, warns that the earlier the learner
is exposed to these at-risk factors, the longer it is going to take to remediate the effects of
these at-risk factors-especially during the adolescent period, the situation can become quite
complicated.

The growing statistics and the vast impact of these at-risk factors on learners, families,
parents, and communities, act as a warning sign to educators to no longer work in isolation,
but to form partnerships with community leaders in order to assess community resources,
parents as well as the development of "in-house" resources, to provide for the needs of
these learners.

According to Du Toit (1996:6), this concept refers to those learners whose circumstances are
such that they do not have a good chance of making a success of their school career. Slavin,
Karweit and Madden (1989:4,5) in contrast maintain that the meaning of this concept is
never exact and that it can vary considerably in practice. A possible definition would
indicate that these learners are unlikely to graduate from high school. Risk factors would for
instance be low achievement, retention in grade, behaviour problems, poor attendance, and
low socioeconomic status. They are quite likely to drop out of school. Causative factors to
these problem situations are often socioeconomic status. The learners concerned are unlikely
to leave school with an adequate level of the basic skills. Their intelligence is within normal
limits, but they fail to acquire the basic skills that are necessary for success in school and in
life. They can thus be regarded as eligible for special or compensatory education.

1.2.6

Inclusive learning environment

According to the proposed Education Policy (NCSNET 1997: 149), an inclusive environment
is an environment that stimulates the full personal, academic and professional development
of all learners, irrespective of race, class, gender, disability, religious denomination, learning
styles and language. An inclusive learning environment is an environment that is free from
discrimination, segregation and harassment. An atmosphere of mutual acceptance and

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

22

respect is facilitated. Learners are respected and valued as partners in teaching and learning.
The rights of all learners are respected and they are enabled to participate fully in a
democratic society. Clearly, this interpretation of the concept is quite wide in scope.

The Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education (CSIE) describes inclusion as "a human right,
it's good education and it makes good social sense". Human rights include the following:
""

the fact that all learners have the right to be educated together;

""

no learner should be sent away, or be devalued or be discriminated against by

being excluded from education or by being sent away because of being
disabled or because of the fact that he or she is experiencing a learning
disability; and

""

no legitimate reasons exist at present to separate learners for their education.

Learners must be grouped together as they belong together-with the necessary
advantages and benefits for everybody. It should thus not be necessary to
protect them from one another.

According to the CSIE, good education is possible because inclusion, ensures:

""

better academic performances by the learners, as indicated by research findings,

""

that no teaching or care that takes place in a segregated educational situation,

cannot take place in an inclusive environment.

These facts make inclusive education more acceptable and educational resources can be
more effectively utilised within an inclusive educational setting, where commitment and
support are important.

Good social sense is stimulated in a situation where learners develop relationships that will

prepare them for life in mainstream educational settings; fear is reduced and friendships are
built, in addition to a nurturing of respect and understanding.

According to the Discussion Document on Inclusion (1996:1 ), inclusion implies "in its pure
form a warm, embracing attitude, accepting and accommodating another human being
unconditionally, thus expressing the human element within every individual". Inclusion
implies the acceptance of differences. All people, including those learners with special
needs, form part of society. A need for a paradigm shift is implied, in order to accept the
principles and underlying philosophies of inclusion, as based on a socio-critical perspective.
Learners with special educational needs have abilities that need to be brought under the
attention of the whole society, ensuring that this makes them worthwhile members of

23

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

society. A changed attitude is thus needed towards the norms and criteria society makes use
of to evaluate the "worth of a human being". Inclusion is a basic value that is applicable to
every learner - "everyone belongs" (Discussion Document on Inclusion 1996:1 ). Each
learner is entitled to a wide variety of opportunities to grow. According to the Discussion
Document on Inclusion (1996: 10), all learners can benefit from a heterogeneous learning
environment and learners with special educational needs, perform better when they are
challenged by their peers in a mainstream classroom.

An inclusive education system would imply that learners who were in the past taught in
special schools, such as the blind, are now permitted to go to any mainstream school of their
choice, provided that the parents, administrators, teaching staff and the learners themselves
believe in the right of every learner to be an integral part of the school community. Schools
in turn have the responsibility to create conducive learning environments that will stimulate
and actualise the potential of all learners.

Inclusive education implies in practice that all learners, including learners with special
educational needs, are educated together-even although the curricularoutcomes and needs
for these LSEN (learners with special educational needs or learners experiencing barriers to
learning) differ from those of their classmates. Inclusive education is aiming at "the
preparation of all students for productive lives as full, participating members of their
communities" (Discussion Document 1996:2). The following factors need to be taken into
consideration, if inclusive education is to become a reality, namely collaboration, teamwork,
flexibility, a willingness to take risks, and support from individuals or organisations within
the community.

South African schools will need to be restructured, in terms of the review of the curriculum,
with the collaboration of various stakeholders. Community-based involvement in this regard
is deemed essential, with members of the community becoming involved in actualising the
full potential of learners, as opposed to a process of labelling or stigmatising these learners
as being different and of lesser value to the community. Special schools, with their very
skilled and experienced staff, could offer assistance and support to the teaching faculty at
mainstream schools. Teachers need to focus on the strengths of learners, rather than to
emphasise their weaknesses. Learners enter school with

different cultural and ethnic

backgrounds and such diversity should not be regarded as being problematic, but rather as
having the potential to stimulate a richer learning environment.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

24

In the past, learners were evaluated, according to the traditional medical model, by means
of IQ and various similar tests. Learners were then regarded as being either educable or
trainable and were placed in different schools according to their assigned label. Those
deemed to be trainable were placed in special schools for the mentally disabled. In these
schools the emphasis was on the attainment of basic life skills and not on inclusion in
mainstream education, where they would have been granted the opportunity to become a
full participator in the life of the community and society in general (Discussion Document
on Inclusion 1996:3).

A global momentum towards a unitary, inclusion philosophy, incorporating all learners,

including learners with special educational needs/learners experiencing barriers to learning
(LSEN), was advocated in June 1994, in terms of the Salamanca Document on Principles,
Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education (1994:viii-xii). This statement specifically
emphasises that inclusive education needs to be implemented by schools, because inclusive
education is regarded as the most effective way of "combatting discriminatory attitudes,
creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for
all; moreover they provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve
the efficiency and ultimately the cost effectiveness of the entire education system"
(Discussion Document on Inclusion 1996:7).

Four types of proposed models of inclusion, within the South African context, can be
distinguished (Discussion Document on Inclusion 1996:9):

Total inclusion: all learners being educated together under one roof, together with

the necessary support, age appropriate education programmes, and differentiated

curricular goals for LSEN.

Inclusion where LSEN are included in the social milieu of the school, but are
educated in a self-contained class. They will be involved with the ordinary class

programme, according to which their competencies allow them to take part.

Inclusion where LSEN would be sharing some of the tuition with a neighbo_uring
mainstream school.

Inclusion where learners from mainstream schools go to special schools to receive

instruction in vocational skills.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.2.7

25

Emotional neglect or deprivation or emotional ill-treatment

According to Boston and Szur (1983: 1) emotiona.I deprivation is difficult to define, as it can
take place in different contexts and does not ne\cessarily have to occur within the family
home. Deprivation implies "an actual lack, disruption or distortion of parental care" (Boston
& Szur 1983: 1) or" the crux of the child's deprivation may be perceived as the absence of
an adult who, parent-like, shows constancy of care by being sufficiently present and
emotionally available to be receptive to the child's feelings and to 'think' about them".
O'Hagan (1993:19,20) maintains that emotional neglect occurs when either "meaningful
adults are unable to provide necessary nurturance, stimulation, encouragement and
protection to the child at various stages of development" or that it "is a result of subtle or
blatant acts of omission or commission experienced by the child, which causes
handicapping stress on the child and is manifested in patterns of inappropriate behaviour".
Whereas the first definition focuses on the unintentional outcomes of the neglect of the child
by the caregivers being too poor or too oppressed to eliminate it, the second definition
points to the high level of awareness and intentionality of the caregivers.

O'Hagan (1992:20) contends that it is difficult to determine the exact difference between
emotional abuse and emotional ill-treatment. It can however be argued that "emotional
abuse is caused by emotional ill-treatment" (O'Hagan 1992:20). Emotional abuse can thus
be regarded as the outcome of emotional neglect or emotional deprivation or emotional illtreatment (For the purposes of this study these concepts are used in a similar vein.)

1.2.8

Emotional abuse

Wolfe (1991 :5 1 6) maintains that the growing consensus amongst professional persons is the
fact that emotional abuse becomes more prevalent than any other kind of maltreatment- it
is also destructive in its impact on development.

The following psychological characteristics of abusive parents can be distinguished (Wolfe

1991:21):

Behaviour dimension

Chronically aggressive

Isolated from family and friends

Rigid and domineering

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Impulsive

Experiencing marital difficulties

26

Cognitive-emotional dimension

Emotional immaturity

Low frustration tolerance

Difficulty expressing anger

Role reversal; looks to child to gratify own needs

Deficits in self-esteem

Inability to empathize with children

High expectations of child; disregard for child's needs and abilities

Defends "right" to use physical punishment

Deep resentment toward own parents for failing to satisfy dependency needs

Research findings (Wolfe 1991 :31) indicate that physical and emotional abuse of a child
impacts on the parent/child relationship as well as causing developmental disabilities for the
child as the psychological dimensions (e.g. socioemotional, behaviour and social-cognitive)
in the child's development are impaired or disturbed. Children that are emotionally abused,
are more abused than their counterparts who have only been physically abused, as they are
developmentally delayed, exhibit behaviour disorders and are recognizably different from
their peers (Wolfe, 1991 :32). Abused children experience problems with the formation of
attachment with caregivers and this problem effects the other relationship of the child with
the peers, future partners as well as future offspring. These children experience problems to
act independently, act with aggression towards others, are inclined to become depressed,
lack social skills, experience feelings of hopelessness, low self-worth and have no proper
problem-solving abilities as they cannot adapt appropriately to their environment.

Research findings ( Boston & Szur 1983:1) indicate that the discontinuation of emotional
care in the early years of childhood does seriously impact on "a child's capacity to establish
trusting and secure relationships as well as on the ability to think and to learn". A "primary
emotional experience" is thus needed to fulfill in the emotional needs of the child and to
substitute the emotional inabilities that are situated within the parent/child relationship.
According to Hoxter (Boston & Szur 1983:125), "the crux of the child's deprivation may be
perceived as the absence of an adult who, parent-like, shows constancy of care by being
sufficiently present and emotionally available to be receptive to the child's feelings and to
'think' about them. Long-term work with the children revealed many of them to have a
pervading preoccupation with the complex of experiences relating to their sense of

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

27

deprivation, which left little space in their lives for anything else, thus diminishing their
capacity to benefit from ordinary maturational experiences". According to Hoxter (Boston

& Szur 1983: 125), the lives of these children were characterised by a continuing need "to
keep at bay the intolerable emotions of their past experiences of deprivation". These children
often expel the pain inside themselves by reacting in ways that are likely to hurt those who
care for them. When assisting a child who has been emotionally abused, the therapist must
always bear in mind that together with the child, they must face the fact that the past cannot
be "put right" and that the scars of the past will always be present. The therapist must also
realise that his or her contribution can only be of a limited nature and that he or she cannot
substitute the parent and rectify all the developmental gaps resulting from a faulty
parent/child relationship. According to Hoxter (Boston & Szur 1983:131 ), "we can never
observe emotional injury; we can only observe the adaptations and maladaptations which
each individual utilises in attempts to cope with pain. The pain remains unseen, our only
perceptual organ for it is that most sensitive of instruments, our own capacity for emotional
response. By maintaining our sensitivity without being overwhelmed or resorting to with
relationship with someone who can be relied upon to attend to suffering with both
receptivity and strength".

1.2.9

Psychological abuse

Wolfe (1991 :6,7) describes psychological abuse as something that immediately harms the
behaviour, cognitive, affective or physical functioning of the child e.g. maltreatment which
inlcudes psychological maltreatment like rejecting, terrorizing, isolation, exploiting and
missocializing. Psychological abuse impacts the nonphysical aspects of the individual, for
example self-esteem, self-concept, and social competence". It is however difficult to tell
which type of abuse is the worst, physical or psychological abuse.

1.2.10 Whole school development approach

According to the Discussion Document on Education for All (NCSNET 1997:43) a whole
school approach "implies a change in the whole environment that surrounds and contains
the school/centre of learning, including the physical and psycho-social environment and
ethos, and the development of the learners, staff, governing bodies, parents and others. The
ultimate achievement of organisation development in this context is the transformation of
the culture of the school/centre: the substantial and sustainable alteration of patterns and
practices of the school/centre as a learning and teaching organisation". When a whole

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

28

school/ institutional development approach is adopted, it will ensure that the learning
environment will be inclusive and supportive.

Jones and Southgate (1989:51) define the concept whole school policy (whole school

development approach) as:

a policy clearly understood by the whole school community, whose purpose
is to guide and determine the ethos of the school and to support attitudes
and behaviour consistent with that ethos. It is a way of raising issues and
feeding in information. It's a way of making teachers know and feel what the
concerns are that these issues are supposed to be responding to. It's very
important for teachers to be part of the process.

A whole school policy/approach

provides a platform that can be used to reiterate a

principle, which encourages teachers to think more deeply about the nature of the unfulfilled
needs of learners, in such a way that they will aspire to meet these needs. It can also act as
a catalyst for changing the ethos, the organisation and management of the school, in the best
interests of the learners, while simultaneously engendering a change of mind and heart.
Westwood (1993:196) points out that in terms of the whole school policy, all the members
of the teaching staff must be involved in catering for the needs of the learners. It is "to a
large extent, a survival response to the change of emphasis from segregated to integrated
placement for disabled learners in times of shrinking resources" (Westwood 1993:197).
Dean (1989:25) gives the following reasons for regarding the implementation of a whole

school policy:

Problems that a learner experiences and which form a barrier to learning, are quite
often not as a result of a lack of remedial teaching, but as a result of a lack of
motivation, a low self-esteem and a feeling that the curriculum is irrelevant.

Different demands placed on learners by different teachers in secondary school can

confuse a learner. Therefore, the more members of the teaching staff can work
together, the more common elements in their approach will materialise and the
easier it will be for a learner to settle into secondary school and meet the demands
of their teachers.

All members of staff must be in agreement, as regards the allocation of resources and
the design of an appropriate programme for learners with special needs.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

29

Jones and Southgate (1989:55,56) contend that if a school adopts a whole school approach,
the principal and staff will be implementing the Warnock Report's (1985) "new view of
special education", namely one whereby learners are helped to overcome their educational
difficulties that serve as barriers to learning, however they are caused. The emphasis and
focus will no longer be on the individual learners, who after all, cannot be held responsible
forthe environment in which they grew up, or the attitudes and behaviour of people within
that environment. Whole school policy can thus contribute to the removal of the burden
of guilt and stigma which is bestowed on the learners, who are deemed to have special
educational needs. This policy can also assist teachers in distinguishing between the needs
of learners that they can satisfy and those that are the responsibility of the community.

Charlton and David (1993:12, 13) maintain that the central tenet of a whole school approach
is one of focussing on the encouragement of good behaviour, instead of the punishment of
bad behaviour. It is contended that a preoccupation with the behaviour of individual learners
and how teachers react thereto, needs to be overcome. A whole-school approach can
positively contribute to the realisation of this objective. Charlton and David (1993:13)
identify aspects of the school system that require specific attention, in implementing a
whole-school policy, namely:
..

the quality and effectiveness of school leadership;

..

management systems;

..

teacher assessment/appraisal;

..

staff development;

the meaning and impact of professionalism;

the purpose and effectiveness of the way in which the curriculum is organized
and presented;

..

ways and methods of assessing and changing of the school climate;

school philosophy and its rules;

classroom incentives and punishment;

..

internal and external communication systems; and

..

staff liaison and pastoral responsibilities.

Charlton and David (1993: 14) stress that a factor to be born in mind, when considering
implementation of a whole-school policy, is the need for obtaining consensus among staff
members since that they individually and collectively exercise considerable influence on
the way learners respond within the school context. Members of the teaching staff must
therefore be committed and willing to explore ways in which they can improve the content
quality and the presentation of their work (Charlton & David 1993:14). If everybody, from

30

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

the learners to the teaching staff and governing body supports a whole-school policy, the
learners, their parents and the school community can collectively benefit from this.

Charlton and David (1993: 14) argue that the only way that schools can become "fit for the
future" is when:
""

they have a well formulated school policy, which clearly defines its aims and
objectives;

""
""

a code of expected behaviour for everybody involved is clearly set out;

everybody (learners, teachers, administrative staff members, parents and
members of the governing body) understands what their responsibilities are;
and

""

a collective understanding exists, as regards what is being planned for the

school.

According to Charlton and David (1993:14), if attention is paid to the above aspects of a
whole-school policy, apart from being fit for the future, it will promote a sense of
"community" that will be of assistance in establishing a healthy learning environment and
the building of a positive school ethos.

1.2.11 Community-based model

According to the Discussion Document on the proposed Education Policy (NCSNET
1997:57), the education system in South Africa has been criticised because of its weakness
in preparing the learners for life and for the adult work life in particular. This criticism is
especially relevant to learners with special educational needs.

It is deemed imperative that members of the business community are involved with various
aspects of the curriculum development, so as to ensure its relevance in terms of the future
work environment that will be confronting the learners of today. A further aspect that
requires attention, is the career guidance or counselling, that will mirror the relationship
between the community and its needs, and the school within the community. According to
the

proposed

new

Education

Policy

(NCSNET

1997:63),

"a

strong

centre-of-

learning/community relationship" must be stimulated. This type of relationship will

automatically include parent involvement, as well as the inclusion of community resources,
whilst a relevant curriculum and a supportive learning environment is being developed. The
support of the broader community is a precondition for ensuring that the community takes
ownership of the centres of learning and responsibility for the learners who are the

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

31

"products" of these centres of learning. According to NCSNET (1997:64), the concept

community includes family members (eg. grandparents) volunteers, NG O's, members of the
business sector, members of religious organisation~. traditional healers and similar support
infrastructures that may exist within the community.
It is necessary for schools/centres of learning to establish a strong link with the broader
community, as it provides an opportunity to link education to the future work environment
of the learner. This linkage can ensure that learners are prepared, in the most appropriate
way, for functioning within a future work or business environment and being accepted
within this very challenging community context. The work sector can make a major
contribution, by providing learners with work placements while they are still at school or
studying at centres of learning. "Developing a strong centre of learning/parent and
community relationship is therefore a goal that should be striven for. This is a fundamental
principle of the Education and SA Schools Act (1996) and of the vision reflected in this
Public Discussion Document" (NCSNET 1997:64).

Services should be provided to assist learners with the transition from school to active
working life. Vocational training, adult education, carrier guidance, and community
participation are all means that may be used to facilitate the transition process. Between
different education and training institutions, good inter-institutional coordination should
exist, in terms of curriculum development and the implementation of training programmes.

A community based model accentuates the fact that the community has to take "ownership"
of the school and

assume certain responsibilities towards the school. In the past the

community has not always been involved with the school and its activities. Consequently
quite often learners with special educational needs, for example blind learners, have been
stigmatised and pushed aside by the community. Nowadays, in terms of the new proposed
education policy, the community is urged to neither stigmatise, nor push this learner aside.
Instead the community is urged to take part in a programme, drawn up in conjunction with
the team members of the educational support team, to satisfy a certain learner's needs. In
other words, the school "responds to the community and the community responds to the
school" (Jones & Southgate 1989:198).
In a slightly different vein, Freire (Jones & Southgate 1989:197) utilises the metaphor of
"banking education" to draw a correlation between financial investment and an investment
in the education of learners. Learners are thus regard as a kind of bank account into which
money is inserted. Knowledge is essentially viewed as a gift bestowed, by those who regard

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

32

themselves as being knowledgeable, upon those (learners) whom they regarded as knowing
nothing (Jones & Southgate 1989:197). Clearly implied isa need forthe business community
to invest in the development of one of the most important future assets it will have, namely
a potential human resource asset base, from which its future employees will be recruited.
Within a highly competitive global business environment, it is these future knowledgeable
workers that will spell the difference between success or failure for the institutions
concerned. To therefore use Freire's metaphor (Southgate & Jones 1989:197), these
institutions will in effect be investing in their own future destiny by banking in the education
of a future work force.

1.2.12 Collaboration
The concept collaboration is derived from the Latin word /aborare which means "to work
together" (Dettmar, Dyck & Thurston 1996:18; Idol, Nevin & Whitcomb 1994:6). Friend
and Cook (1992:5) ascribe a similar connotation to the term by defining it as "a style for
direct interaction between at least two coequal parties voluntarily engaged in shared
decision making as they work toward a common goal". In an associate sense Dettmar et al.
(1996: 17) define collaborative school consultation as "interaction in which school
personnel and families confer and collaborate as a team within the school context to identify
learning and behaviour needs, and to plan, implement and evaluate educational programs
for serving those needs". Cramer (1998:3) also views collaboration as "the designing and
using of a sequence of goal orientated activities that result in improved working relationships
between professional colleagues".

The golden thread running through the preceding

definitions is one of interaction and teamwork to realise a common objective, which in the
context of this study is meeting the needs of all learners, including those with special
educational needs.

Bos and Vaughn (1994:423) make use the concept collaboration within the classroom
context, when they refer to collaborative learning. This type of learning implies that learners
work together in the classroom and that they also rely on each other as a source of
learning. Forth is to happen, the following four basic elements need to be in place for smallgroup learning to be effective, namely interdependence; individual accountability;
collaborative skills; as well as group processing. An interdependency between group
members is accentuated and fostered, by formulating a common goal or objective that they
all agree on. Rewards are based on group and not individual performance and the materials
that group members will need to complete the task, in order to achieve their goal, will be
distributed between the members of the group concerned. Learners are also given

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

33

complementary roles and tasks when labour has to be divided. Group processing takes
place when learners in the group discuss the good progress they are making in achieving
their goals.

Learners can benefit from the opportunities provided to take part in cooperative learning
experiences. It in particular can assist the learner with behaviour problems in developing
social skills, as well as in achieving defined academic skills. Cooperative learning also
provides learners with opportunities to interact positively with peers, as well as to co-create
or establish the necessary strategies to support one another. In effect a context is generated
where learners cannot only learn from each other, but also learn to interact in a group or
team context to achieve a mutually defined objective.

1.2.13 The ecological model

Teachers are expected to take control of the motley assortment of different behaviours to be
found in their classrooms. Less desirable behaviour needs to be redirected and more
desirable behaviours encouraged and strengthened. Some of the behaviour tends to be less
serious and other more serious in nature. Dealing with behaviour problems consumes a
great deal of a teacher's time and leaves him or her with little or no time to encourage
desirable behaviours, such as effective social skills (making and keeping friends, dealing
successfully with peer pressure), self-regulatory behaviours(working independently, finishing
a task on time), and behaviour that is indicative of a good self-image, for example taking
pride in what one has done and feeling good about one's successes.

The ecological model offers teachers an opportunity to target and understand and assist
problem behaviour directly, by paying special attention to the environmental and situational
factors that can either make a contribution towards the aggravation of the problem, or
enhance the successes in dealing with it, if dealt with in an appropriate manner. In effect it
is contended that desirable behaviour can be inhibited by situational and environmental
factors, which must therefore be taken into consideration in addressing the behaviour
concerned.

The concept ecology refers to a study of the relationships between an organism and its
environment. Rhodes (Rizzo & Zabel 1988:21) distinguishes between different models,
namely the behaviour, psychodynamic, biophysical, sociological and ecological models.
With the exception of the ecological model, each of the other models tends to focus on the
learner, as the guilty party, in analysing problem behaviour. Only the ecological model

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

34

focuses on the interaction between the learner and the different systems/ecologies that are
part of his or her environment. Clearly, the ecological model therefore is of substantial
significance, in researching a future methodology for dealing with problem behaviour within
the school context.

Paul and Epanchin (1982:216) describe the ecosystem as something that is not separate from
individuals. They maintain that learners are not within an ecosystem - they are part of the
ecosystem. Learners have theirown unique niches, psychological places that are comfortable
to the learners and the rest of the ecosystem.

The ecological model is based on two fundamental principles, namely:

Ecosystems are continually in a process of seeking to establish a state of equilibrium.

Because of the complex composition of the different elements of the ecosystem,
permanent equilibrium is never possible. However, the system is always seeking
equilibrium, although it can only be achieved on a temporary basis. Disturbance
occurs when the various elements of the ecosystem are so out of harmony that the
stability of the environment is in jeopardy. Four processes are needed to harmonize
the disturbance, namely:
~

adaptation (a component changes to fit in better with the rest of the

components),

assimilation (if adaptation does not occur, and the disturbance perseveres, the
ecosystem can assimilate it by creating a new niche for it or expel it from the
system completely or if any of the two mentioned processes are unsuccessful,
ecological succession takes place),

expulsion, and

succession (the whol.e ecosystem is being altered in a basic way, together with
associated changes in relationships and expectations).

The interrelatedness of the components of the ecological model. Every

component/element of the model affects another component, which in turn is
affected by yet another component. If one component changes, it affects another
component within the same environment. The ecosystem must thus be seen as an
entity and not as isolated components. This reality highlights the complexity of
obtaining any form of equilibrium in a context where change has become the norm
rather than the exception to the rule.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

35

Davie (Charlton & David 1993: 11) explains what is meant by the ecological model, when
he argues that "each individual child is embedded in a number of systems, notably family
and school, and thatthe individual's behaviour can rrnly meaningfully be viewed in that sort
of context". No behaviourtakes place in a complete vacuum - it is always embedded in the
environment. Rhodes and Paul (Hammill & Bartel 1995:294) explain that ecological theories
are "holistic phenomena that explained how the various social, physical and psychic
processes of an ecosystem become a disability and are transformed into deviance". This
theory points out in a definite way that deviance can be regarded as a result of disturbed
relationships between an organism (the learner) and its environment (eg. the home, the peer
group, at school). Therefore, the teacher needs to take into consideration, this interaction
that takes place, when formulating strategies, as to how to best understand and assist
problem behaviour. Factors that teachers shou Id pay attention to are classroom structure,
school rules and regulations, the curriculum, friendships and cliques among peer group
members and their impact on learners who may be experiencing difficulty in socialising with
members of the peer group. Several environments may therefore be looked at when
assessing the behaviour problem.

The advantages of the ecological model are as follows (Apter & Conoley 1984:21; Hammill
& Bartel 1995:293, 294):

It allows the teacher to assess a learner's status within the various ecologies/systems
or environments within which he or she functions.

It provides the teacher with a much broader and more natural picture of the learner,
than has been the case with conventional evaluations in the past, which removed
the learner from the classroom to be evaluated in the principal or psychologist's
office.

It focuses on various factors that could have aggravated the behaviour problem,
instead placing the blame on the learner, as was the case in the past "troubled
children are really representatives of troubled systems" (Apter & Conoley 1984:21 ).

It prevents labelling, as learners are no longer to blame, but the different

ecologies/systems take responsibility for the learner's behaviour problem.

It clearly highlights the fact that a piecemeal approach, in contrast to a holistic or

"wholeness" (all parts being part of the "whole") approach, is not acceptable, as the
former approach merely focuses on the problem behaviour, thereby failing to view
the problem behaviour within the broader framework of organisational complexity.

It prevents a study of only the learner or only the environment, as it focuses on the

interaction between the learner and the environment.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

36

relations instead of entities, as well as on process and change variables.

It focuses on

It provides more insight than any other model has done in the past, and far greater
opportunities for formulating strategies to L!nderstand and assist with

problem behaviour in a realistic way. Specific behaviour outcomes can be planned,

in accordance with a well-designed systems analysis and systems change process.

It is such a complex model that any specific intervention can in effect cascade into
a wide range of unanticipated consequences, which accentuates the unique
encapsulation of each learner within his or her environment.

The school is regarded as an open system, namely a system that is in constant interaction
with other systems in the environment that it serves, for example the church, the community,
and the parents. It serves different systems and receives input from these systems, for
example society at large. The success of a school can be measured in terms of how well it
can maintain an internal state of equilibrium, while serving and adapting to the constantly
changing needs of society. Its success will also depend on its ability to adapt its products,
in terms of satisfying the needs and demands of society, while simultaneously attending to
the needs and problems of staff, learners and parents as well (see Chapter 2 and 4 regarding
the ecosystems model).

This reality accentuates the importance of the model, as South

Africa is a society in transition and the needs referred to are therefore in a perpetual state of
change.

1.3

FACTORS GIVING RISE TO THE STUDY

The following factors have given rise to this study:

In South Africa, the incidence of behaviour problems in schools is exceptionally

high. This fact is highlighted by the large numbers of youth involved in crime, who
are in detention and in places of safety and the feedback received from teachers,
namely that from 10-60% of the learners in primary schools exhibit behaviour
problems (see chapter 3, sec. 3.6 in this regard). The future of the country is at

stake and urgent attention should be given to the high incidence of behaviour
problems experienced.

The headlines of newspapers are an outcry for help as they spell out the need to
attend to the unmet emotional needs of children as well as accentuating the
ignorance of and

being abused

by the significant other role players

in the

environment of the learner, who are supposed to care for the children (see Chapter
5, sec. 5.1 in this regard). Children and their emotional needs, which is their right

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

37

to be satisfied, are left to themselves to find ways to satisfy their unmet emotional
needs - be it in an accepted or unaccepted way.

The concern of the present Minister of Education, regarding the high failure rate of
grade 12 learners during the previous matriculation examinations can be attended
to if the unmet emotional needs of learners are addressed. Learners cannot perform
academically according to their potential, if their emotional needs are not met

Academic performance in schools can only improve if the unmet emotional needs,
besides other relevant factors, are also attended to by professional persons.

Learners exhibiting behaviour problems because of unmet emotional needs, become

the parents of tomorrow. They will because of the fact that their emotional needs
were not met, also not know how to meet the emotional needs of their children
which will then in turn, create the possibility of more learners exhibiting behaviour
problems. The vicious circle will be continued by not attending to the matters of

concern which will end the continuation of circumstances that provide for the
occurrence of behaviour problems.

The manifestations of behaviour problems in South African schools are not those
typically recorded in the literature, as being manifested by primary and secondary
school learners. The manifestations are far more severe, and even in primary schools
include incidents of stabbing, rape, sexual harassment, and vandalism.

South

African conditions are not a carbon copy of the international situation, and
alternative ways of managing behaviour problems within South African schools are
needed.

In the previous educational dispensation, behaviour problems of school going

children were managed according to the clinical or medical approach. Schools in
the privileged areas could refer such learners to the educational support services for
evaluation and assistance. Learners could be placed in so-called clinic schools for
therapeutic teaching and after a trial period they could, if necessary, be placed in
child care schools (Reform schools or Schools of Industry). However, this form of
support was not generally available in all departments of education and is being
phased out because of the stigmatising effect it has on learners. Many educationists
in schools, parents, members of the community and even professional people, are
still inclined to cling to the old medical model and did not make the paradigm shift
so that they can implement new ways of thinking about learners exhibiting
behaviour problems . As the clinical or medical approach is not envisaged within

the new proposed Education Policy, some of these alternative measures will no
longer be available, for example reform schools, as a way for dealing with serious
behaviour problems. Teachers, parents, members of the community, employees of

38

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

relevant Government Departments as well as professional stakeholders, must make

the paradigm shift in terms of their thinking about learners with behaviour
problems if any effective assistance can be rendered.

The plea of professional persons in the community {e.g. social workers) for
collaboration between different government departments, professional people in the
community, institutions and significant other role players to offer a joint attempt to
attend to the needs of the learner exhibiting behaviour problems, needs serious
attention (see Chapter 5, sec. 5.1 in this regard). If communities, government

departments, schools, institutions, professional people in the community and

significant other role players, do not collaborate, behaviour problems in schools,
homes and communities will becomes more and more.

Internationally and nationally there is presently a definite move away from a clinical
approach in the education of learners with special educational needs. Instead, a
policy of inclusion {integration) is favoured. This implies that learners with learning
and behaviour difficulties are no longer referred to others for assistance and are
excluded from mainstream education. The assistance and understanding of learners
with such problems remains the task of teachers and schools. A

lot more is

expected of teachers and school principals, as they have to render first level
assistance to the learner with behaviour problems - even though more learners
are now to be found in the classroom than in the past.

Teachers are finding it extremely difficult to understand and assist learners with
behaviour problems in class (see chapter 3, sec. 3.6 in this regard). This fact was,
for example, stressed in the Elton Report in England, which reported that teachers
found the "management" of learners with behaviour problems much more
problematic and stressful than the "management" of learners with learning
difficulties. In this country, the same is experienced. It is clear that procedures used
in privileged countries, such as the United Kingdom and the United States, where
specially trained people are available at schools to understand and assist learners
and support teachers, will not necessarily be appropriate within the context of the
South African situation. South Africa needs a model which will take into account the
lack of support, the nature of the problems, the cultural diversity, and the prevailing
situation in rural and urban areas. If teachers have to cope with more learners in

the classroom and the fact that a bigger percentage of these learners exhibit
behaviour problems, it will be even more difficult for teachers to effectively assist
and understand an individual learner with behaviour problems. The teaching
situation will become even more stressful and frustrating for teachers and many
more will tend to leave the teaching profession. Policy makers, educational

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

39

planners, teachers and school principals, need a model which could be used for the
effective understanding and assistance of the unmet emotional needs of learners
resulting in behaviour problems. This model should be suitable for the South
African contextual situation and its associated problems.

A survey has been conducted by the National Commission on Special Needs in

Education and Training (NCSNET) during 1997, information was obtained from
provincial workshops, written submissions, and site visits, as well as formal research
conducted by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) and the Community
Agency for Social Enquiry (CASE). The research findings indicated that "high levels
of social, emotional and behaviour difficulties were reported in all contexts of the
CASE sample

survey,

urban

advantaged,

urban

disadvantaged

and

rural

disadvantaged" (NCSNET 1997:38). Research findings also indicated that services

provided to assist learners with special educational needs, are either nonexistent or
insufficient. For example the Northern Cape and Northern Province are the only two
provinces with industrial schools. Similarly the Western Cape and Mpumalanga are
the only provinces with reformatories. According to the CASE survey's research
findings, 88% of household members reported to experience "special educational
needs" and did get assistance from "support services", while only 32% of the people
in the disadvantaged areas of Gauteng, who had reported to be experiencing
"special educational needs", had access to any kind of "support services". In the
Mpumalanga Province only small teams of "support staff" are rendering a service in
ten of the provinces' districts. Although a district-based system exists in the Northwest Province, it is not sufficient to provide for al I the needs of the people of the

to understand and assist the

special educational needs of al/ learners, which includes having to understand and
province. Teachers in mainstream schools will have

assist social, emotional and behaviour problems as the roles and job descriptions
of the staff members of the Support Services have changed as well as the fact that
individual attention paid to a learner is not regarded as cost effective as many
other learners will them be left to themselves without any assistance.

Researchers involved with the CASE survey, consulted with teachers from special
schools, as they envisaged "an advisory and in-service training role for ordinary
school teachers as part of their role change". These teachers, however, found it
rather difficult to envisage a further extension of their roles to incorporate support
services for mainstream school teachers and learners (NCSNET 1997:39). "South
Africa lags far behind in teacher education programmes insofar as raising awareness
and responding to a diversity of learner needs in ordinary classrooms is concerned"
(NCSNET 1998:35). In the past, schools and teachers blamed learners and parents

40

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

for behaviour problems exhibited. Learners and parents were thus viewed as being
the guilty party, for not behaving according to expectations. Learners were often
labelled as being "disruptive" "when it might have been more honest to label the
teachers as lacking in professional competence. They were often unhelpful where
they only suppressed the misbehaviour without exploring the root causes it"
(Charlton & David 1993:10). Labelling of a learner is counterproductive because it
actively de-skills the teachers that are concerned. In the new proposed Education
Policy, the learner is not to be blamed for the fact that he is experiencing barriers
in learning and that other systems, for example the community or the parents should
become involved in fulfilling the needs of learners. "The history of limited
involvement in schools by the community concerned is a characteristic of most
schools and other centres of learning in this country. This includes the historical
disempowerment of parents in the involvement of the education of their children.
This has made the development of community-based support and action a major
difficulty" (NCSNET 1997:47).

At In-Service Training Workshops that were presented during 1996 and 1997 by the
University of South Africa (UNISA), the primary school teachers mentioned that
between 10% and 60% of primary school learners were experiencing behaviour
problems (see chapter 3 also in this regard). They also complained about the fact that
they experience themselves as disempowered because of their limited knowledge,
of dealing with learners with behaviour problems in the most effective way.

It

appears that teachers are not suitably trained to understand and assist learners in
mainstream schools who experience barriers to learning and specifically in
understanding and assisting learners with behaviour problems. Teachers need to
be trained to understand and assist learners with behaviour problems.

The

effective training of teachers can enable them to make the paradigm shift in order

to enable them to think in terms of the ecological systems model as how to utilise
significant other role players so that unmet emotional needs are met. The need for
this is accentuated by Cooper, Smith and Upton (1994:96) when they maintain that
"deprived of a barrier against which to kick, and presented with a new and
undesired rationale for the negative behaviour, the behaviour loses its original effect
and is therefore made redundant".

Teachers and the school, as a system, have a major impact on behaviour problems.
According to Hargreaves et al. (Charlton & David 1993:3; Cooper, Smith & Upton
1994:6), there is extensive evidence available that clearly indicates that schools do
affecttheir learners' behaviour within school. Charlton and David (1993:3) makethe

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

41

following statement: "What schools offer, and how they offer it, helps determine
whether pupils respond in desirable or undesirable ways, and the reasons for pupils'
misbehaviour may have as much (if not more) to do with their experiences at school
as those they encounter in the home, or with aspects of their personality". As

teachers and the school, as a system, have such an impact on the behaviour of the
learners, it is essential that teachers and the whole school system must take care

to ensure that their impact on the learners' behaviour is of a positive nature.

The stress that teachers are experiencing in the classroom may in many instances be
directly related to learners' problem behaviour (Charlton & David 1993:5).
Disruptive behaviour in the classroom causes teachers to become frustrated, irritated
and stressed, and in certain extreme cases the behaviour patterns of learners can
cause a complete breakdown of order in the classroom, thereby even affecting the
teacher's health. HMI (Charlton & David 1993:5) mentions that "good behaviour is
a necessary condition for effective teaching, and learning to take place, and an
important outcome of education which society rightly expects. Society is expecting
good order and good results from teachers, and will be increasingly impatient and .
lacking in understanding if we do not provide them". The impact of teachers on
learners' behaviour has become obligatory rather than just advisable, as behaviour
problems need to be eradicated or prevented by various forms of intervention and
by various significant other role players in the learner's life-world. Teachers cannot

attend to the unmet emotional needs of learners if their own emotional needs
within the school system are not met and if they do not get the support from the
significant other role players.

According to the Discussion Document (NCSNET1997:40), "there are no services

or activities available for children with 'special needs' whether one looks within the
school or the broader community". Services available

to learners with special

educational needs or learners experiencing barriers to learning, including learners

with behaviour problems, are limited, nonexistent or insufficient.
1.4

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In terms of the preceding discussion, the following factors emerged, as giving rise to the
problem to be researched in this study, namely:

Increasing numbers of learners are being identified by teachers as exhibiting

behaviour problems in the classroom.

42

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Teachers experience themselves as being disempowered, and they feel that they
need additional training, as regards how to understand and assist learners with
behaviour problems.

Attention should be given, during the training, to effective understanding and

assistance of the learner with behaviour problems,

the need for making a

paradigm shift - from blaming the learner for his or her problematic behaviour
(clinical or medical model) to getting the different significant other role players
involved in the fulfilment of the unmet emotional needs of the learner (ecological
systems model), and sensitising teachers in regard to the impact that they have on
the occurrence of behaviour problems in the classroom.

A model is required, which will take into account the problems, the cultural
diversity, and the situation that exists within rural and urban areas within South
Africa, as opposed to conditions that exist within more privileged countries, such
as the United Kingdom and the United States.

Teachers, educational planners, policy makers, significant other role players in the
life-world of the learner, as well as researchers must make a mind shift from being
used to connect behaviour problems to causative factors such as the home, the
school, the peer group etcetera ... to rather focussing on the impact of unmet
emotional needs on the behaviour of learners.

Teachers, educational planners, policy makers, significant other role players in the
life-world of the learner, as well as researchers must realise that the relationships
in the life-world of the learner (e.g. teacher/learner relationship, peer/learner
relationships) in which he or she is involved are opportunities to meet the unmet
emotional needs of learners leading to behaviour problems.

If learners with behaviour problems are to be assisted and understood in the most effective
way, in order to enable them to actualise their full potential, an answer to the following
research question should be found:

WHICH MODEL CAN BE USED BY TEACHERS TO EFFECTIVELY ASSIST

AND UNDERSTAND LEARNERS WITH UNMET EMOTIONAL NEEDS
RESUL TING IN BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN THE CLASSROOM?
1.5

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY

1.5.1

General outcomes of the study

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

43

The following general outcomes are identified for this study:

To ensure the emotional well-being of lear,1ers by attending to the unmet emotional

needs of learners

To prevent the ever growing numbers of learners exhibiting behaviour problems in

the classroom to enlarge, by attending to the unmet emotional needs of learners

To render valuable guidelines to policy makers and educational planners, as regards

a model which could be used for the effective understanding and assistance of the
unmet emotional needs of learners, resulting in behaviour problems in the
classroom.

To establish collaboration amongst the significant other role players as well as

amongst different government departments, service organisations, institutions,

persons in the community, professional people, ,.schools and teaching staff and
parents in order to assist and understand the learner in the best possible way.

To change the mind set of significant other role players, professional people,
members of the community, teaching staff and principals, parents, institutions and
everybody assisting and understanding children with behaviour problems from
looking at behaviour problems within the frame of reference of the medical model
to viewing children with behaviour problems within the ecological systems
framework, by utilising the environment to satisfy the unmet emotional needs of
learners.

In order to achieve the general outcomes of the study, it is necessary that the specific
outcomes be first reached.

1.5.2

Specific outcomes of the study

Specific outcomes identified for the study are:

Policy makers, educational planners, teachers and significant other role players in
the life-world of the learner, as well as researchers, will be able to understand that
unmet emotional needs serve as a causative factor of behaviour problems of
learners, as they will:
~

view behaviour problems within the different theoretical frameworks provided,

appreciate the advantages of the ecological systems model,

be able to look at behaviour from "normal" behaviour, as a point of departure

before looking at identified behaviour problems, and

44

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

become sensitive to the impact of unmet emotional needs as a causative factor

of behaviour problems,

understand that unmet emotional needs are, in terms of the ecological systems
model, to be met within the learner's relationships

realise that the teacher/learner relationship has a very definite impact on

meeting the emotional needs of the learner in the classroom

realise that the emotional needs of the teacher within the work situation also
need to be satisfied if the teacher is expected to satisfy the emotional needs of
the learner

realise that teachers will have to start implementing therapeutic techniques in

order to address unmet emotional needs of learners

be prepared to highlight the impact of unmet emotional needs and the

occurrence of behaviour problems, as a serious emerging problem in schools,
as one of the more important barriers to learning that needs to be addressed
urgently in the new Education Policy, as it is outlined in the NCSNET
Document

be sensitive to the fact that the teacher/learner relationship can either meet the
emotional needs of the learner or serve as a causative factor of behaviour
problems by not meeting the unmet emotional needs of the learner.

Policy makers, educational planners, teachers and significant other role players in
the life-world of the learner, as well as other researchers, will become familiar with
existing behaviour problems in schools, by means of

information from

questionnaires, discussions with members of focus groups, teachers attending inservice training workshops and visits to schools which will be utilised for this
purpose. This information will enable them to realise that attending to the unmet
emotional needs of learners is the best and most effective strategy to assist and
understand learners with behaviour problems.

Policy makers, educational planners, teachers and significant other role players in
the life-world of the learner, as well as researchers, will familiarise themselves with
different models, on an international basis, that are being used in schools to
understand and assist behaviour problems. The following models will be researched
in order to create a model that will be suitable for South African schools, the:

psychoanalytical model,

behaviour modification model,

cognitive behaviour modification model,

ecological systems model,

clinical/medical model,

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

.,.

multi-disciplinary teamwork model, and

.,.

whole school model.

45

Policy makers, educational planners, teachers and significant other role players in
the life-world of the learner, as well as other researchers will be able to, by making
a paradigm or mind shift regarding the causative factors of behaviour problems,
benefit from a model that will be developed in the course of this study, to enable
them to assist and understand the unmet emotional needs of learners that result in
behaviour problems in the classroom, more effectively and to implement new ways
of thinking about, understanding and assisting learners with behaviour problems.

Policy makers, educational planners, teachers and significant other role play~rs in
the [Link]-world of the learner, as well as researchers, will be able to utilize the
proposed model to for the first time, attend to the real causes of behaviour problems
with the promise of providing learners with a sense of emotional well-being.

Policymakers, educational planners, principals, governing bodies, will have to

realise that if the emotional needs of the teachers in the work situation are, for
various reasons, not met, teachers will not be able to meet the emotional needs of
learners.

In-service training workshops where teachers are trained to become familiar with the
new proposed model to address behaviour problems in the classroom more
effectively, will be taking place, workshops presented in communities to educate
members of the community on how to assist and understand learners more
effectively, parent groups, where parents will be guided on how to assist and
understand their children more effectively. Publications in acknowledged scientific
journals can be utilised to provide a changed mindset to professional persons.

Policy-makers, educational planners, teachers, significant other role players in the

life-world of the learner, government departments and members of service
organisations in the communities must collaborate and offer a holistic, joint service
to assist and understand the behaviour problems of children - a network of support
to children in-need-of-assistance and understanding, must be established.

1.6

THE FIELD OF STUDY

The field of study comprises that of Special Needs Education. Learners with behaviour
problems are deemed to form part of the Learners with Special Educational Needs (LSEN)or
according to the new Education Policy, learners who are experiencing barriers to learning.
Behaviour problems are, however, (although it can interconnect in a secondary nature with
other categories of LSEN, e.g. the physically impaired learner exhibiting behaviour problems)

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

46

one of the categories of Special Needs Education that is not, as regularly mentioned in
documents or discussions as for example learners with learning problems, physical, sensory,
intellectual or multiple impairments (NCSNET Document 1998:vii).

The unmet emotional needs resulting in behaviour problems will be studied within the
frame of reference of the Ecological Systems Model. The normal emotional developmental
milestones as discussed by Erikson, will be utilised to view behaviour problems and together
with the needs theory of especially Pringle and Raths, the role and impact of unmet
emotional needs on the behaviour of learners will be explored.

The study will focus on the unmet emotional needs resulting in behaviour problems of
learners whereas the concept learners apply to all learners, "ranging from early childhood
education through to adult education" (NCSNET Document 1997:vii).

1.7

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

By means of an extensive literature study, this study essentially focuses on gaining an insight
into:

existing theoretical models on behaviour,

the development of "normal" emotional behaviour,

the causative factors to behaviour problems,

behaviour problems being manifested in the classroom,

the unmet emotional needs of learners in relation to the occurrence of

behaviour problems in the classroom,

how the unfulfilled emotional needs of learners can be satisfied within the
environment in order to prevent behaviour problems or to understand and assist
behaviour problems that are already being exhibited by learners,

how teachers, educational planners, principals and significant other role players
are at present understanding and assisting learners exhibiting behaviour
problems and

a possible conceptual framework for a new model that will enable teachers,
principals, educational planners and significant other role players, to
understand and assist the learner with unmet emotional needs resulting in
behaviour problems, in a more effective way.

spin-offs of unmet emotional needs

therapies that could be implemented by teachers in the classroom in order to

assist and understand learners with behaviour problems more effectively

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

47

The study being an insight study is analytic-descriptive and not statistical-interpretive in

nature. The study is based on two fundamental dimensions. The first is acquiring a sound
theoretical understanding of the concepts, models, causative factors underlying behaviour
problems and the mechanisms for dealing therewith .The second dimension focuses on
substantiating the insights gained from the theoretical analysis, by means of interviews with
teachers, principals, guidance teachers and other relevant significant role players, for
example professional members of focus groups, teachers attending in-service training
workshops, involved.

This study will form the basis of the development of a model for teachers for the effective
understanding and assistance of learners with unmet emotional needs in order to prevent
or to understand and assist existing behaviour problems in South African schools. to attain
the general and specific outcomes as previously defined in this study, the following research
methodology will be implemented:

An extensive, national and international, literature survey of behaviour problems,

and the most effective methods and models for assisting and understanding learners
with behaviour problems will be explored, with a view to theory formation.

Theory formation is followed

by a critical analysis of contemporary practice,

utilizing questionnaires, visits to schools, interviews with school principals, teachers,

guidance teachers and significant other role players, for example parents,
professional members of focus groups:' The personal experiences and insights of
these people concerned, in assisting and understanding the behaviour problems of
learners and their unmet emotional needs, provide,8'.aluable information for a
comparative analysis of the information obtained from the literature study. The
practical analysis will, just like the theory, contain exploratory, descriptive and
explanatory components, as information obtained will be analysed, the phenomenon
as it appears at a certain time, will be described and certain phenomena concerning
the research problem will be explained (see chapter 3 in this regard).

A qualitative approach that aims at the uniqueness of the situation, namely: teachers
not knowing how to understand and assist learners with behaviour problems in the
most effective way and which investigates the distinctiveness of learners with
behaviour problems, is followed. Although proponents of phenomenology are
inclined to believe that although a qualitative phenomenological interpretation of
human behaviour is not completely reliable, nevertheless it provides the most
reliable and most valuable insights into the way that learners on the one hand,

48

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

experience behaviour problems and the way that teachers deal with this situation
and on the other hand, the way that teachers experience learners with behaviour
problems and the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the teachers' ways of
understanding and assisting behaviour problems (see chapter 3 in this regard).

The rationale for this study is based on the fact that many teachers do not know how
to understand and assist learners with behaviour problems in the most effective way
and that a model on understanding and assisting the unmet emotional needs of
learners, resulting in behaviour problems in the classroom, is not available at
present.

It is maintained that unmet emotional needs is the main causative factor of

behaviour problems exhibited by learners and that if these needs are attended, fewer
behaviour problems will occur in the classroom.

1.8

PROGRAMME OF STUDY

The research problem will be explored, described and explained in the following chapters:

In Chapter 2 theoretical models (e.g. the pscyhodynamic and ecological systems

model) are used to discuss Theoretical perspectives on behaviour and development:

overview of views, models and normal developmenlal patterns of the learner in the
primary school as well as the learner in the secondary school

In Chapter 3 Behaviour problems in international and local context, as well as the

manifestations of behaviour problems in the classroom on an international level are
discussed.

Chapter 4 deals with Understanding and assisting learners with behaviour problems
in the classroom: an emotional needs perspective. This chapter paves the way for
the new South African model on dealing with problem behaviour in the classroom,
to be presented in Chapter 5.

In Chapter 5 a new, tailor-made model to suit the South African education situation
in order to understand and assist behaviour problems in the classroom will be
formulated and described, namely Guidelines for teachers to understand and assist

learners with behaviour problems in South African classrooms!

In

Chapter 6, the concluding chapter, the

Summary,

recommendations emanating from this study will be reflected.

conclusions and

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

1.9

49

CONCLUSION

This study on Behaviour problems in the classroom: a model for teachers to assist learners

with unmet emotional needs can be of practical assistance to teachers, in the classroom,
who do not know how to understand and assist the ever growing numbers of learners
exhibiting behaviour problems. Teachers, learners, significant other role players, educational
planners, researchers and communities will be able to benefit from the study, as the effective
understanding and assistance of behaviour problems manifested by learners, will have a
substantial impact on various different systems, in terms of the ecological systems model.
The proposed model explored in this study, provides a new perspective on looking at
behaviour problems with the outcome of emotional well-being of learners and less
behaviour problems occurring in the classroom.

CHAPTER TWO
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR AND
DEVELOPMENT: OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS
AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS
... a person's behaviour (whether normal or problematic) is
maintained and structured by interaction with other people. This
means that members of a /earner's family, people that he interacts
with at school, or persons in his neighbourhood may each have a
hand in shaping the /earner's behaviour. The learner, in turn shapes
the behaviour of these other individuals; as these people continue to
interact over time, certain repetitive patterns develop around both
normal and problematic behaviours
Amatea (1989:22)

2.1

INTRODUCTION

The interaction process that Amatea (1989:22) has described, in the introductory quotation,
is also applicable to learners with behaviour problems. Most of the time parents and other
significant role players in the environment or life-world of the learner, do not understand
this process of interaction. No preventive or therapeutic intervention will be meaningful, if
the reciprocal impact that the learner and significant other role players have on one another,
is not kept in mind (Amatea 1989:22; Apter & Conoley 1984:98; Haring 1978:137; WicksNelson & Israel 1984:68).

The following authors provide illustrations in support of the above statement, when they
suggest that: "teachers and the schools in which they work can dramatically affect the
behaviour of their young people" (Gray, Miller & Noakes 1994:242); "to meet the needs of
children with learning and behaviour problems are likely to be successful only to the extent

to which the needs of their teachers are also understood and met" (Hanko 1995:139).
Theoretical assumptions can act as a frame of reference when analysing behaviour patterns
(Hanko 1985:59). In each theory, behaviour is analysed within the premises of the specific
theory concerned, thereby contributing towards the development of an eclectic theory. It
is of interest to note that the interaction patterns referred to by Amatea (1989:22), in the
introductory quotation, are in effect embedded within the behaviourism, counter theoretical,
sociological,

psychodynamic and

ecological systems models, to name but a few. In

drawing from other models and their underlying theories, the ecological model is deemed
to constitute an eclectic model, as it clarifies the cause of disturbance or problem behaviour

51

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OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATIERNS

as a misfit between the individual learner and his or her environment or ecosystem. The
individual learner has unique characteristics that are in frequent interaction with the
environment in such a way, that deviant behaviour ,s triggered. The causative factors giving
rise to the occurrence of behaviour problems are therefore a function of both the learner and
the learner's environment or ecosystem.

In contrast with the medical model, no blame for behaviour problems is attributed in terms
of the ecological model - instead all the significant other role players including the learner
need to contribute towards the cure or prevention of the behaviour problems of the learner.
It is thus not a matter of pure "cause effect problem behaviour" but rather a matter of
"problem behaviour-interaction within the environment to cure or to prevent the problem
behaviour" that is of significance (see sec. 2.2 of this chapter in this regard).

In this chapter the following aspects will be addressed:

2.2

theoretical perspectives on the development of behaviour, and

the normal development of learners.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIOUR

In the period prior to the 1940s no proper educational strategies were identified that could
be used to satisfy the needs of troubled learners. Over the years, various

prominent

scientists have studied the phenomenon of behaviour. They arrived at specific conclusions,
as to how human behaviour arises, why people's behaviour differs, and why some [Link]
experience behaviour problems. On the basis of their convictions, they made certain
theoretical deductions, based on views which they accepted as being true. They described

these views and thereby generated theories regarding how behaviour came into being. These
theories are generally termed theoretical models for explaining behaviour or theoretical
perspectives on behaviour (Santrock 1995:3). Not only did these

attempt to anticipate what will occur, but they

behaviour theories

also attempted to make sense of the

prevailing situation, while simultaneously attempting to gain an understanding of the impact

of the past. Consequently, these theories have been deliberately used to explain human
conditions that could be described as unusual, or socially unacceptable behaviours (Rich
1982:23). They also offered suggestions as to how behaviour could be modified.

Before the findings of the scientific analysis emerged, explanations for behaviour were
founded in superstition and religion (Rich 1982:23). With the emergence of science

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52

dominated thinking, the scientific analysis of physical conditions and their impact on human
behaviour assumed substantial significance in analysing behaviour. Notably, therefore, early
scientific researchers tended to use abnormal behaviour and the physical impact upon
behaviour, as their point of departure when analysing so-called normal behaviour. The
emphasis on physical symptoms, as causes of certain behaviour patterns (e.g. fever, pain),
originated from the medical model. All behaviour problems or mental disturbances were
deemed to originate from within the context of a medical model. All behaviour problems
or mental disturbances were deemed to stem from a physical condition.

Towards the end of scientific findings dominating diagnoses, the medical profession moved
rapidly towards accepting the behaviour-psychological origin of human behaviour. The
impact of these behaviour psychological analyses of behaviour can, as from the twentieth
century, be traced within the fields of psychiatry, psychology, sociology and ecology, each
having developed its own distinct perspectives, theories and frame of reference (Rich
1982:24). In other words, based on their unique assumptions, each theory suggested ways
and means of assisting persons with behaviour problems. This is confirmed by Rhodes and
Paul (Rich 1982:23) who argue that "each perspective has its own knowledge base and
represents a sound view of the problem".

Apter and Conoley (1984:55), Gallagher

(1988:10) and Haring (1978:132) describe these theoretical models as "models of human
behaviour are representations of reality or ways of understanding and predicting the
behaviour of ourselves and others". In this regard it should be noted that Wicks-Nelson and
Israel (1984:44) maintain that the concepts perspective, paradigm and model and theory are
frequently used interchangeably.

Emotionally disturbed learners have since the turn of the century been observed and their
behaviour studied, resulting in the development of various theories, as to the causative
factors giving rise to the behaviours concerned. These pertinent models and theories were
analysed in the Study of Child Variance (Apter & Conoley 1984:55; Hammill & Bartel
1995:295; Haring 1978:132) and six major perspectives or models emerged, namely the:
~

biophysical model,

behaviour model,

psychodynamic model,

sociological model,

ecological model, and

countertheories model.

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53

Each of these models focuses on different aspects of the "truth" regarding learners with
behaviour problems, and thereby attempt to understand, predict and relieve the behaviour
problems encountered in practice. Notably, each of the models is essentially correct, but not
complete in generating a holistic understanding of behaviour problems.

However,

collectively they enrich our understanding of the behaviour problems experienced by

learners. Each of the respective models offers truths that, within their specific context,
generate an understanding of learners with behaviour problems and their conflicts.

Human behaviour is complex in nature and several different scientific and quasi-scientific
approaches have been used to gain an understanding thereof. These various behaviour
theories are not mutually exclusive, but offer a specific perspective and understanding as
to the causative factors that give rise to behaviour problems. The six theories or models,
referred to above, can be regarded as constituting basic or umbrella theories which contain
a variety of different perspectives and debates on behaviour and the causes thereof. So for
instance the biophysical model integrates a variety of different explanations of behaviour,
for example, genetic and neurological factors underpinning behaviour patterns. A number
of biophysical elucidations constitute a theoretical model because of their basic
methodology, universal orienting points of departure, a managing principle of a behaviour
causative factor, a universal philosophical background and a basic effective method to
evaluate behaviour (Rich 1982:25; Santrock 1995:34). Although the different theories were
integrated into a main theory, for example, the biophysical theory, all have a biophysical
base that they agree on. For example, all behaviour theories will explain behaviour in terms
of principles of learning.

Rich {1982:25) provides the following example of the different interpretations of different
theories of a given behaviour pattern:

Biophysical model

Allergic reactions to food additives develop due to neural

inflammation

Behaviour model

Copying of a role model (e.g. parent) or being reinforced by

the role model (e.g. the parent)

Psychodynamic model

The personality is being dominated by the id because of the

inadequate development of the ego

Sociological model

Social rules and expectations are more important than the

behaviour of one individual as such

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT:

OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATIERNS

Ecological model

54

The individual organism is in dysfunctional interaction with

the ecosystem (e.g. classroom conditions)

Each theory provides teachers with a more comprehensive understanding of learners with
behaviour problems and assists them in planning an assistance program to suit the needs of
each individual learner. If teachers merely focussed on a single theory, their ability to assist
the learner with behaviour problems wou Id be equally constrained. It is therefore contended
that a holistic approach should be adopted in dealing with learners, with behaviour
problems. The ensuing statement by Santrock (1995:34) tends to affirm this contention,
namely "Together they let us see the total landscape of life-span development in all its
richness." Gallagher (1988: 10, 11, 18) in a similar vein contends that "there is no single best
strategy for teaching troubled youth; a strategy integrating several viewpoints appears to be
the most effective".

Morse (Swanson & Reinert 1984: 14), in support of the adoption of a holistic approach,
contends that an important development that has taken place is the fact that theorists have
basically moved from linking to a restrictive psychodynamic point of view, to one of
incorporating alternative approaches advocated by other theorists as well. These typically
include the behaviouristic and ecological approach, to but name two such approaches. In
a related sense, Kauffman (Swanson & Reinert 1984:15) argues that it might be worthwhile
for teachers to extend their influence beyond the classroom by involving the parents of
learners or making use of community resources to the benefit of the learner, but "talk of
influence beyond the classroom, including such high-sounding phrases as ecological
management, is patent nonsense until the teacher has demonstrated that she can make the
classroom environment productive".

Gallagher (1988: 15) regards the matching of the most appropriate intervention with the type
of problem the learner exhibits, as constituting the best and most effective approach in
dealing with learners with behaviour problems. Red I (Gallagher 1988:18) further maintains
that apart from which theoretical model is implemented, when dealing with learners with
behaviour problems, a certain "life support variable" is crucial for teachers if they want to
understand learners with behaviour problems, namely "an imaginative awareness from
within" or as Red I (Gallagher 1988:18) phrases it "there is no substitute for getting a "feel"
of what it is like to be an emotionally disturbed child or to be in a "state of conflict".

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT:

OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS

SS

From the above discussion it may be concluded that an integrative, as opposed to an

exclusive approach, needs to be adopted in assisting learners with behaviour problems. By
implication this of necessity requires an understandi:ig of the respective models concerned.
Consequently in the ensuing discussion, the biophysical, behaviour, psychodynamic,

sociological, ecological and countertheories models will be analysed, in order to acquire

such an understanding.

2.2.1

The biophysical model

In terms of the biophysical model it argued that problem behaviour primarily stems from
biological and physical factors and consequently problem behaviour can be traced back to
a physical illness, especially

a dysfunction of the central nervous system. A direct

correlation between physical malfunctions (e.g. internal variables that affect the central
nervous system) and problem behaviour is observable. Proponents of this model believe
that behaviour is an outward expression of an inner, physical problem. Causes of behaviour
problems are therefore regarded as being intrinsic in nature, in that the origin of the
behaviour problem is rooted within the body of the learner and does not emanate from
extrinsic factors within the environment of the learner. Rich (1982:26) argues that while
teachers are frequently sceptical of the biophysical model, they in practice need to consider
the symptoms and characteristics of physical disturbances, as they have direct implications
in terms of identifying causes of behaviour problems and in regard to educational practices.

Various terms have been attributed to this perspective within the literature. They range from
the biogenic model, to the biogenetic, organic, biological, and psychoneurological models
respectively. These models are essentially all based on the same premise, namely:
"emotional disturbance is a form of mental disease, a pathological condition that exists
because of deficiencies in the individual" (Apter & Conoley 1984:65). More moderate
followers of this perspective are less keen to ascribe behaviour problems directly to physical
malfunctions. Instead, it is proposed that if triggered by a particular environmental condition,
the necessary biogenic predispositions can result in an emotional disturbance or problem
behaviour. Paul and Epanchin (Apter & Conoley 1984:65) hold the view that two basic types
of organic factor theories can be distinguished that are related to emotional disturbance or
problem behaviour, namely underlying organic defects and developmental backlogs. As may
be determined from the preceding discussion, the biophysical model interprets behaviour
in terms of genetic, biochemical and neurological factors, as well as developmental factors
(Rich 1982:27).

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT:

OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS

56

[Link] Biological defect model

The following theories are incorporated within the biological defect model:

Genetic theory. Genetic factors have a direct impact on the learner's behaviour.
Two types of genetic disorders are distinguished namely: process disorders, which
are based on some sort of genetic disposition, that begin early, show more serious
symptoms and tend to have a rather poor prognosis; and reactive disorders which
are manifest more suddenly and exhibit milder symptoms, with a better prognosis,
as well as no initial genetic predispositions. The role of genetic factors, as causative
factors are quite controversial, as empirical evidence therefore is essentially
lacking.

Temperament theory.

Thomas and Chess (Apter & Conoley 1984:6; Paul &

Epanchin 1982: 158; Santrock 1992:96) identified three temperament types, namely:
the easy child/learner who has a high tolerance for frustration and is characterised
as adaptable to change; the difficult child/learner who is frequently inclined to be
negative, with intense mood expressions; and the slow-to-warm-up child, who
represents a combination of the previous two temperament types, but is more
inclined to adapt satisfactorily. This topology is useful in the prediction of the type
of behaviour that the learner will exhibit, instead of predicting whether a learner will
behave in a specific manner. Research seems to indicate that these three basic
temperament types are reasonably stable in the early life years, but are shaped and
modified by a learner's later experiences (Santrock 1992:96,97). The following
elements have been identified, as forming the foundation on which the three basic
types

of

temperament

are

based,

namely:

activity

level,

rhythmicity,

approach/withdrawal, adaptability, thresholds of responsiveness, intensity of

reaction, quality of mood, distractibility and attention span (Santrock 1992:97). The
impact of these elements can be traced back to genetic factors in interaction with
environmental conditions (see chapter 4 in this regard).

Neuropsychopharmacological theory. In neuropsychopharmacological theory the

focus is on the impact of drugs on the elements of problem behaviour, especially in
relation to the hyperactive or psychotic learner. Although medication could suppress
hyperactivity and get the learner to remain on his or her seat, it does not lead to
positive long term effects and improved adjustments. Gado (Apter & Conoley
1984:67) argues that "treated children are not significantly better off in the long run
than hyperactive children who do not receive drugs".

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57

Nutritional disorders. This theory maintains that the food that a child consumes or
fails to consume, has a direct impact on his or her behaviour. For example, a
hyperactive learner could behave quite differently if certain chemical additives in
his or her food are eliminated. Biochemical changes in hormonal levels, especially
during times of stress, have an impact on the sensitivity of the neural systems that
control behaviour, for example aggression. Feingold (Apter & Conoley 1984:68;
Rich: 1982:28) maintains that "there is sufficient evidence to indicate some
relationship between food additives and hyperactivity in some children".

Neurological dysfunction theory.

A neurological dysfunction - neurological

impairments, for example brain dysfunction - can influence a learner's behaviour.

A variety of symptoms are observable when a child is brain damaged, for example
disorientation, hallucinations, intellectual impairment, and loss of impulse control.
In the case of brain dysfunction, however, it is not so easy to observe the neural
damage. Although a child/learner may act impulsively, appear emotionally unstable,
and may even exhibit symptoms, such as hyperactivity, distractibility, and labiality,
it is not easy to ascertain whether the learner is suffering from brain dysfunction or
not, as the symptoms seem to interchange for different conditions. For instance the
symptoms that children, who were diagnosed to be suffering from brain dysfunction,
exhibit are in effect very similar in nature to the symptoms depicted in adults
suffering from brain damage. Extreme behaviours, even death can be triggered by
neurological damage that occurred after a physical trauma (e.g. accidents, fights and
poisoning) or as a result of disease (e.g. meningitis, encephalitis and sclerosis).
Allergies have been identified as constituting a major causative factor of disturbed
behaviours (Rich 1982:29). Fever, as well as minor head injuries may also cause
neurological damage, consequently resulting in behaviour problems being exhibited.
In some instances the symptoms of neurological damage are so slight that teachers
do not consider the possibility of neurological damage. Teachers, without becoming
medical diagnosticians, need to be sensitive to the possibilities of neurological
damage, as it can act as an intrinsic causative factor to behaviour problems.

[Link] Developmental theory

Developmental theory is based on the contention that in some learners, who exhibit
behaviour problems, the central nervous system is not adequately developed in accordance
with the age group of learners concerned. By implication a correlation is therefore drawn
between behaviour and variables that have an effect on the central nervous system.

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58

Developmental theorists maintain that delays in a learner's development can be regarded

as

constituting an at-risk factor for triggering behaviour problems. Different areas of

development can exhibit delays, for example neurological organization, perceptual-motor

learning, and sensory integration. Stage theorists believe that a learner must successfully
complete earlier stages of development, before meeting the challenges presented by
subsequent phases of development. Kephart (Apter & Conoley 1984:70) concurs with this
contention by stressing that learners who are exhibiting poor social skills or learning
problems, need to improve their lower developmental skills, such as balance, before their
poor social skills or learning problems can be remediated. Newcomer (Apter & Conoley
1984:70), however, warns that "the notion of developmental deficits as the cause of mental
disorders has not been substantiated".

Rhodes and Paul (Apter & Conoley 1984:70) have identified five important areas of psycho
pathology that can be traced back to biophysical dysfunctions, namely inadequate impulse

control, disturbances in perception and movement, disturbances in conceptual and abstract

thinking, body image, and self-concept. Each of these areas can trigger behaviour problems.
A learner with a poor self-concept can for instance act negatively by attempting to control
peers, and experience difficulty in trying to cope with minimal frustration. The energy that
is needed for normal growth to take place is utilized in an attempt to compensate for and to
remediate biological weaknesses. Developmental theorists therefore suggest that a
biophysical dysfunction is a cause of behaviour problems.

[Link] A critical appraisal of the biological defect theory

Not all researchers concur with the assumptions that underlie the developmental model.
Newcomer (Apter & Conoley 1984:71) for instance criticises the biophysical model, in that
it correlates behaviour problems directly to a physical condition, which teachers are unable
to understand and assist. The learner by implication therefore becomes the responsibility
of a medical doctor and the teacher, as one of the important role players in the learner's lifeworld, is totally excluded from dealing with the problem. According to the medical model,
learners with behaviour problems need to be removed from mainstream classrooms and be
placed in separate schools. A further criticism of the medical model is its focus on the
learner per se. It is argued that changes must be made "within" the learner and the impact
of the environment, for example the classroom environment in which the learner functions,
is totally ignored. Rhodes and Paul (Apter & Conoley 1984:72) are of the opinion that
educational planning should consider the strengths and weaknesses of each individual

59

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OVERVIEW OF VIEWS, MODELS AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS

learner, so that a learner may be assisted to build upon his or her own particular strengths
in order to achieve success, which

in turn will nurture a better self-concept and

consequently compensate for biological deficits.

It may be argued that in practice a team approach needs to be followed, whereby members
of the medical fraternity and educationists could collectively, with other relevant role players
in the learner's life-world, deal with the issues concerned on a synergistic, as opposed to an
individualistic, basis.

2.2.2

The behaviourist model or learning theory

Two distinct learning theories evolved, as a result of the disagreement between theorists as
to the functional relationship that exists between the behaviour of a person and
environmental events. The first group of theorists argued that the most important element
in learning is the relationship between the Stimulus (S) and the Response (R) to the stimulus,
within the environment. This argument is based on the law of association. Thus: stimuli and
responses or behaviours to the stimuli are associated with one another. This theory is termed

classical conditioning and is generally accredited to Ivan Pavlov (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:6668; Rich 1982:32). The second group maintained that the response following a stimulus
must be reinforced immediately. They argue that a person will choose or discover a response
that will provide him or her with the best reinforcement. This theory is termed

operant

conditioning (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:68,69).

While Freud was formulating his influential psychodynamic model, Pavlov was conducting
experimental work with animals in Russia. Pavlov discovered that animals learned by means
of stimulus/response associations. For example, a dog knows that if he obeys his master and
sits on command he will be rewarded. Various perspectives regard

conditioning as a

synonym for learning. This association of the correct behaviour being rewarded, produced
the correct behaviour, even if the initial eliciting stimulus was absent (Apter & Conoley
1984:61). Generalization of behaviour patterns, which has now taken place, is a higher
order mental process and is related to the probability that when a stimulus, similar to the
original stimulus occurs, the person will behave in a very similar way. A case in point being
when the word "bad" is first mentioned to a young child, it does not appear to be
meaningful to the child, but when the child is slapped the word is associated with a bad
experience and the child generally reacts by crying. The word "bad" becomes a conditioned
stimulus that can be generalized to include other words such as "not nice" or even "school"

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60

or "teacher". When a learner has established a set of conditioned responses to certain

stimuli within the environment, they can trigger a certain behaviour pattern. Statements
made by teachers can for instance initiate a variety of responses, such as withdrawal,
hyperactivity, aggression or uncontrollable behaviour (Rich 1982:33). As previously stated
above, Pavlov's theory has been termed classical or respondent conditioning. Classical
conditioning (including modelling of behaviour) stresses the impact of the interrelatedness
of significant stimuli and associated behaviour that are transferred from the classroom
situation to other situations outside the classroom. Learners are often labelled disturbed
when their behaviour is not in line with behaviour considered as appropriate within a
particular situation or context.

John Watson followed in Pavlov's footsteps when he extended Pavlov's studies to human
beings under controlled laboratory conditions. The theory has been termed behaviourism,
in view of the fact that Watson maintained that the only legitimate way of studying human
behaviour, was by means of systematic observable observations of their behaviour. This
assumption was directly in contrast to Freud's beliefs, as Freud essentially focussed on inner
feelings and conflicts.

Skinner, being part 'of the operant conditioning group, conducted experiments in order to
gain a better understanding of the complexity of the relationships that exist between
behaviours and their consequences. Wicks-Nelson and Israel (1984:60) claim thatthe insight
generated by Skinner "is probably the behaviour perspective most extensively applied to
children's disorders". Meyer and Van Ede (1995:69) in a similar vein contend that "a large
proportion of a child's behaviour is also learnt through operant conditioning". This method
of learning seems to be complementary to respondent conditioning, as each of the theories
attempt to provide explanations as to why people act in a particular manner. Classical
conditioning emphasizes the effect of the environment in eliciting responses, for example
the cock that crows, creating an awareness that it is time to have an early morning cup of
coffee (Apter & Conoley 1984:62). Although the cock crows at noon, one still associates it
with the crowing at the crack of dawn. Association is thus the key factor in linking the two
perceptions with each other. Skinner maintains that most learning is based on associations
that link two perceptions with each other. Human beings receive a response from the
environment and then tend to react in an appropriate manner. This response can be either
a reward or punishment. Reinforcing responses from the environment can either, depending
on the type of response, reinforce the same reaction from a human being or eliminate a
certain reaction (Apter & Conoley 1984:62).

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A typical example is the case of a teacher praising a learner for being on time. The learner
in return feels good and would like to please the teacher, thus he or she keeps up the
punctuality (positive reinforcement). However, if the learner is punished for being on time,
the learner will arrive late in future (negative reinforcement). Thus: operant conditioning
differs from classical conditioning in that it emphasises the reinforcement, in terms of either
a reward or punishment that follows a behaviour pattern which is being established. Pleasant
associations, as a result of rewards, will strengthen the behaviour and punishment which is
associated with unpleasantness, weakens or changes the behaviour to conform to more
acceptable behaviour patterns.

Teachers and all other significant role players in the environment of the learner act as
reinforcers who can either punish or reward certain behaviour patterns. This reality
complicates the control of behaviour, as behaviour patterns that are unacceptable to the
teacher within the classroom situation can be regarded by peers or parents as acceptable.
When a learner is desperately seeking attention, he or she can even regard the teacher's
punishment as a reward, although it was not meant to be a reward and punishment can thus
be counterproductive if emotional needs remain unmet. Therefore, according to the operant
conditioning theory, the way in which significant other persons within the environment
respond to the behaviour of the learner, can give rise to behaviour problems. For example,
the behaviour of learners who are looking for attention, can be reinforced by the laughter
of the peer group rather than by the punishment threatened by the teacher (Rich 1982:35).

There are critics who argue that while operant conditioning offers an explanation for the
occurrence of some new behaviours, it does not explain the wide variety of behaviour
(Meyer & Van Ede 1995:69). The implications of operant conditioning are that a child can
only learn behaviour when he or she exhibits the behaviour himself or herself and receives
reinforcement therefore. Meyer and Yan Ede (1995:69) draw attention to the fact that some
modern learning theorists regard the social environment as another important source forthe
nurturing of new behaviour patterns.

Bandura (Meyer & Yan Ede 1995:69) refers to several experiments which demonstrate that
children can learn behaviour through observational learning. Bandura's theory (Apter &
Conoley 1984:62; Haring 1978:138; Santrock 1995:44) on

observational learning, is

deemed to complement that of Skinner and Watson. This theory in concept implies that
people learn from the behaviour of others, by observation, even if they are not personally
rewarded or punished (Apter & Conoley 1984:62; Santrock 1995:44). This by implication

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means that children can acquire a variety of behaviours, such as aggression or cooperation,
by observation. Notably, Bandura (Wicks-Nelson & Israel 1984:63) also demonstrated the
usefulness of imitative learning in the treatment of behaviour problems. Earlier behaviourists
ignored the "inside" or inner world of a person and focussed on what goes into the person.
In effect people were regarded as "black boxes" and consequently what happened inside the
person was deemed of little importance, nor of scientific value, as the process could not be
directly observed or quantified.

Suddenly, the dynamic behaviourist model was placed in the classroom by means of the
behaviour modification model, which was used by many educators and psychologists in
dealing with the so-called "troubled" child. It has in fact replaced the psychodynamic model.
Juul (Apter & Conoley 1984:63), in noting the sudden rise in interest in the behaviour
modification model, commented thatthe model emphasizes the reinforcement of the child's
strengths and is inclined to sensitise parents and teachers alike, as regards what children
really are able to do. The literature shows the increase in popularity of the behaviour
modification model, judging by its immense following, was due to behaviour modification
model could be applied in various different situations. Atthe core of the behaviourist model
is the contention that behaviour is learned. To be able to understand behaviour patterns
fully, it is therefore necessary to research the interactions that take place between learners
and their environment, as well as

the stimulus-response. patterns embedded in the

interactions that take place.

After Freud, learning theorists such as Watson and Skinner emerged. They attempted to
replace Freud's theory of psychoanalysis with a theory that was far easier to test, thereby
making it far more verifiable from a practical perspective. Watson is commonly considered
to be the father of the behaviourist model - or behaviourism (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:64).
The assumptions that form the foundations on which the model is based are summarised as
follows (Apter & Conoley 1984:63; Gearheart, Weishahn & Gearheart 1988:313; Paul &
Epanchin 1982: 186; Rich 1982:35):

Inherited potential is not important. What is important is the environment in which

a person is raised. Behaviours are learned through the environment in which the
learner finds him or herself. Learners act or behave in a specific manner that they
have found to be most effective and appropriate within a particular set of
circumstances.

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All human behaviour is acquired or learnt, thus the coining of the term "learning
theory".

Behaviour consists of a series of responses that a person has learnt in

reacting to environmental stimuli impacting on him or her. From early childhood,

learners receive cues and reinforcement through an interaction process with their
environment, from parents, teachers and peers, as well as strangers. Learners learn
from associates and society in general, as to what objects of physiological drives to
find inviting and attractive, for example what type of food they should choose to eat,
or who to find attractive.

Children's individual development, and the rate or tempo at which they reach
certain developmental phases, have nothing to do with their inner biological
composition. It depends entirely on the number and type of stimuli that have an
impact on them. Such stimuli are deemed to be the most important factors in a
learner's environment or life-world.

Most behaviour is learnt and by implication is unlearned, by means of the

application of principles of learning.

Appropriate or normal behaviour patterns, as well as disturbed (abnormal) or

inappropriate behaviour patterns, are learnt and consequently behaviours that are
regarded as inappropriate, can be changed or swapped for alternative, more
acceptable behaviours through the use of appropriate reinforcement procedures.
Where learners exhibit inappropriate behaviours the assumption may also be made
that, apart from other causative factors giving rise to the behaviour, these learners
did not learn what the appropriate behaviour should be within a specific situation,
for example learners need to be taught to raise their hands when they want to
answer a question in class instead of speaking out of turn. As a situation or
environment changes, so behaviour will tend to change accordingly. A change in the
environment can therefore act as an antecedent or a consequent event. In both
cases, however, the behaviour changes as the environment changes.

If all the environmental characteristics are known, it is in theory possible to predict

and control behaviour.

Skinner elaborated on Watson's hypotheses, by pointing out that human (and other) beings
learn certain patterns of behaviour far more easily if they are rewarded for exhibiting the
appropriate behaviour concerned. In contrast they tend to avoid forms of behaviour, if they
are punished for them. Skinner arrived at this conviction on the basis of his experiments
conducted with animals, such as a caged dove that had to tread on a lever in order to release
food; a cat in a cubicle, which had to perform certain actions before it could receive food;

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and rats which, having discovered certain responses by coincidence, had to repeat these
responses if they wished to obtain the same results. The emergent theory was therefore
based on the pleasure-pain principle. What you enjoy, you tend to repeat; while you prefer
to avoid the things you find unpleasant. Skinner referred to this theory as operational
conditioning.

In view of the fact that the theories propounded by Watson and Skinner were criticised for
completely ignoring "inner" processes, such as attention and memory, Bandura devised his
social learning or social cognitive theory (Haring 1978: 141; Sigel man & Shaffer 1994:39).
His theory focussed on an additional component of the process whereby human behaviour
is acquired, namely people are able to think through the relationship between their
behaviour and its consequences. For example, they can anticipate what will happen if they
behave in a particular manner or continue with their current behaviour. Bandura (Santrock
1995:44; Sigelman & Shaffer 1994:39) attached considerable value to the impact of
observation and

imitation, as a behaviour determinant. For instance, the conduct and

actions of parents, teachers or peers can influence children's behaviour, in the sense that
they will imitate it and integrate it into their personal life style. A case in point being the way
teenagers may spend hours in front of a mirror, imitating the behaviourism of some popular
hero(ine) or idol, or trying to copy the hair style of a prominent role model within their life
world.

There are additional theocratical differences between Bandura and Skinner and Watson, in
that Bandura maintains that not only does the environment impact on the learner, but the
learner also has an impact on the environment- hence the reference to mutual influencing.

In view of the preceding discussion, the premise on which behaviourism theory is based,
is summarised as follows:

Behaviour does not arise from within a person. Instead, it is learned on the strength
of stimuli impacting on the person from the outside. Sigel man and Shaffer (1994:41)
illustrate this by citing teenage sexuality. According to the behaviorist model,
teenage sexual behaviour is not, as intimated by Freud, determined principally by
inner sexual drives, but by environmental factors (e.g. James will not use a condom
if he thinks this will spoil his enjoyment, and Sheila will not ask him to do so again
if, on a previous occasion, he reacted vehemently to her request).

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The consequences of learners' behaviour will determine whether or not that

behaviour is reinforced. Conduct that is rewarded with pleasant experiences will
occur far more frequently, and behaviour that is punished (by unpleasant results) will
decrease. Positive behaviou_r is reinforced by rewarding it with positive incentives
relating to the learner's primary or biological needs (food, security) or to his or her
secondary or psychic needs (attention, recognition, praise, privileges). Tokens may
also be used as reinforcing incentives, in which case they must be an incentive for
a particular learner, which in turn means that the teacher must know the learners
well enough to choose the right incentives to use as reinforcement in each specific
case. The following techniques can be used to eliminate undesirable behaviour:
erasure (unacceptable behaviour is ignored, while positive behaviour is praised);
punishment (disincentives like restriction of freedom, suspension of privileges is
used to discourage the learner from resorting to the unacceptable behaviour);
response costs (tokens are used as incentives); distance education (time out - the
learner is removed from the classroom for a period in order to prevent disruption of
the class or to give the learner the opportunity to settle down); and satiation (the
learner is allowed to transgress rules of conduct with monotonous regularity so that
the novelty of the unacceptable behaviour will wear off and the learner will lose
interest in persisting with the behaviour concerned).

The physiological development of children (such as Freud's phases), as behaviour

determinants, is not accepted.

New behaviours may arise through imitation or mimicking. A teacher can make use
of this principle, by encouraging children with behaviour problems to emulate (as
their role model) a peer-group member whose behaviour is socially more
acceptable.

The situation in which the behaviour occurs is important. The cat in the cubicle has
to tread on a lever to obtain food. This means that the cat will not repeat this
behaviour outside the cubicle. Similarly, children do not exhibit the same behaviour
in all situations. For instance, a child may steal things in one situation, but not in
another. Santrock (1992:290) asserts that a child who never steals in any situation
is just as rare as one who steals in every situation.

[Link] A critical appraisal of the contributions of the behaviourism model

Behaviourism has made the following contributions (Santrock 1992:384; Sigel man & Shaffer
.

1995:40-42; Meyer & Van Ede 1995:71):

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The claims/pronouncements of behaviourism may be tested and precisely defined,

and are formulated on the basis of controlled experimental situations. Thus far they
have provided evidence that their proven formulations are feasible, valid and
reliable.

Learning principles such as operational conditioning and observed learning (role

modelling) are applicable to all age groups, that is, from babies to the aged.

The model is criticised on the basis of the following:

The behaviourism school of thought does not succeed in explaining how human
behaviour passes from one phase of life to the next. All it does is indicate that the
observed changes in behaviour can be acquired.

Advocates of behaviourism fail to account for the inner biological development of

children or for the fact that children have to reach a specific level of development
before they will be ready to learn specific skills.

The impact of the genetic-hereditary component is forfeited. People are essentially

different, not only because of their learning experiences, but also because of genetichereditary factors.

The behaviour model focuses on simple behaviours and therefore is not applicable
in the case of more complex behaviour patterns.

Behaviourists reject important inner cognitive, affective and conative processes.

It does not take into consideration the importance of values, as behaviour

determinants, in modifying behaviour.

The behaviour of children cannot be changed to suit adults - children can appear
quiet and docile from the outside, yet experience inner turmoil and emotional
instability.

Problems have been experienced by behaviorists in transferring the skills to another

similar situation, with the result that the positive results are not manifest over time.

There are supporters of the behaviour modification model, who have become so
attached to the model, that they have become blind to its deficiencies. In practice
no model is deemed to be perfect. Each model offers a partial explan~tion of
behaviour and no one model is capable of explaining all the behaviours that occur,
in relation to every child.

A serious criticism of the behaviour model, emanates from the fact that it is open to
ethical abuse. Persons making use of the behaviour modification model, to control
children's behaviour, quite often abused the use of negative reinforcement,

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especially if it takes a while to modify old habits. Skinner and his colleagues were
more in favour of making use of positive reinforcement to modify behaviour.
Sometimes the expectations were so unrea 'istic, that the child could not show any
improvement in behaviour.

In light of the above criticism, it is interesting to note that Pica and Margolis (1993:29-33)
argue that teachers underestimate, over simplify and inappropriately apply the principles of
behaviour modification. It is contended that behaviour modification programmes need to
be precision crafted and

developed in accordance with the principles of operant

conditioning. Behaviour modification programmes need to be modified, as well as

maintained, in order to have an impact on the learner's behaviour. Teachers very easily
blame the behaviour modification theory, when th~y were not following the principles.

Pica and Margolis (1993:29-33) have posed certain questions that teachers can ask of
themselves, when they find that they are unsuccessful in implementing behaviour
modification techniques, namely:

Is the classroom environment suitable to increase the probability of appropriate

behaviour?

Has the program been given enough time to prove itself?

Do the teacher's demeanor and actions emphasize the positive or is the program
used to catch students "being bad"?

Are suitable and appealing reinforcers employed?

Does it take long to reward the learner with reinforcers?

Are the qualifying criteria for reinforcers too high?

Do learners easily become satiated on the reinforcers?

Are appropriate schedules of reinforcement being used?

Is shaping used to reduce frequently occurring inappropriate behaviour, or is

complete elimination of these behaviours required for reinforcement?

Does the behaviour modification programme have "dark spots"? (Dark spots are
those times when learners because of their failure to meet the requirements to
qualify for receiving reinforcers, are precluded from any further receiving of
reinforcers)

Is contingent praise given far more than negative comments?

Does the environment make it easy for students to perform well?

Is generalization systematically taught?

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In conclusion Pica and Margolis (1993:29) stress that "an impressive body of research"
exists, which provides positive comments on the substantial impact that behaviour
modification programmes have on behaviour.

2.2.3

The psychodynamic model

The psychodynamic or psychoanalytical model, as it is called, was Freud's brainchild. It was

mostly used in medically orientated treatment facilities. Freud's theory was based on the
following fundamental assumptions (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:50-57; Mc Dowell, Adamson
& Wood 1982:47-70; Rich 1982:35-39; Santrock 1995:34-36; Swanson & Reinart 1984:14):

A person's behaviour is determined by an interaction between three components

of their personality: the id (unconscious), the ego (conscious) and the superego
(ideals). These deep inner feelings in the unconscious mind can influence people's
behaviour throughout their lives. In a mature, mentally healthy person, the ego
(reality orientation) must take control, transform or sublimate the id (instinctual
desires) and the superego (conscience). One of Freud's main goals was to relieve
the unconscious conflicts of his patients by making them aware of their feelings and
working out strategies to understand and assist the conflicts that may arise.

The experiences we have during our early childh0od years have a decisive and
lasting effect on our behaviour. Psychological difficulties experienced by learners,
as well as in adults, are the result of

problems that the learner or adult has

experienced during the first few years of his or her life.

The typically human instincts or drives, such as the instinct to live or to die and the
sex drive, are at the origin of human behaviour. They give rise to human emotions,
such as anxiety, fear and love.

Everyone is unique and different. This implies that each of us is able to attribute
personal meanings to specific circumstances and events in our lives, and meanings
that affect our lives in ways that are different from the ways they may have affected
others.

A child's personality is essentially established during the first five to six years of the
his or her life.

Each individual is provided with psychic energy which is distributed amongst the
various aspects of the personality, for example the id, the ego and the superego, with
their frequently conflicting goals.

Psychodynamic theory is developmental and maintains that each learner passes

through three stages of psychosexual development (early childhood, the latency

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period and puberty) that takes place in a fixed sequence. The specific stage of
development must be taken into consideration, when a child's behaviour is
evaluated. The bodily zone that is the primary source of gratification, during a
particular developmental stage, provides the name of the stage concerned, for
example the oral phase. Each of the developmental stages poses a developmental
crisis, which the child has to resolve. If the child does not reach a resolution, he or
she becomes fixated at that stage. Fixation can be caused by the fact either that the
child cannot meet the demands from within the environment or because the child
is enjoying the fulfilment of his or her needs to such an extent, that the child does
not want to progress to the next stage. Feelings during fixation can thus vary from
frustration to overindulgence, thereby adversely impacting on all subsequent stages.

Anxiety is deemed to be the result of an unacceptable impulse that wants to gain

consciousness. When the conscious gets to know about this danger signal, which is
causing anxiety, the ego creates defences to deal with it, for example repression and
denial, projection, displacement and aggressive reaction formation.

With the above background in mind, it is important to note that the psychodynamic model
emphasizes the inner life, as a causative factor of emotional disturbance (behaviour
problems). Bad experiences from the past and unsolved conflicts in the unconscious mind
act as determining factors, with regard to the behaviour of the patient (Santrock 1995:34).
The patient must therefore be assisted to gain an insight into the past experiences, for
example a child who has been sexually molested must develop insight, in relation to the
terrible experience concerned. In the case of children the development of insight into the
causative situation, becomes the aim of education. Consequently the teacher needs to
develop a positive interpersonal relationship with the child, in order to be able to explore
together with the child his or her past experience and thereby assist the child to develop
insight into these past experiences. This will enable the child to take part in reality testing,
to get rid of fixations or unsuitable defences against drives orfeelings of anxiety and to relive
the emotional experience, in order to deal therewith. These outcomes of the teacher/child
relationship, as a way of providing understanding to the child, provide an opportunity to
"correct" behaviour, by developing an insight into the unpleasant experiences of the past.
It can be accomplished by the child's verbalization and clarification of thoughts that have
thus far been repressed (e.g. being sexually molested and pretending that it is alright or that
it was only a bad dream and it did not really happen), reliving bad experiences from the past
together with the teacher, and by working out new strategies for dealing with the past.
Up until the 1960s the psychodynamic model was the model that was most widely used by
health and educational personnel. The psychodynamic theory incorporates psychoanalytic

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and intrapsychic theories, as well as humanistic psychology in that they all have as a point
of departure the supposition that behaviour problems are caused by "internal forces".
Although different perspectives shape the psychodynamic approach, the commonalities
among these various perspectives, provide the necessary premises on which the model is
based.

The psychodynamic theory is deterministic, as Freud regarded models that did not analyse
causes of behaviour or that did not attempt to gain an insight into the learner's behaviour,
as superficial and consequently less valuable. All behaviours have a cause, even the most
trivial behaviour. lntrapsychic factors rather than environmental or social influences are
regarded as causative factors to occurring behaviour. Instinctual -irrational forces determine
problem solving, rather than rational problem solving.

Education aims at guiding the learner to obtain insight into his or her experience. The
teacher is expected to establish a positive interpersonal relationship with the learner. This
relationship will strengthen the emotional experience, strengthen the possibility of reality
testing and undo fixations or unsuitable defences against drives or anxiety. In the classroom
the teacher will be able to assist learners to verbalize and clarify unrepressed thoughts and
to provide a corrective emotional experience based on the learner's relationship with the
teacher, as an understanding adult. The teacher can also assist the learner to cultivate
alternative, and more acceptable behaviour patterns.

Freud focussed on learners' inner emotional lives, namely theirfeelings, attitudes, memories,
impulses and drives. All of these, are understood within two levels, the conscious and the
unconscious. Conscious impressions are related to direct impressions, for example thoughts,

perceptions or memories that a learner experiences at a particular moment in time. The

material embedded in the unconscious mind, can only be made known to the conscious
mind, symbolically. Examples of this symbolic material would be dreams, pictures,
interpretations and slips of the tongue. To Freud, the unconscious elements are more
important than those embedded within the conscious mind. Freud and his colleagues, Karen
Horney, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, Erik Erikson and Bruno Bettelheim, described the
conscious mind as the "tip of the iceberg of mental life" (Apter & Conoley 1984:56; WicksNelson & Israel 1984:54). Apart from the fact that Freud categorised human experience in
terms of two levels of awareness, the subconscious and conscious, he also proposed a
structure of personality. The building blocks of the personality, according to Freud, are: the
id, the ego and the superego.

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The id supplies enough undifferentiated, psychic energy for the whole personality called
libido which in turn is controlled by the pleasure principle. Behaviour that is motivated by
the id is impulsive, irrational and selfish in nature. The id remains in existence throughout
one's life - at some points in time, it comes to the fore, far more prominently, depending
on the extent to which it is controlled by the ego or superego.

The ego is active on the conscious level in trying to make decisions on the behalf of the
person. The reality principle dominates at this level and thus the ego being on the more
rational side of the personality controls the id, but is also subordinate to it, in the sense that
it merely postpones gratification of needs until a more realistic moment. The ego also plans
instances of behaviour, so that the needs of the id may be satisfied in the best possible way.
The ego is shaped directly after birth, as the child interacts with role players within his or her
environment. He or she slowly, but surely, learns to differentiate between himself/herself
and the significant other people in his or her life-world. Thus the ego is essentially less basic
and primitive than the id, but has to be moulded or developed.

The superego provides personality appropriate specific moral standards to live by and
watches over the personality, whilst it stimulates the ego to be more perfect in the
controlling of the id impulses. It develops out of the ego, is able to control the ego and the
id. It arises at the age of two or three, when young children begin to imitate the behaviour
and values of their parents. Later in life, the superego functions as the little voice in
children's heads, whilst controlling their behaviour. This voice is defined as the conscience.
The superego sees to it that socially acceptable or ethically correct safety valves are found
for the possibly undesirable impulses of the id.

The three components of the personality (id, ego, and superego) do not always work together
in harmony. The ego is located between the id and the superego, and tries to create a
balance between the two. The way in which this is accomplished determines the person's
personality. In practice, the id does not always succeed in maintaining this balance, and the
disturbance of the balance may give rise to conflict, with an ensuing manifestation of
various psychological problems (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:51,52; Santrock 1995:34,35).

Although Freud referred to the drive for survival and security (safety), he considered the
sexual or sex drive to be the most important instinct of human life (Meyer & Van Ede
1995:51 ). He called the energy or drive that arises from the sexual drive, the libido. He
maintained that a wide range of problem behaviour is manifest, if the basic sexual drive in

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people is not satisfied. Freud considered the influence of the sexual drive on the lives of
people to be so important that he identified and drew a distinction between five phases of
psychosexual development, namely (Apter & Conoley 1984:58; Meyer & Van Ede 1995:5355; Santrock 1995:35; Rizzo & Zabel 1988:31 ):

The oral phase (birth to the age of one). Most activities are focussed on the mouth
for gratification purposes. Conflicts during this stage can, according to Freud, cause
over dependence and irrational use of verbal aggression. Freud believed that young
children, who are weaned too early, could be deprived of their oral gratification and
might therefore continue to need mother love indefinitely.

The anal phase (between one and three years of age). Gratification is focussed on
the anal area, as the child takes a lot of interest in bowel functions. Conflict during
this stage centres around toilet training and being either too orderly or too messy
and /or [Link] too defiant or obstinate to be properly toilet trained, thus exhibiting
unacceptable behaviour. According to Freud, the handling of this phase or stage, can
have long lasting negative or positive effects on a child's personality. This is a time
when children experience conflict between their physical drives and the social
norms which their parents expect them to display. If their parents treat them harshly
or unsympathetically, by for instance making them spend hours sitting on a potty,
they may develop all kinds of problems.

The phallic phase (three to six years of age). According to Freud, during this phase
children focus on the genital area and indulge in masturbation, sex play with other
children, and finding out where babies come from. These activities need to take
place, as part of a process directed at discovering sexual identity and attitudes
towards sex. During this phase the libido energy is channelled from the anus to the
genital organs. Freud contended that this is the reason why during the phallic phase,
small children like to play with their genital organs and to stimulate themselves.
Freud advanced the

Electra complex concept for girls, whereby unconscious

conflict between the child and the same sex parent exists, in order to obtain
affection and the attention of the parent of the opposite sex. In a similar vein he
developed what is termed the Oedipus complex for boys, in terms of which it is
contended that boys compete with the father to gain the attention and love of the
mother and fear that their fathers will deprive them of their penises in punishment
for their competition. When the child works through this developmental crisis, he
or she eventually gives up the craving for the parent of the opposite sex, because of
feared reprisals. As stated by Freud "biology is destiny" (Apter & Conoley 1984:59).

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The latency phase (six to twelve years of age). The child is no longer so interested
in sex, as during the previous phase and a greater identification with the parent of
the same sex takes place. The child is more focussed on peers and gets involved in
peer activities. This is the period in the lives of children when they have to deal with
the suppressed emotions emanating from the phallic phase. The sexual energy
(libido) now has to be neutralised and

find expression in socially acceptable

activities, such as schoolwork and socialising with friends of the same sex. As
children in this phase internalise the social values of their society and make them
their own, the ego and the superego feature far more prominently and the drives of
the id are increasingly inhibited.

The genital phase (twelve years and above). The conflict from the phallic stage
resumes during this phase. This phase is characterised by the maturation of the
reproductive organs, the secretion of sexual hormones and the reactivation of the
sexual areas, as sources of pleasure and self-gratification. The main drive is now to
reproduce by means of sexual intercourse. However, adolescents encounter
difficulties coping with their newly found sexual urges and in establishing love
relationships. This means that the libido is used to establish friendships, to prepare
the child for a career, dating, and eventually marriage. The sexual interest is directed
towards persons who are not members of the family. The young adult is now
capable of acting out feelings towards others.

Each stage/phase represents cognitive, emotional and social experiences. As the child
grows older and progresses from one stage to the next, these experiences vary. Each stage
embodies a specific focus, in terms of the child's physical development. Although each
stage embodies a certain focus, unfinished business from the previous stage is carried
forward into the following stage. These "leftovers" from a more primitive stage are termed
fixations, because they are essentially unchanged and unexamined by the more mature mind
(Apter & Conoley 1984:58). The fixations could be immature, troubling and upsetting
attitudes, that are maintained, although the source thereof, are long forgotten or forcibly
repressed to the unconscious level (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:53-55; Santrock 1995:35).

According to Freud, conflicts could arise within each of the above-mentioned phases,
conflicts between the basic human drives, as represented by the id, and the social norms
which determine what is - and is not acceptable. This conflict could be accompanied by
inner tension, fear and anxiety. The way in which parents (and other persons) treat the child
during each of these phases, can defuse or augment the inner conflict. For example, conflict
can be aggravated when parents deprive children of oral satisfaction,

act harshly or

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insensitively while a toilet routine is being established, or punish young children for being
fascinated by their naked bodies and those of members of the peer group. Freud assumes
that unsatisfied needs and the accompanying conflict from the past are carried over into the
present. Experiences from early childhood therefore influence later life (Santrock 1995:34).

A further basic premise of the psychodynamic model is Freud's contention that disturbed
behaviour or problem behaviour is determined by psychological processes. Psychopathology
is determined by the way that each individual child responds to his or her environment in
terms of feelings, thoughts, perceptions and needs- thus being shaped by his or her own,
unique psychological makeup.

Freud's psychodynamic model, for many years remained the only model available for
guiding educators in the education of "disturbed children" (Apter & Conoley 1984:59; Paul

& Epanchin 1982:123). Of particular note in this regard is Reinert's (1980:41,42) comment
that "Freud is to psychology what Darwin is to genetics. He not only influenced those who
have studied the human personality in a direct way, but his ideas are evident in novels,
poetry, and even the jokes that enliven various social gatherings. His theoretical constructs
were truly the foundation for future psychological thought."

[Link] A critical appraisal of the psychodynamic model

According to Haring (1978:133), Juul and Newcomer (Apter & Conoley 1984:59,60),
Meyer and Van Ede (1995:56) and Sigelman and Shaffer (1994:35) the psychodynamic
model has made the following contributions:

A new sensitivity towards the feelings and needs of children, has been created
within parents and teachers alike, by the reevaluation of the rich and complex inner
life of children.

Freud highlighted the importance played by human emotions, such as anxiety, love
or fear and their impact on people's lives.

Major reforms in child care institutions and agencies followed the discovery of the
negative effects of emotional deprivation during the early childhood years on the
child's personality development.

Teachers have come to realise that they serve as important role models for learners
and that they could assist learners in dealing with their emotional problems, by
creating feelings of security and confidence.

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Educational programmes for "disturbed" children, were developed on the premises

of Freud's psychodynamic model, for example, that personality characteristics are
determined by events that take place durint: the early childhood years. This implied
that emotional distress results from early family relationships. Problems that the
learner experiences at school are simply repetitions of these early disturbances that
took place within the family. Psychodynamic th inking focusses on early child/family
relationships and far less on strategies to be implemented at school. Melanie Klein
(1932) and Anna Freud (1966) in particular were the first to use analytic theory in
the treatment of children. This treatment is called therapy or edotherapy (child
therapy). Different kinds of therapy are distinguished in terms of the communication
medium used, for example play therapy (especially suitable for children who are not
able to express theirfeelings), image therapy (particularly suitable for children who
like to draw and cannot verbalise their feelings) and conversation therapy (very
suitable for older children). Of note in this regard is Baruch's (Apter & Conoley
1984:60) following statement: "If a child misbehaves, we must recognize that he
must have unmet emotional needs or that he is still expressing hurt, fear, or anger
for lacks in the past".

A further premise of Freud's psychodynamic model, regarded as relevant, is his

contention that problem behaviour is symptomatic of unconscious conflict.
Educators need to realise that learners are frequently unconscious of the reason for
their inappropriate behaviour nor are they to be held responsible for controlling the
behaviour concerned. Symptomatic treatment of symptoms (overt behaviour) may
result in the substitution of another more problematic symptom(symptom
substitution).

Freud's ideas influenced the research conducted by many other researchers. For example
Aichorn's dealings with antisocial adolescents, Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenic School for
dealing with the emotionally disturbed child, Victor Frankl's logotherapy, Eric Berne's
theories on transactional analysis, and Fritz Red l's efforts directed at dealing with delinquent
youngsters during the 1940s and 1950s, when he made use of life-space interviews, based
on the psycho-educational perspective. Life-space interviews enable learners to come to
grips with their unconscious thoughts and feelings, that impact on others within their lifeworld, by applying psychodynamic thinking to real-life situations, as encountered by
educators.

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The impact of Freud's psychodynamic model gained in prominence, but after a while it was
criticised for the following reasons:

its intensely pessimistic view of humanity, as well as Freud's extensive reliance on

the hypothetical constructs and operations;

the amount of circularity in Freud's model, as he used a certain hypothetical

construct to explain another. For example, his use of the Oedipal complex to explain
the id, drew extensive criticism;

the use made of subconscious material for interpretation, was regarded as being far
too time-consuming;

the use made of an unproven method for dealing with these so-called "disturbed"
children (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:56). Juul (Apter & Conoley 1984:59) points out that
the school could be seen as constituting a hostile force by certain practitioners of
the psychodynamic model, resulting in their recommending unreasonable strategies
for teachers understand and assist these "disturbed" learners in the classroom strategies that could only be implemented during a one-to-one therapeutic session
and not in the classroom, for example the catharsis of inner feelings;

not having any potential for assisting learners to understand and assisst learning
problems, because of their so-called "limited intellectual capacity" and their limited
expressive language skills (Zarakowska & Clements 1988:6);

concentrating mainly on inner conflicts and pathology. Freud overlooked the impact
of the strengths of the child and the impact of the child's environment on the
behaviour problem (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:56);

the difficulties encountered in testing psychoanalytical theory, consequently

resulting in doubt being cast on its validity;

the fact that the actual impact of the early childhood years cannot be measured;

the overwhelming influence attributed to the sexual drive on the lives of people
being questionable;

the fact that it is regarded as sexist, as women are being valued less than men; and

the fact that it tended to focus on the causes of behaviour problems

(Meyer& Van Ede 1995:56,57; Reinert 1980:45; Wicks-Nelson & Israel 1984:57,58;
Zarakowska and Clements 1988:6).

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77

The sociological model

To trace the origins of the sociological model to a single specific researcher appears to be
impossible. In contrast it appears to have evolved from the published research findings of
a number of sociologists, which broadened and enriched more narrowly conceived theories
of the time. Sociologists tend to focus on the functioning of people within groups and are
attentive to the impact of forces from within the environment on the learner with behaviour
problems. They tend to not be as interested in the individual psychological and learning
differences that exist among different people, as is the focus within some of the other
theories that have been developed. Sociologists are inclined to interpret behaviour problems
in terms of concepts such as social control, rule violations, labelling, deviance, and the
relationship between learners who break rules and learners who keep to the rules or as
termed the "enforcers". Behaviour problems therefore originate from a failure to conform to
rules or standards of behaviour and consequently constitute a breaking of established social
norms.

"Sociological theory" is an umbrella term, which encompasses several theories. Although

they represent substantial differences, when explaining disturbed or problem behaviour, they
have as their common denominator the belief that deviant behaviour has as its origin a
breakdown of social norms and the rules governing behaviour within society. Although the
common denominator is relatively easily to identify, the fact remains that learners from
different cultures, in one classroom, are not readily socialised to conform to a single set of
norms. Rich (1982:39) warns that attempts to socialize learners from such a diverse group,
using a single set of norms, stimulates conditions for deviance to occur.

Sociologists have constructed a few models relating to the study of emotional disturbance.
These models include the following (Apter & Conoley 1984:73, 7 4; Rich 1982:39-42):

Anomie. According to Durkheim (Apter & Conoley 1984:72), a sociologist, "when

individual needs expand and cannot be accommodated by social norms, frustration
and discontent - anomie - results". In effect it is contended that a state of
normlessness exists in some parts of modern society, as a result of social change
taking place at such a rate that old norms cannot be replaced with new norms,
within the time periods concerned. In addition, individual needs that need to be
fulfilled within society, are expanding at a similar rate and frustration arises when
these needs cannot be realised. This state of frustration results in social deviant

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behaviour, as manifested in criminal behaviour and mental illnesses. Schools are

hampered by the conditions leading to anomie, as they are struggling to educate
learners under normal circumstances, iiccordingto society's norms. When a state of
normlessness exists within a society, it may happen that the rules governing social
interaction within the society concerned, no longer conform to that being taught
within schools. Clearly, the occurrence of problem behaviour can have as its genesis
the phenomenon just described. The school's ability to socialize learners, is in effect
hampered by the conditions leading to anomie. Rapid social change may cause
cultural norms to become obsolete by thetime they are implemented in institutions,
such as the schools of the community in question.

Social disorganization.

Social disorganization occurs when social interaction

patterns have broken down to such an extent that the psychological needs of the
members of the community remain unfulfilled. The community becomes
disorganised and traditional institutions like the family and the church experience
stress, the crime rate is high, delinquency frequently occurs, mental illnesses are
common, and many members of the community are unemployed. This type of
breakdown gives rise to increased rates of deviant behaviour. Schools can intensify
social disorganization, as the school represents and immortalises mainstream cultural
values. This implies that social conditions which have been

causative to the

breakdown of the family system, the increase of crime, and other types of deviance,
result in learners being confronted with conflicting norms. No partnership between
the school and the community can exist under such conditions, as learners have to
choose between the home and school, in terms of values, norms and beliefs.
Insecurity emanating from these conditions, results in the "dropout" rate increasing
and/or the involvement of schools in a struggle with significant groups, which have
a great amount of influence, within the community.

Cultural transmission theory. In terms of this theory, the accent is placed on the
context in which people/learners are supposed to meet their needs. Persons,
including learners, are inclined to satisfy their needs in terms of their observations,
as to how others in their life-world are satisfying similar needs.

For example

members from a peer group taking drugs, may also take drugs in order to be
accepted by the rest of the group. Learners can thus actually learn to exhibit problem
behaviour by identifying with other learners who exhibit the same type of problem
behaviour. Learners learn to behave in ways, prescribed and modelled by leading
figures or role models within the community. In a society, models of "normal" and
"deviant" behaviour exist. These models are typical of certain groups within that

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society. The norms that a learner adopts and identifies with, will be determined in
accordance with which group he or she is affiliated to. The school is deemed to b~
a microcosmic reflection of the communi :y in which it exists and as such also
experiences cases of "normal" and "deviant" behaviour. Learners behaving in a
deviant way, identify with other learners and persons in the community who exhibit
the same type of behaviour. Because of their identification with the

norms

associated with these "deviant" groups, the learners concerned are in constant
conflict with their teachers, as these norms will tend to differ quite significantly from
those being taught in school.

Functionalism. A dynamic equilibrium between the disruptive elements and the

forces that maintain the community, is idealised within the community. Forces that
could be regarded as functional satisfy human needs, whilst dysfunctional forces
disrupt the social system. Social strain results from these conflicting social systems.

Rich (1982:41) identifies certain roles fulfilled by different learners, namely the innovator
(performs criminal acts, for example stealing from lockers, he or she is excluded from school

activities usually by being suspended or expelled); the retreatist (rejects both the goals
approved by society and the means provided by social institutions. They are treated for being
"sick"or are simply rejected and isolated from the usual mainstream activities within the
school, are placed in special education classes, or the parents may even be forced to take
them out of the school and place them in a special facility), the rebel (rejects existing means
and goals and actively attempts to change them. The rebel confronts any representative of
the prevailing social order and this brings them into conflict with those who want them to
conform to prevailing norms and values. These learners are usually regarded as constituting
a danger to the existing social order and are quite often expelled because of their activities),
and the ritualist (accepts and exaggerates the means of the society, while simultaneously
rejecting its goals. These learners are not regarded as deviant, as they are behaving in
accordance with established rules and social norms. They are, however, described as
unmotivated and not performing according to potential.).

Labelling theory. Learners who exhibit deviant or problem behaviour and nondeviants are psychologically

alike, as they both behave in accordance with

expectations. Their actual behaviour is very similar in that both these groups (deviant
and non-deviant learners) break certain social rules and conform to certain of the
social norms. The only difference occurs in the way that society regards these
learners. Deviant behaviour is regarded, as a consequence of a certain behaviour

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pattern, rather than a cause of being labelled as a deviant learner. Identified causes
of deviant behaviour are for instance the enforcers of social rules. Once a learner has
been labelled deviant, it is almost impossible to redefine the learner as somebody
exhibiting "normal" behaviour. Even although the learner does not conform to the
label and does not act deviant, the "normal" behaviour will be ignored by society,
as people seem to remember the behaviour that confirms their expectations.
Labelling is believed by sociologists, to be the first step towards the onset of a
learner's problem, instead of it representing the beginning of a process of better
adjustment (see figure 2.1 ).

Schools have in the past, labelled and categorised learners. Labels are coupled to the

learner's actual or expected academic performance or the way that the learner
behaves, for example exhibiting delinquent behaviour, playing truant. Other labels
are correlated to differences in learning styles, for example the learning disabled and
dyslectic learner, and the mentally retarded learner. Labels are also associated with
teachers' expectations of their learners, for example if the learner grew up in a
culturally different environment, or if the learner is from a family with a history of
emotional and behaviour problems. Learners who are walking around with labels,
usually subconsciously perform according to the expectations of the labellers.

Many educationists have voiced their concern with regard to the negative impact of
the labelling of a learner, as it has the potential to stigmatize a learner in school and
within their social context. They further agree that labels serve no practical purpose
when a teacher has to plan an assistance program for the learner. Labels can even
stimulate wrong expectations of a specific learner, which can act as barriers to
learning and growth. Ysseldyke and Foster (Apter & Conoley 1984:7 4) illustrate the
impact of labelling with the following example. They requested teachers to view a
video tape of a so-called "normal" learner. They told one group of teachers, that the
child was exhibiting deviant behaviour and the other, that the learner was acting
normally. The result was that the first group of teachers rated the learner's behaviour
as more deviant than the other group of teachers. The main concern is that once a
learner has been labelled, his or her behaviour becomes a reflection of the label,
even although he or she might not have exhibited genuine behaviour problems
before being attributed the label concerned. Clearly, living out the negative
expectations of role players within his or her life-world, is the result of the labelling
process.

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Figure 2.1: Labelling learners

A number of labels has been applied to troubled children, and the labeling process itself often adds to the
youngster's difficulties.

Source: Apter & Conoley (1984:14)

Labelling learners as mentally ill, criminal or delinquent will without doubt have substantial
consequences for them. Any rule breaking behaviour exhibited by the learner will be
evaluated in accordance with the label that has been assigned to him or her. A typical case
illustrating this point is that of a learner who does not hand in an assignment on time.
Having been labelled a rebel, the learner concerned is regarded by the teacher, as once
again being rebellious. In contrast, another learner who has not been labelled would
probably be given a second chance to hand in the assignment. Deviant behaviour is actually
expected from the labelled learner, whereas, for the unlabeled learner forgiveness is
available. Clearly, the consequence of erroneous labelling can be quite devastating for the
learner concerned.

Intervention strategies utilized by sociologists are essentially directed at enabling social

change within the society, rather than the modification of a particular learner's behaviour.
Society's involvement in deviant behaviour, is therefore not within the ambit of the teacher's

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control. Newcomer (Apter & Conoley 1984: 74) argues that the sociological model has
enabled teachers to lessen the negative effects of labelling and has broadened the
acceptance of individual differences. Sociological theory places the accent on the social
context impacting on the troubled learner, in devising appropriate strategies. Paul and
Epanchin (Apter & Conoley 1984:74) use the metaphor of a sociological theory lens, through
which teachers are able to obtain a clearer understanding of the situations surrounding
troubled children.

[Link] A critical appraisal of the sociological model

The sociological model or perspective, just like the existential and the phenomenological
models, focuses on the social milieu and the impact on the individual. The impact of group
behaviour and interpersonal relationships, on the behaviour of the individual, is specifically
emphasized.

Although the sociological model had a major impact on education during the 1970's, the
most important criticism levelled against this model, according to Newcomer (1980:55-57)
is that it does not discriminate between emotional disorders. Socially deviant disorders are
classified as psycho sociopathic acts, whereas according to critics, these types of disorders
may have resulted as a result of different causes, for example genetic factors and
consequently not as a result of social factors.

The sociological model does not, as in comparison with other models, provide a
comprehensive picture of a learner in terms of individual attitudes, traits, drives, needs and
emotions, all of which are deemed to be behaviour determinants.

Proponents of the sociological model contend that a discrepancy exists between the
pluralistic nature of students' life styles and behaviour standards in schools, which often
result in a labelling of students as being disturbed (Rich 1982:42). Within the new South
African Education Policy the labelling, marginalisation and stigmatisation of learners,
whether regarded as a consequence or a cause of deviant behaviour, are no longer
condoned. In contrast the policy is directed at fostering inclusion, whereby all learners are
treated with dignity and are afforded equal opportunities, so as to actualise their full
potential and enjoy a quality education.

learners therefore no longer need to act in

accordance with the expectations of people within their life world who have labelled them,
for example teachers.

In fact the contrast is now true. Teachers in terms of the new

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Education Policy need to think and act creatively, so as to find ways to assist the learner in
the actualisation of his or her potential.

2.2.5

The ecological model

Within various disciplines, an ecological research perspective has been established. It is

therefore not surprising to discover that the basic concepts incorporated within the ecology
model, stem from diverse fields of study, such as biology, sociology, and anthropology, to
but name a few. The situation that exists is depicted graphically in figure 2.2. Scientists
from the different disciplines concerned, are essentially united by the use of a similar
research methodology, and their common concern in terms of the relationship that exists
between the individual (the learner with behaviour problems) and his or her environmental
context. The ecological model essentially evolved, as a result of the criticism levelled
against previous models, namely for not taking environmental factors into account as
behaviour determinants.

The ecological model and its various variations are associated with a number of prominent
researchers and it is contended that the theoretical conceptualisations embodied within the
ecological model are acknowledged within mostfieldsofresearch. Most ecologists, dealing
with the human dimension, agree that behaviour stems from an interaction between the
"internal forces" within the person or learner and their particular environmental
circumstances. Each ecologist will, however, have a unique interpretation of the interaction
that takes place, in accordance with his or her own frame of reference, as embedded in their
research perspective. Ecological psychologists would therefore analyse situations according
to both psychological and non-psychological forces. Barker and his colleagues (Apter &
Conoley 1984:85) stress the importance of "synomorphy" (the fit of an individual's
behaviour within a particular situation) and in terms of their research findings conclude that
the term

mental illness is used to describe behaviour that is not deemed appropriate within

a particular context. They further argue that since behaviour is flexible and can vary from
situation to situation, it will be unfair to judge a learner's behaviour as deviant on the basis
of only one situation, for example at the school.

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Figure 2.2: The ecological view

The ecological perspective is focused on the "balance" in each child's unique ecosystem.

Source: Apter & Conoley (1984:93)

There are researchers who regard emotional disturbances, as a malfunction in interaction

(Ackerman 1970; Vogel & Bell 1960). They maintain that when learners exhibit behaviour
problems, it must be seen as part of a much larger pattern of family relationships. In this
way, psychoanalytic explanations of learners' individual personalities, are made applicable
to the patterns of interaction within a family system.

The ecological systems model

emphasizes the fact that all behaviour is determined by a learner's interaction with other role
players within his or her environment. All interventions in the relationship between a
learner and his or her environment take place in order to assist the learner to maintain the
harmonious balance or equilibrium between him/her and the significant other role players
within the environment. Any disturbance in the equilibrium is therefore essentially, as a
result of a misfit between the individual learner and the environment (ecosystem).

Bronfenbrenner and Crouter (Sigelman & Shaffer 1995:86; Santrock 1995:44) view the
environment, as any events or circumstances located outside the individual person. In other
words, the extrinsic factors which can influence a learner's development. The concept
environment encompasses a variety of environments, namely the physical, educational,

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social, cultural and geographical environments. Each of these in turn can be expanded for
the purpose of analysis. For example, the physical environment includes even the molecules
in the bloodstream of the foetus, which reaches it via the umbilical cord and can influence
its development even before birth. The social environment includes all meaningful role
players which may have an impact on the learner's life and experiences.

It also

encompasses various subsystems, such as the close family system, the extended family
system, the peer group at school, the neighbourhood peer group, the church group, and the
soccer or a netball team. All these systems interact and influence the development and
behaviour of the learner concerned.

Bronfenbrenner (Sigelman & Shaffer 1995:87; Santrock 1995:48,49,44) categorised these

systems as follows:

Microsystem. The term microsystem refers to the immediate vicinity or environment

of the learner. It typically constitutes the setting in which the learner lives and
includes the family, peers, neighbourhood, and church. The learner is not regarded
as a passive recipient of the experiences to be found in these settings. He or she is
in fact regarded as somebody who helps to construct a specific setting. Most of the
research conducted in terms of sociocultural influences, relates to microsystems.

Mesosystem. Mesosystem is an allusion to the interaction or link between the

various microsystems.

Examples sited are the relation of family experiences to

school experiences; school to church experiences and family to peer experiences.

Unpleasant experiences in one system will have a ripple effect on the other systems.
Thus individual learners who have had a bad experience in the home, will exhibit
negative or "different" behaviour at school and towards their peer group and this
could have a negative effect on the interactions among all the related systems.
Developmentalists emphasise the importance of observing behaviour in multiple
settings in order to gain a holistic picture of the learner's development.

Ecosystem. Ecosystems refer to social systems which individuals do not personally

experience, but which could nonetheless have an impact on their lives. Children
might be influenced by the stress the parents are experiencing at work or the
problems they are encountering in their social relationships. It relates to experiences
that the learner has acquired in another social setting where he or she is not a
prominent role player, yet the experience exerts an influence on what the learner
experiences in an immediate context.

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Macrosystem. The macrosystem is the most comprehensive context. It forms part

of the larger sub-cultural and cultural context within which the microsystem,
mesosystem and ecosystem function. I: essentially constitutes the cultural milieu
(e.g. beliefs, customs, norms, traditions and related cultural elements passed from
one generation to the next) in which the learner lives. Culture and religion provide
a frame of reference for assessing behaviour, in terms of that which is deemed to be
acceptable or unacceptable in specific life phases.

Chronosystem. The system indicates that certain patterns of environmental events

are formed and they are then relayed over the learner's life course and sociohistorical circumstances. For example, studies in regard to the impact of divorce on
children indicate that negative after effects only become visible one year after the
divorce has taken place and that boys are more negatively affected by divorce than
girls. Two years after the divorce took place, things seem to settle down.

Figure 2.3: Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development

Source: Santrock (1995:48)

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Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory of development is diagrammatically depicted in terms

of the model presented in figure 2.3. The five environmental systems, previously discussed,
are clearly illustrated in the model presented. At f1e centre of the model is the individual
with the various systems encompassing the individual in successive layers and with the
chronosystem. Battering events over the life course are reflected by means of a vertical
dimension of time. The model as an entity provides a holistic picture of the interaction
between the systems concerned in influencing the development and behaviour of learners.

Swap (Rich 1982:43) suggests that an "ecological network" should be organised, in order
to "explicate and integrate the ecological model of emotional disturbance in children". Three
fundamental systems or levels are incorporated within this network, namely the behaviour
setting, patterns of behaviour setting, and the community and cultural influence.

The

relevant systems are briefly defined as follows:

Behaviour setting, for example a classroom or the home. This will include the
physical milieu of the classroom, the program of activities taking place in the
classroom, the learners, a roster, which is followed every day, seating arrangements,
work space, crowdedness, teaching styles, the principal and his or her influence.
These are factors that could be triggering a misfit between the learner and his or her
environment and that can be the cause of disturbed or problem behaviour.

Patterns of behaviour setting. When the behaviour pattern is changed, the learner's
behaviour can change accordingly, as behaviour is a function of the learner's
interaction with the environment. Variations in behaviour between the home and
the school, tend to support this contention. The fact that problem behaviour only
exists in certain situations, supports the notion that disturbance is not global, but
related to specific ecosystems within the environment.

The community and cultural influence. All communities and cultural groups have
a set of expected norms, values, beliefs, customs and traditions that act as behaviour
determinants.

Society has tended to assign to schools the task of identifying,

controlling and treating learners whose behaviour may be categorised as deviant.

Teachers, as representatives of the community, are greatly influenced by the norms,
values and expectations of learners, and more specifically their behaviour. The
influence of the community on the teachers, is discernible in the willingness of
teachers to label certain types of behaviour as disturbed or problem behaviour.
Kenniston (Rich 1982:45) argues that "Until policy makers and planners shift their
focus to the broad ecological pressures on children and their parents, our public

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policies will be unable to do much more than help individuals repair damage that
the environment is constantly reinflicting."

Most other models, relating to human behaviour, focus on the internal and external forces
influencing the learner's behaviour. Some focus more on external forces (behaviour and
sociological models), while others tend to focus on internal forces (e.g. the psychodynamic
and the biophysical model). Psychodynamic theorists emphasize the importance of "needs"
and "drives", as well as behaviour patterns that could be expected to occur during certain
stages/phases.

Biophysical theorists mainly focus on physiological conditions that can

influence behaviour, for example hyperactivity.

Behaviour and sociological models

emphasize external factors, such as the impact of societies, communities and culture, on the
learner with behaviour problems. They also tend to focus on the impact of stimulus-response
patterns, together with reinforcing or punishing conditions within the environment, and how
these forces (e.g. significant other role players), from within the environment influence the
behaviour pattern of the learner. Although each of these models uncovers a part of the truth,
as regards behaviour and specifically learners with behaviour problems, they were not broad
enough to include the far-ranging aspects of behaviour problems. It is only the ecological
systems model that is comprehensive enough to accommodate a conceptual framework
provides solutions for behaviour problems. Apter and Conoley (1984:82) summarise the
situation well in terms of their following statement:

Only the ecological model provides the basis for simultaneous analysis of the
individual's adaptation to his or her environment and the impact of
environmental forces on the individual.

The ecological systems model attributes attention to the multiple forces within the
environment impinging on the learner and assists learners to grow and to gain control of
these forces, after having identified them. In contrast to many other models, the ecological
systems model focusses on both the external and internal factors and the interaction between
them, that causes certain behaviour patterns to occur. Ecologists view behaviour problems
as being the result of an ecosystem that is disturbed. A disturbance can be viewed as a
"failure to match" the environment. Figure 2.4 presents a graphical presentation of the misfit
that exists.

The ecological systems model views the learner, as constituting a complete person
surrounded by a unique ecosystem. When the different components of the ecosystem are

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working harmoniously together, the ecosystem is regarded as balanced or in congruence and

the learner therefore appears to act "normal".

Deviant behaviour occurs when the

components of the system are not in congruence and a failure to match the learner with his
or her ecosystem occurs. Potential solutions therefore need to focus on these failures to
match the learner with the ecosystem. When the failure in aligning the learner with his or
her ecosystem is addressed and the ecosystem regains its balance or congruence, a state of
harmony exists. The stage is thus set for positive behaviour and competent functioning,
development and psychological growth, that improve so long as the state of harmony exists.
According to Apter and Conoley (1 984:83), an increase in the learner's skills or a decrease
in environmental forces can act preventatively in the occurrence of school situations that
stimulate behaviour problems.

Figure 2.4: A graphical presentation of the misfit

Sometimes there is a failure to match belWeen child and system.

Source: Apter & Conoley (1984:82)

As may be ascertained from the preceding discussion, the ecological systems model is based
on thefollowingfundamental assumptions(Gearheart et al. 1988:323-324; Gilham 1981 :29;
Rich 1982:42-46):

Each learner forms an inseparable part of an ecosystem.

Behaviour problems are not viewed as constituting a state of incongruence, because

of a misfit with the system.

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Problem behaviour of learners can be viewed, as a disparity between the learner, his
or her abilities and the expectations of the environment. It is thus a case of "failure
to match" between the system and the learner.

Interventions aim at making the system work on a long-term basis without any further
assistance or intervention.

In terms of the above assumptions, the ecological systems model is not generally directed at
attaining a particular state of mental health or a particular set of behaviour patterns, it focuses
on reaching a state of harmony between the learner and the forces within the environment.
A graphical presentation of the ecological model is presented in figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: A graphical presentation of the ecological perspective

etc.

Socia\ welfare
service~

Chronosystem
Patterning of
environmental events
and transitions over the:
\ife course~ sociohlstorical
conditi,.,ns

Source: Apter & Conoley (1984:81)

[Link] A critical appraisal of the ecological systems model

The ecological systems model has no intervention techniques of its own. It tends to make use
of methods developed within related fields, utilizing ecological principles. In this way,

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individual deficits are de-emphasized by a belief in the possibility of eliciting systems change,
in order to attain and maintain a state of harmony. The ecological perspective may serve as
a holistic and inclusive umbrella, under wr ich many different perspectives are
accommodated.

The ecological systems model has made the following positive contributions towards dealing
with learners with behaviour problems more effectively (Apter & Conoley 1984:80-99;
Dowling & Osborne 1994:3,33; Swanson & Reinart 1984: 13):

Increasing numbers of learners are exhibiting behaviour problems in classrooms and

traditional programs that have been implemented, have not been as successful as
envisaged, as the number of learners with behaviour problems is escalating at a
substantial rate. The ecological systems model maintains that these unsuccessful
attempts may be attributed to the narrowness of previous efforts.

The ecological systems model provides a new way at looking at the "whole" learner.
In the past all the attention was focussed on the learner, as the guilty party, who had
to change or revert back to acting in a so-called "normal" manner.

The assessment-planning-assistance cycle, in order to assist the learner with

behaviour problems, as suggested by the ecological systems model, is far more
comprehensive than suggested by other models. Apter and Conoley (1984:97)
maintain that focussing on the learner only and ignoring other significant systems
like the school, the family and the community that surround the learner, makes the
identification and remediation of behaviour problems completely impossible. To the
benefit of the learner, as much information as possible must be gained from as many
sources as possible. Inclusion of all information is deemed to be far better than an
exclusion of necessary information. Ecological mapping, profile systems and
comprehensive case reports, are but a few of the new strategies that are proposed in
terms of the ecological systems model.

The impact of the entire system surrounding the learner, is stressed by the ecological
systems model. Because of the fact, that the ecological systems model casts a broad net,
numerous resources that have an impact on the learner's behaviour and that were
previously ignored by other models, are now included. Ecosystems like parents, siblings,
neighbourhood peer groups, church, school and playground, all have an impact on the
learner's behaviour and must therefore be taken into consideration in the planning of
an assistance programme for the learner.

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The model enhances coordination amongst the different ecosystems. If the different
impacts of the different ecosystems, are not linked to each other, no proper assistance
programme can be planned, as such a programme would be unorganised and
incomplete. The result, one ecosystem will tend to dominate another and no state of
harmony or equilibrium will be attained.

The significant other role players from the different ecosystems, can also benefit from
the ecological interventions, as well as the "targeted" learner and the further occurrence
of more serious behaviour problems could be prevented.

The failure to coordinate efforts in providing services to learners with behaviour problems and
the failure to understand the complex surroundings or environments of learners with behaviour
problems, have a major bearing upon the occurrence of behaviour problems. The ecological
systems model, however, emphasizes these failures as important points of departure.

2.2.6

The countertheory model (the phenomenological model)

Countertheorists regard the other major theories as failures, in terms of assisting learners with
behaviour problems. Some of their concerns include the following: a school curriculum that is
irrelevant to the learners, the negative impact of labelling learners, and the fact that learners do
not have

a democratic say in decisions being taken. Countertheory is a concept that is

representative of a range of approaches that have developed during the past twenty years, for
example humanism, humanistic psychology and radical therapy.

Countertheorists (Apter & Conoley 1984:75-78; Swanson & Reinert 1984:14):

contend that behaviour is meant to be diverse and each person or learner has the choice
of behaving as he or she chooses to behave. Countertheorists may therefore regard
behaviour, previously regarded as being problem behaviour, as healthy individual
responses to an unhealthy environment;

propose major and even radical changes to the traditional concept of school and go so
far as to even advocate the abolishment of school entirely. They are unhappy with the
present state of educational programs implemented in schools and with school life in
general. They regard a school curriculum as being irrelevant, the atmosphere in the
classroom and at school is deemed to be dehumanizing, and school policies are viewed
to be destructive in nature;

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want to make allowance for deviant behaviour at the school, rather than to develop a
safe niche that will promote the controlling of behaviour;

are in favour of a holistic approach in dealing with problem behaviour and reject
fragmentation of the problem;

argue that learners who are deemed to be acting in a deviant way, should also be
included in the planning process, when an assistance program is developed for them,

reject the concepts of deviance and normality;

reject the drawing up of a contract with a learner, as it reinforces the notion that the
teacher is superior to the learner;

reject the tendency of society to label and categorize learners, as deviant learners,
thereby stigmatizing them;

argue very strongly in favour of the uniqueness of each learner and reject the tendency
of schools to shape a diverse school population into a standardized model. Too much
comparing and categorizing takes place in schools, instead of emphasizing individual
differences. Special education is an example of how learners were grouped together,
after not being able to keep up with their peers. They have been compared with the
mean or average learner and found to be less suitable, and are therefore being dumped
into special schools where they, in all probability, will remain forthe rest of their school
careers;

reject the notion that education consists of a known set of information and skills that can
be passed on from one teacher to another, generation after generation;

emphasise the "goodness" of the learner, in contrast to labelling the learner as deviant
or abnormal;

maintain that the aim of education is to help the learner to find happiness;

propose that education is both intellectual and emotional;

maintain that education should be "spot on" regarding the capacities of the individual
learner;

contend that learners should not be disciplined extensively;

believe that freedom must be mutually arranged by the teacher, parent and the
learner/child;

stress that learners must hear the truth from their teachers;

argue that no religious training should be allowed;

maintain that guilt feelings should not be allowed to impede the progress towards
independence and

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de-emphasize the more traditional intervention strategies devised to understand and

assist behaviour problems, for example the behaviour modification model and
psychodynamic model.

The countertheory model is certainly not without its critics, but it needs to be seen within the
same light, as the other models previously presented, and evaluated accordingly. Each of the
models concerned provide a particular perspective of the concept "problem behaviour", its
causes and the means for dealing therewith.

Having discussed and obtained an understanding of the various perspectives presented, with
regard to the development of behaviour, the normal development of learners and especially
their emotional development, will be discussed in the ensuing section. Of particular relevance
in this regard is the discussion relating to the different life phases through which a learner
passes. In the discussion special attention is also attributed to the social development and the

cognitive development of learners, as these specific milestones are relevant in gaining an

understanding of behaviour problems. With regard thereto it is interesting to note that Ausubel
and Sullivan (1970:418) specifically argue that "emotional and cognitive development are
interrelated in many intricate ways. In terms of priority of development, it is difficult to dispute
the fact that young children exhibit intense and well-differentiated feelings long before a
capacity for logical thought is prominent. Emotions similarly precede reasoning in the phyletic
scale".

2.3

THE NORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS

The development of children/learners, is a subject which has been extensively debated within
various academic fields. Questions frequently posed by researchers include the following:

Are children/learners inherently good or bad?

What plays the most important role in the development of children/learners - their
inborn, inherited possibilities or education? (the "nature - nurture" controversy)

To what extent can children/learners contribute to their development, or are they merely
passive bystanders and at the mercy of external factors outside of their direct control?

Can the behaviour of children/learners suddenly change or is it an evolutionary process?

Is the development of children universal in nature? In other words do all children of all
cultures develop in the same way or does this development differ from person to
person?

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These, in essence philosophical questions, will not necessarily all be addressed in this section,
where the focus will mainly be on the development of children's/ learners' behaviour and more
specifically the development of "emotional milestones", as an aspect thereof . The latter will
be undertaken with specific reference to Erikson's (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen 1997:216-219)
theory of human development. However, because children's /learners' behaviour is affected by
various other aspects impacting on their development, behaviour cannot be discussed in
isolation thereof and reference will be made, where relevant, to these other aspects of
development. According to Pringle (1985:33) "learning (in the widest sense of the word) and
emotion, the cognitive and affective aspects of development, intellect and feelings, are so
closely interwoven and from so early an age as to be almost indivisible".

The different

developmental phases will be discussed, with reference to the emotional, physical, motor,
cognitive and social factors which contribute to the behaviour of children/learners.

It is important to understand how children/learners develop for the following reasons:

It enables teachers, parents and significant other role players, to understand the level of
children's I learner's development, in order to adjust the teaching methodology and
assistance rendered to learners, in terms of their respective levels of development.

Teachers, parents and significant other role players, in communicating with learners,
need to gain an insight, as to learners' abilities to understand the information presented,
as well as the level of their language ability, so as to avoid either boring the learners or
becoming incomprehensible. Clearly this will relate to the learners' level of
development in understanding and language proficiency.

Teachers, parents and significant other role players, who wish to establish or access a
child's/learner's progress in the different areas of development, should know how
normal development evolves over the space of time. In particular they need to be aware
of the ensuing step in the child's I learner's progress, in order to be able to establish
educational objectives or objectives for an assistance programme.

In essence, it is pointless teaching learners skills or curriculum related material if a

learner has not reached a level of

maturity to cope therewith. The creation of

expectations that the learner is unable to realise, in terms of his or her level of maturity,
would merely result in increasing the stress to which the learner is subjected. Teachers,
parents and significant other role players therefore need to become conversant with and
be able to recognise the signs that indicate when learners are ready to learn a particular
skill or need to become part of an assistance programme. A knowledge of the learner's
normal development process enables them to recognise the signs concerned.

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Teachers, parents and significant other role players should be able to determine what
behaviour is normal for a particular age group and what is not. This is only possible if
they know what behaviour can nornally be expected from a child/learner in that
particular age group

Hobbs (1982:319) argues that when learners are being assisted to behave appropriately, the
adult or for the purposes of this study, the teacher must understand the learner and be sensitive
to a learner's normal patterns of development. In addition Hobbs (1982:319) asserts that the
adult concerned needs to understand and be sensitive towards individual variations from the
usual developmental patterns. The general age and level of development will provide the
teacher with the necessary guidelines, as to drawing up a programme of assistance when
intervening in the learner's life.

2.3.1

General characteristics of the development of learners

The following are typical characteristics of children's development

(Ausubel & Sullivan

1970:414-498; Graham 1986:98; Botha, Van Ede & Piek, 1995:269-304, 336-370, 383-428;
Pringle 1985:34-58; Raths 1972:8-17; Santrock 1995:165, 181, 187; Santrock 1992:48):

Different features of development. There are different features associated with a

child's cognitive, language, emotional, social and moral development.

Although

researchers tend to refer to these features separately for the purpose of analysis, they
cannot really be separated, since they are all integrated in a holistic sense.

Specific phases. The development of children takes place in specific phases, namely
during babyhood, as a toddler or preschooler, in the middle childhood years and in the
later or secondary school years.

During each of these respective phases certain

characteristics feature far more prominently than at any other time.

Although we

differentiate between these phases, it needs to be understood that a child's development

cannot really be divided into clear-cut phases. Children gradually move from one phase
to another. There are no clearly defined "boundaries" between the phases. In addition,
children do not develop in all aspects, at the same rate. They may, therefore, have
entered the next phase in respect of one aspect of development, yet still be in a previous
phase in terms of another. This means that they can be in more than one phase, at a
specific point in time. In this study the typical development characteristics of children,
within specific phases, are discussed. It, however, needs to be stressed, that this relates
to the average child. One may always find children who do not share these typical

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characteristics. However, this does not imply thatthey are abnormal or can be deemed
to be deviant.

Clear patterns of development. The development of children tends to follow a clear

pattern. This pattern is evident in all children, from all cultural groups. They for
instance first learn to sit, then to crawl, stand and finally walk. These obvious signs of
a child'sdevelopment are known as developmental milestones. In other words, they are
recognised stepping stones which are moved across

in a specific order. These

milestones enable teachers to identify the level of a child's development, as well as the
next goal or milestone to be reached.

Horizontal and vertical development. Development takes place both on a horizontal

and a vertical dimension. Horizontal development means that children are able to
master more and more skills (they can climb, kick and clamber), while vertical
development means that these activities also improve in quality and that they can do
them better than before.

Development is nevertheless unique. Although we have just indicated that there is a

clear pattern of development, each child's/learner's development remains unique and
no two children develop in exactly the same way in all respects.

Quicker tempo. Children develop faster in the first few years than in later years.

Internal and external factors. The development of children/learners is influenced by

internal and external factors, such as for instance education and environment. A
continuous interaction takes place between these two factors. It needs to be noted, that
the previous discussion relating to the ecological systems model is of relevance in this
regard.

Progress. Not all children/learners progress at the same pace through the different
phases. Different factors have a role to play in terms of the child's rate of development.
Some children are born with particular skills and abilities which may assist them to
progress at a faster pace than others. However, extrinsic factors also play a role, such
as exposure to appropriate stimuli. The intentional development of specific skills can
therefore enable the child to reach the next phase far more quickly. The previous
discussion relating, to the behaviourist model, is of relevance in this instance.

Deficits. There may be deficits in the development of children which create a gap
between their present level of development and the level of development that they
should have reached. These deficits may be caused by a lack of support or because they
were not subjected to the appropriate stimuli, as would be the case in neglect or poor
environmental circumstances. Apart from deficits, development can also be adversely
affected if children develop inappropriate and maladapted behaviour.

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Emotional needs in each phase. In each phase children/learners have specific emotional
needs which have to be met. A failure to meet these emotional needs, may give rise to
conflict or even create a crisis. (See Chapter 4 for further information relating to the
unmet emotional needs of learners.)

Erikson is especially well-known for his theory on human development (Meyer

et al. 1997:213).

He essentially distinguishes between eight stages of human development, namely that of the
baby, early childhood, the play stage, school years, adolescence, early adult maturity, adult
maturity and finally old age

(Meyer

et al. 1997:221 ). In this study the focus is on the

development of the primary and secondary school learner and by implication only the first five
stages identified by Erikson will therefore be of relevance. Erikson's stages of human
development together with the discussion on emotional needs as set out by Pringle in Chapter
4 are, for the purposes of this study, regarded as the emotional milestones of normal emotional
development (see figure 2.6).

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Figure 2.6: A tabular representation of the integration of the emotional milestones as

described by Pringle (1986:33-58) and the emotional milestones or crises as
described by Erikson (Meyer, Moore

fll

Viljoen 1997:216-221 ).

Emotional milestones (Erikson)

Emotional needs (Pringle) to be

this satisfied during this stage

STAGE 1: 0-1 year (and the eventual outcomes during his or her
later life if this crisis has been solved):

The child develops a healthy trust in the world in general as

well as in himself or herself
The child depends on consistency and sameness of experiences
provided by the caregiver
The child maintains hopeful attitudes, if the basic trust is strong
and eventually develops self-confidence
The child believes and trusts that the environment will satisfy
his or her needs for food, love and attention
The child/person believes that people in general are good
The child/person has no problem in sharing with other persons
in his or her environment
The child/person is not particularly fearful to disclose him or
herself to significant other role players within his or her
environment
The child/person believes that people in general do not want to
harm him or her
The child is inclined to rather keep the positive aspects of the
personalities and behaviour patterns of significant other role
players in mind than to focus on the negative aspects of people
or their behaviour
The child/person trusts the significant other role players to assist
him or her to become what they trust him or her to become

The need for love and

security
The need for praise and
recognition

Integration of Erikson and Pringle's theories:

Trust implies security and in an indirect way, being loved

If the child is praised and recognised by the significant other role players, he or she will develop a
sense of trust in him or herself as well as in the significant other role players

"This forms the basis in the child for a sense of identity which will later combine a sense of being oneself
and of becoming what other people will trust one will become. However, healthy trust is not naive or
blind, but is tempered with a degree of distrust which leads to caution. Erikson calls this characteristic
of the ego hope" (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen 1997:216).

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Emotional milestones (Erikson)

100

Emotional needs (Pringle) to be

this satisfied during this stage

STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VERSUS SHAME AND DOUBT: 1-3 Years

(and the eventual outcomes during his or her later life if this crisis
has been solved)

The child needs outer control, firmness of the caregiver before

the development of autonomy occurs
The child cannot trust him/herself and his/her abilities, if he/she
doubts himself/herself, as the significant other role players
overly shame the child
The child/person experiences a certain amount of order in
his/her life, so that he or she can experience a feeling of being
in control of his/her life, as well as experience self-approval
The child/person is able to make his or her own decisions
The child/person can experience the impact of his/her personal
feelings
The child/person can complete a task on his/her own if needed,
or in a group
The child/person knows when to refuse a request being made
of him/her, without needing to feel guilty
The child/person can enjoy his or her individuality and refuses
to be dominated by others wanting to take charge of him/her
The child/person can verbally indicate what he/she wants to or
will do
The child/person is task-persistent and wants to complete an
assignment
The child/person does not feel self-conscious and
communicates freely when in a group
The child/person wants to act independently within reasonable
limits
The child/person does not want to feel inadequate and in doubt
of his/her abilities
The child/person wants to experience the feeling that the
significant other role players are not expecting too much of
him/her, as failures can cause him/her to doubt his/ her abilities

The need for love and

security
The need for praise and
recognition
The need for responsibility
for
new
need
The
experiences

Integration of Erikson and Pringle's theories:

The child will not become autonomous and venture into the unknown if he/she does not feel secure
and loved.
Praise and recognition must be implemented in order to allow the child to become more and more
independent, building on small successes and tackling bigger challenges to eventually become
independently.
Opportunities to act more independent must be created by significant other role players so that the
child will experience responsibility
If the child experiences no guilt, shame or lack of self-confidence and feels good about him/herself,
is praised, recognised, loved and feels secure, the child would embark on new experiences and
satisfy a need for exploration and stimulation of his/her intellectual potential.

urhis stage becomes decisive for the ratio of love and hate, co-operation and wilfulness, freedom of se/fexpression and its suppression. From a sense of self-control without Joss of self-esteem comes a lasting
sense of goodwill and pride; from a sense of Joss of self-control and of foreign overcontro/ comes a lasting
propensity for doubt and shame. A healthy solution to this crisis is the development of the ego quality
of willpower- that is, the ability to make independent choices and exercise self-controJn (Meyer, Moore
& Viljoen 1997:217).

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Emotional milestones (Erikson)

101

Emotional needs (Pringle) to be

this satisfied during this stage

STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT: 3-5 Years (and the eventual

outcomes during his or her later life if this crisis has been solved)

The child/person uses his or her own initiative when tasks have
to be completed - both motor and intellectual
The child/person feels no guilt if goals are contemplated
(especially aggressive goals)
The child/person experiences conflict between his/her potential
to intrude into the lives of significant other role players and
his/her newly found realisation of moral values and rules (which
stabilises whilst imitating the adult role model of the same sex)
The child's conscience is shaped during this period of life and
he/she must find a balance between experiencing childlike
enthusiasm for doing and making things and the inclination to
be too strict with him/herself
The child/person likes to take up initiative when accepting a
challenge
The child/person is starting to experience a feeling of being
adequate - especially if he/she enjoys praise and recognition or
by completing an assignment in a responsible way
The child is involved in continuous sibling rivalry

The need for love and

security
The need for praise and
recognition
The need for responsibility
The need for new experiences

Integration of Erikson and Pringle's theories:

If the child feels loved and secure, he/she will feel free to take the initiative to tackle new challenges,
will be looking for new experiences and will be able to deal with responsibility in a successful way
If the child's need for praise and recognition has been met, as well as the need for love and security,
he/she will not feel guilty when he/she has used his or her initiative to complete a task or to behave
in a certain way

urhe instinct fragments which before had enhanced the growth of his infantile body and mind now
become divided into an infantile set which perpetuates the exuberance of growth potentials, and a
parental set which supports and increases self-observation, self-guidance, and self-punishment. The ideal
resolution of the crisis lies in finding a balance between the childlike enthusiasm for doing and making
things and the tendency to be too strict in self-judgement. Erikson calls this trait purpose" (Meyer, Moore
& Viljoen 1997:218).

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Emotional needs (Pringle) to be

this satisfied during this stage

STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY: 6-11 years (and the

eventual outcomes during his or her later life if this crisis has been
solved)

The child/person is busy creating, building and accomplishing

tasks
The child/person can experience a feeling of inferiority and
inadequacy if he/she despairs of tools, skills and status among
peers
The child/person has to make decisions regarding his/her
relationship
The child has to learn about the skills and habits of his/her
culture and has to learn to collaborate with others
The child enjoys to produce things which are accepted and
approved by the significant other role players which in turn
reinforces his/ her feelings of adequacy and industry
The child/person is learning to deal with criticism and how to
implement it to improve his/her outcomes
The child/person is enjoys learning about new things

The need for love and

security
The need for praise and
recognition
The need for responsibility
for
new
The
need
experiences

Integration of Erikson and Pringle's theories:

If the child/person feels loved and secure, experiences praise and recognition, he/she will want to
excel and work harder to achieve and to feel good about him/herself
If the child/person feels competent he/she will want to take on more challenging and bigger
responsibilities
If the child feels competent, he/she will want to experience new challenges and experiences which
will provide him/her with more opportunities to excel and to become more competent

uA healthy balance is reached through the ego quality of competence, in other words, the development
of a sense of proficiency or competence, which is one of the conditions for participating successfully in
the cultural processes of productivity and, later, maintaining a familyn (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen

1997:218).

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Emotional needs (Pringle) to be

this satisfied during this stage

STAGE 5: IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE DIFFUSION: 11 years up to the

end of adolescence {and the eventual outcomes during his or her
later life if this crisis has been solved):

The child/person struggles to develop the ego-identity (sense of

inner sameness and continuity)
The child is preoccupied with his/her appearance, hero
worships adult role models and the ideologies of significant
other role players
The child's group identity (with peers) develops
The child/person can experience role confusion, doubts about
sexual and vocational identity
The child/person has to find answers to the questions of who
am I in the eyes of others and how does myself-image correlate
with the significant other role players' images of myself

The need for love and

security
The need for praise and
recognition
The need for responsibility
new
The
need
for
experiences

Integration of Erikson and Pringle's theories:

If the learner experiences love and security, praise and recognition, he/she will feel good about
him/herself; He/she will also know via his/her involvement with different relationships, what the
answer to the questions on who am I and does my self-image correlate with the significant other role
players' images of myself
The response of the significant other role players who granted the child opportunities to act
responsibly, will shape his/her self-image which will in turn impact on his/her identity.
New experiences granted to the child by the significant other role players will offer the child an
opportunity to stimulate his/her intelligence, which will in turn impact on the self-image and the
identity

urhe ego gain which results from a satisfactory resolution of the identity crisis Erikson calls reliability or
fidelity. This ego strength is characterised by certainty about one's own identity, an accepting awareness
of other possible identity choices which the individual could have made, and a capacity for loyalty
towards one's social role or roles" (Meyer, Moore & yiljoen 1997:219).

In each of the different life stages, the cognitive development, the emotional development, the

personality development, the moral development and the social development will be discussed.
These milestones have an interactive impact on one another and a direct bearing on the
behaviour of the learner. For example, if the learner's thinking processes are functioning on a
lower cognitive level which could be expected from a younger child, the teacher must be able
to identify the learner's cognitive level and keep this aspect of his or her behaviour in mind
when an assistance programme is worked out. In order to understand social relationship
problems, the teacher must be able to identify what social skills a learner should have acquired
at a certain age which can be related to the learner's present day relationship problems. In
drawing up an assistance programme, the teacher can thus include opportunities, for example
in the classroom, for the learner exhibiting behaviour problems to actualise these skills under
the supervision of the teacher.

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The specific milestones regarding the development on these different levels are relevant in
gaining an understanding of behaviour problems. With regard hereto it is interesting to note that
Ausubel and Sullivan (1970:418) specifically argue [hat "emotional and cognitive development
are interrelated in many intricate ways. In terms of priority of development, it is difficult to
dispute the fact that young children exhibit intense and well-differentiated feelings long before
a capacity for logical thought is prominent. Emotions similarly precede reasoning in the phyletic
scale." The self-concept and the establishment of a personal identity, as facets of the developing
personality are being shaped within the child's relationships with significant other role players
(social development) and have a direct bearing on the learner's behaviour (Louw et al.
1995:370, 276). Moral development as part of the social development of a child is determined
by factors like the emotions and cognitive development of a child (Louw et al. 1995:342,345).

In the following subsection the early childhood years will be discussed. This essentially
correlates with the first three stages of human development identified by Erikson (Meyer et al.
1997:227-228).

2.3.2 The early childhood years (0-6 years)

According to Botha et al. (1995:231 ), Santrock (1995: 204-266) and, Prinsloo, Vorster and
Sibaya (1996:79-96) children during the early childhood years, must be able to achieve the
following developmental tasks:

motor control (the child must master fine and gross motor control in order to have
control over his or her body, for example running, climbing, cycling);

the development and improvement of skills (the child learns to dress, to feed
himself/herself, learns to deal with different objects and understands how they must be
handled);

the development of the cognitive skills (children need to learn how to form concepts from
social and physical realities, as well as how to do quantitative assessments. The child is
exploring his or her surroundings, the memory skills are practised and the child finds that
formation in context is remembered more easily. The child is escaping the world of
reality by means of fantasy. The thinking is egocentric, irreversible, transductive, selfcentred, egocentric and they do not understand conversation);

the development of language (the child's language and communication skills expand
significantly and he or she learns how to communicate by using words and especially

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how to express his or her needs. The child's vocabulary improves rapidly as his or her
pattern of thinking and representational abilities develop);

socialisation (the child learns how to behave, in accordance with the expectations of
members within the family system, but also to behave according to the expectations of
significant other role players outside of the family system);

inclusion of the child in the community (the child learns to know the values and norms
of the community, in order to become part of the community and "fit in" within a larger
system that extends beyond that of the family);

development of a self-concept (the self-concept of the child in the early childhood phase,
changes continually, as the child's cognitive development progresses and they become
more experienced in life. The child's positive or negative view of him or herself is mainly
determined by the parents. When children are accepted by parents, family, teachers and
playmates, children come to accept themselves, which has an impact on their self-esteem.
This feeling of self-esteem can have either a positive or a negative influence on the child's
interpersonal life and if it assumes a negative connotation will prevent them from
actualising their potential);

the development of a sex-role identity (various changes and developments that take place
during this phase which enables the child to eventually realise that his or her sex will not
change and he or she therefore needs to adapt accordingly);

the development of emotions (the child learns to interpret the reactions and emotions
of the significant other role players in his or her environment. The child learns to
understand and control emotions, such as love, joy, fear, anger, jealousy, aggression,
sorrow and fear of things like dogs, noise, pain, sudden sounds and strange objects);

self-control (as the child grows up and gets older, they are more capable of controlling
themselves than when they were younger) and

the acquiring of moral values ( the child gets to know more about norms, rules and
cultural meanings, and eventually they also get to know about what is deemed "right"
and "wrong").

The ability of the child to master developmental tasks, which he or she will have to accomplish
during later life stages, is determined by the way that he or she has dealt with developmental
tasks during the early childhood years.

The language ability of these children now progresses from short, simple sentences to more
complex sentences. Between the age of two and three they begin to talk out loud to themselves
and accompany their actions with words. Piaget calls this the phase of egocentric speech.

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Vygotski (Botha et al. 1995:268; Santrock 1995:221) in turn, believes this is actually the
beginning of the development of thinking in words- in other words, the language in which we
think. This language of thinking has an important inf:uence on one's thoughts and actions, since
it helps one to direct, control and check one's actions. Learners in primary school, who
experience learning problems are often returned to this phase and taught to verbalise each step
of a task out loud. Next, they are taught to say it softly in their thoughts. This helps them to think
carefully about what they are doing.

In terms of the cognitive development, Piaget (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:77; Santrock 1995:155)
classifies children in this phase, as being in the sensori-motor phase (0-2 years). This implies
that these children acquire knowledge of themselves and the world around them through their
senses and their actions. Piaget (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:77; Santrock 1995: 155) further divides
this phase into six sub-phases. The main issue is that these children still "think with the body".
They find pleasure in activities which they can experience through their senses or in a physical
way, for instance swinging, or playing in water.

According to Piaget (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:77; Santrock 1992:226), children between two and
seven years of age are in the pre-operational phase of cognitive development. (The most
important milestone in this phase, is the development of a set of internal symbols in which they
can think. Once they have done this, they can also think of something which is not necessarily
in their presence. Their thinking is nevertheless still very limited and characterised as follows
(Prinsloo 1996:87):

Egocentrism. This means that the self still plays a dominant role. Children cannot put

themselves into another's shoes. They cannot imagine that someone else might see
things quite differently, than they may do. For instance, they believe that if they close
their eyes and cannot see anyone, neither can anyone see them. This egocentrism is also
expressed when young children play together. They all pursue their own trains of
thought. In actual fact, they all conducting their own individual dialogues and are not
really talking to each other.

Centring. Children tend to concentrate on a single obvious aspect of a situation and

discount all its other aspects. In this way they imagine that the tallest glass has the most
cool drink, irrespective of whether it is narrower than a shorter, but wider glass. They
therefore cannot see an object in its totality. Children judge an object by its external
appearance, without thinking about it logically.

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Irreversibility. The thinking of children in this phase is irreversible. This means that they
cannot turn something around in their thoughts to look at it from a different perspective.
This applies to sums where adding and subtracting actually require two reverse actions
and also to other everyday activities.

Bound to the concrete. Although children in this phase can think in symbols and have
internalised their thinking, it remains concrete in nature. The symbols they use are only
of concrete things and not of abstract concepts, hence the term "pre-operational".

Transductive reasoning.

Children in this phase still reason transductively and not

inductively. Transductive reasoning is still not logical. Simple deductions are made
without taking any rules or preconditions into account. The following serves as .an
example of transductive reasoning: Superman wears special clothes. "If I wear these
clothes then I'll be Superman."

Animism. Young children have an unrealistic and superficial understanding of reality.

They believe that lifeless things can feel and that animals can think like people. This is
known as animism.

Realism. According to Erikson (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:60; Santrock 1992:50), children
between the ages of one and three experience a crisis of independence (autonomy) versus
doubt and shame. The trust that the toddler has in his or her caregiver allows the toddler
to realise that his or her behaviour is his or her own. Their strong need to be independent
is obvious from the fact that they want to do everything for themselves. This is also
related to the so-called stubbornness of children in this phase. They learn that they can
impose their wills on others and that they are able to make their own decisions. When
children are not allowed to experiment with new things, they will begin to doubt their
own abilities. Other unfavourable circumstances, such as those which go together with
violence, abuse, insecurity and anxiety, may impede their development. This gives rise
to insecurity and doubt ratherthan confidence and independence. Children/learners who
are unsure and anxious do not have the courage and willpower to tackle the world and
often withdraw or develop defence mechanisms, such as aggression or regression. In
other words, they act more childishly than one would expect from children of that age.

As regards their moral development, Koh Iberg and Piaget (Santrock 1995:334) categorise learners
younger than five years, as being in the premoral or pre-conventional phase, as they do not yet
understand what is right and what is wrong and thus are not able to judge when they have done
something wrong. When they play games, they do not bother about winning or losing or about
conforming to the behaviour of friends. This is the most basic level of moral development and
the child only obeys rules in order to avoid punishment. They do not think about or question

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conventions (customs). Therefore, it is called the pre-conventional phase. Their obedience is

determined by external factors such as reward and punishment, and thus they do not yet have
any internal conviction (internalisation) of what is right or wrong. Children are in this phase
"punishment and obedience orientated" and thus need a role model to identify with (Prinsloo
1996:90).

Koh Iberg (Louw et al. 1995:344; Santrock 1992:375) divides this phase into a further two stages.
Initially, children have a "crime and punishment" orientation when they are obedient to avoid
being punished. Later, they enter a phase of individualism and purpose. They are clever enough
to know that there are benefits in being obedient. Hence their own interests begin to play a role
now. The reward may even be that they are considered better behaved than a child who does
not listen. These children judge the behaviour of others in simple categories: something is pretty
or ugly; a child is good or bad. Because their thinking is still not reversible, they cannot
evaluate their own behaviour critically and therefore they like to believe that they are always in
the right.

Sullivan (Meyer et al. 1997: 193-195) describes seven stages regarding the shaping of the

personality, namely the infancy stage (birth - when the first signs of articulated speech can be
heard), the childhood stage (stage when articulated speech can be heard - the need for
playmates of the same age occurs), the youthful stage (the need for playmates of the same age the need for an intimate friend of the same sex), early adolescence (physiological changes of
puberty - the desire for an intimate relationship with someone of the opposite sex) and late
adolescence (the establishment of a long lasting love relationship). In this early childhood phase,
the child should be able to articulate speech, communication should have been characterised
by autistic language, a transition from prototaxic to parataxic experiencing should have taken
place which enables infants to distinguish between their bodies and the environment. The
mother/child relationship is important during this phase, especially the degree of empathy and
caring thatthe mother exhibits towards the infant. Tension and anxiety will, according to Sullivan
(Meyer et al. 1997:193), stimulate the development of the dynamism of apathy as well as sleep
withdrawal which links up with the shaping of the self-system. During the childhood stage, the
child makes use of the articulated speech until he finds a playmate of the same age. The
personifications of the good me and the bad me is integrated into the self-system by means of
the fact that the child now uses syntaxic experiencing. Using parents and their value systems as
role models, children now categorise their own behaviour as "good" or "bad". The acquirement
of cultural customs makes them aware of restrictions within their environment, for example toilet
customs and personal hygiene. They now get to know about friends and enemies in life.

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During the early childhood phase, children become conscious of their own gender and come
to realise that this is a reality of life that cannot be changed. They also become aware of sexual
differences and the expected behaviour to suit the specific sex of the child. The psycho-socially
determined factors regarding the sex-role identity of the child, are established already during the
first year of life. The following factors impact on the sex-role identity of the child during the early
childhood phase (Botha et al. 1995:280-283):

Biological factors - the biological development of the sex organs and characteristics, the
functioning of the hormones.

Cognitive factors - the way that the child perceives sex characteristics and understands
sex roles and expected behaviour of boys and girls.

Emotional and reinforcing factors - the internalising and acceptance of the sex role that
society has granted him or her according to his or her sex.

Environmental and cultural factors - sex-role behaviour that is learnt originates from
stimuli from within the immediate and wider cultural environment.

Two factors that have a definite impact on the sex-role identity shaping of the preschooler are
the absence of the father and the mother as well as the sex roles of the parents. If the parent is
present in the life-world of the child, the child can identify with the parent of the same sex. If the
parent is, however, not always present and available, the child can experience sex-identity
confusion. The sex-role expectations that parents have for the different sexes will shape the
child's sex role expectations, for example girls only play with certain toys and girls must always
wear pink. If the parent is overprotective, boys can be prevented from getting engaged in
adventurous games because they will get hurt and eventually this impacts on their sex-role
identity.

The preschool child gets to know himself or herself through the eyes of others, for example
whether he or she is tall, big, ugly or attractive - thus the self-concept gets shaped. The child
develops an idea of whom he or she would like to be (the ideal self) and the real self as he or
she evaluates himself or herself according to the values of his or her parents or according to his
or her own values and ideals. The self-concept includes the self-image, self-esteem and selfacceptance (Botha et al. 1995:282). According to Botha et al. (1995:283), the early childhood
years offer an exceptional opportunity for the self-concept of the young child to develop as the
child becomes familiar with facts like his or her age, his or her sex, being able to evaluate
himself or herself and his or her traits, being able to experience feelings like shame and pride

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and being able to develop "a sense of ownership" regarding his/her own personal property and
thus being able to expand himself or herself. (See Chapter 4 in this regard.)

The needs of children in their early childhood years, are of a particular physical and emotional
nature and consist mainly of the need to be fed, feel secure and be cared for lovingly. Exhibiting
feelings of love towards the child, comforting the child, or praising the child, needs to be done
in such a manner that these children, in their early childhood years, can physically experience
it through their senses. Even small babies are capable of experiencing moods or emotions. Their
bodies tell us whether they are happy or unhappy. Soon there is a further differentiation of
feelings. The toddler shows pleasure, affection, anger, fears and even jealousy. These feelings
are mainly shown in a sensori-motor manner. They need the kind of attention that they can see,
hear and feel, such feelings as perceived by touching, cuddling, and parents talking or singing
to them (see Pringle, Chapter 4 emotional needs). A two-year-old child can express the emotions
that he or she is experiencing spontaneously, for example happiness, excitement and love.
Anxiety and fear are, however, experienced when the child is angry and jealous, as he or she has
learnt in Western cultures that he or she must suppress these negative emotions. Fear is dealt
with by denying the situation or by withdrawing from it. Van der Zan den (Botha et al. 1995:269)
maintains that by the age of six many children are less spontaneous in expressing their emotions,
as they have been socialised to conform to social norms and to withhold their emotions.

As previously alluded to, Erikson (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:58; Meyer et al. 1997:216; Santrock
1995:37) describes eight stages of emotional development. Progressing from one stage to the
next, is governed by the "epigenetic principle", which maintains that each developmental stage
poses a crisis at specific ages, according to a fixed sequence. These crises must be dealt with
during each stage in terms of the child's total development, in order to allow the child to
progress to the next stage and crisis. If a crisis is not properly dealt with during a specific life
stage, the child can either expect to experience complications when dealing with the next crisis
or deal with crises at a later stage, which provides for a spontaneous recovery of experienced
developmental problems.

The first three stages of Erikson's emotional development theory takes place during the early
childhood years, that is, 0-6 years, namely from birth to one year: basic trust versus mistrust
(hope). This crisis must be dealt with during the first year of life. The quality of the mother/child

relationship determines the extent to which the child trusts significant other role players within
his or her environment. If children have enjoyed a healthy mother/child relationship, they will
have acquired a healthy trust in the world and in themselves, in the sense that they trust that the

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environment will provide them with food, love and attention, and satisfy their needs within their
specific cultural environment. Trust implies that the child will experience a feeling of physical
comfort and less fear or apprehension about the future, than a child who did not experience
attachment. Trust provides the infant with a guarantee that the world will be a good and
enjoyable place to live in. The degree of distrust that is embedded within trust, causes the child
to be cautious about trusting everything and everybody. The synthesis of trust versus mistrust is
called hope.

The next crisis that the child has to deal with during the second year is called the autonomy
versus shame and doubt (wi/1-power). The child develops physically and thus becomes more

independent. According to Erikson (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:58-60; Meyer et al. 1997:217;
Santrock 1995:37) parents should encourage their children to be independent, whilst being
protected by the parents from unnecessary failure and feelings of inadequacy or insecurity in
relation to their abilities. Children must enjoy the opportunity to act independently, withouttoo
much being expe~ting of them, as this may cause shame and doubt about their abilities to occur.
Wif/power is the synthesis of autonomy, shame and doubt. Willpower enables the child to make

independent choices and to be able to exercise effective self-control. Erikson (Meyer & Van Ede
1995:60; Meyer et al. 1997:217; Santrock 1995:37) highlights the importance of this stage by
accentuating the fact that this stage is decisive for the ratio of being loved or hated, to cooperate
or to experience wilfulness, freedom and self-expression, as well as the suppression of
expression. A lasting propensity for doubt and shame originates from a sense of self-control,
eliminating the possibility of a loss of self-esteem and a lasting sense of general goodwill and selfpride. If the child does lose self-control, a lasting propensity for doubt and shame are a
possibility.

The third early childhood crisis (3-6 years) that Erikson (Meyer & Van Ede 1995:60; Meyer et al.
1997:217; Santrock 1995:37) introduces is the initiative versus guilt (purpose) crisis. The child
has increasingly become independent in terms of his or her movements and the eroticisation of
his or her genitals. Children act in their own special way triggered by their own initiative and feel
guilty about their behaviour. The conflict that children experience during this phase is situated
within the conflict between their abilities to force themselves abruptly on others by means of
their movements, speech and making a noise and via their sexual fantasies and their newlyestablished set of moral rules, which are reinforced by the parent of the same sex. Children are
inclined to act like rudimentary parents, as they are eager to adopt and apply rules and to look
after younger children. The development of the conscience is of utmost importance during this
stage. According to Erikson (Meyer et al. 1997:218), the personality splits into two aspects

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namely: uThe instinct fragments which before had enhanced the growth of his infantile body and
mind now become divided into an infantile set which perpetuates the exuberance of growth
potentials, and a parental set which supports and increases self-observation, self-guidance, and
self-punishment." The conscience can however develop too strictly or in a moralistic way. The
purpose synthesis of initiative and guilt is a result of the balance between the typical childlike

enthusiasm and initiative and the more mature, adult-like tendency to be judging himself or
herself too much which then ends in feelings of guilt. Children during the early childhood phase
becomes part of a big, wide world out there, one where bigger challenges come their way. They
need to be active and purposeful in order to cope with new demands or challenges being made
whilst enjoying the guidance of the parent and teacher.

Ainsworth (Louw & Louw 1995:217; Santrock 1995:181) maintains that secure attachment sets
the stage for normal psychological development later in Iife, especially if the mother tends to be
sensitive, accepting and expresses affection towards the child. Research findings recorded by
Sroufe (Louw & Louw 1995:218; Santrock 1995:182) during 1985-1993, indicated that infants
who have experienced secure attachment to their mothers, were more socially competent and
performed better at school. Not all developmentalists, however, believe that this is the only path
to competence throughout life and that too much emphasis is being placed on secure
attachment. They prefer to highlight factors like genetic and temperament characteristics and
maintain that these factors influence a child's social competence more than secure attachment
would. They also argue that children easily adapt to new situations and they develop attachments
easily to people other than only the mother, for example a grandmother or the father or a group
attachment that develops like in Israeli kibbutsim (Santrock 1995:182; Louw & Louw 1995:216).
According to Louw and Louw (1995:218), the long-term effects of attachment are difficult to
determine (see Chapter 4 regarding attachment).

The subsequent adjustment and functioning of the preschool child can be negatively influenced
by the fact that the child is separated from his or her parents and cannot deal with it. Factors that
have a definite impact on the child's way of dealing with separation anxiety are: the reason for
the separation from the parents, the type of separation, the kind of substitute care that has been
organised for the child and the quality of the parent/child relationship that existed before the
separation. Bowlby (Botha et al. 1995:272) describes children's reactions to separation as
follows:

For three days they are protesting against the separation and cry a lot and are
searching fortheir parents. Hereafter, they experience an increasing despair about

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the possibility whetherornotthe parents will ever return-this phase is called the
despair phase which precedes the detachment phase. During the despair phase,
the child becomes inactive, he cries less, is not interested in whatever is
happening in his environment, he becomes socially withdrawn and although
substitute caregivers think that he has actually adjusted to his new circumstances,
he has actually given up hope as he is convinced that his parents have left him.
During the detachment phase, the child becomes more interested in his
environment again. He will however not be interested in his parent(s) if they
would appear again and will in fact ignore them. After the parent has been back
for a few days/hours, the child experiences ambivalence as he wants to be with
the parent wherever the parent goes, but on the other hand, he experiences
feelings of hostility and rejection towards the parent.

Typical factors that could trigger separation anxiety to occur, as manifested in problem
behaviour, are:

divorce, where the one parent leaves the caregiving situation (the child becomes worried

that the mother has got to start working and he or she has nobody to look after him or
her, as well as that the other parent might also desert him or her),

the death of a parent (the children initially play games focussed on the death of the

parent, but when the emotions become overwhelming, he or she starts to deny the death
of the parent - especially children between the ages of six months and five years are
affected mostly),

temporary absence (e.g. when the father/mother is away from home because of work

commitments), and

hospitalisation (the child has got no understanding of time and distance and thus does

not know how long he or she will be in hospital and how far he or she will be away from
the parents or the family home as well as the fact that he or she is not used to the strange
smells of the hospital, sounds, medical instruments etcetera. The child eventually feels
lonely, confused and lost.

Fear during the early childhood phase, is dealt with by each child in his or her own unique way.
Jersild and Holmes (Botha et al. 1995:271) for instance found that children between the ages
of two and five did not fear dogs, noise, pain, sudden movements and unfamiliar objects as
much as younger children would. Children during this age group however, feared the dark,
imaginative characters and threatening occurrences like fire or deep water. Bauer (Botha et al.

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1995:271) similarly found that fear of physical injury increases in comparison with fear of
fantasies, which decreases. Parents and teachers of preschool children should understand and
assist with the fears of children during this life stage by not avoiding these fears, but by regarding
them as a normal part of growing up and assist the child to deal with and to overcome them.

To be able to engage in play activities is part of every child's life and does not demand
obligations or much discipline from the child. Play impacts on the social, emotional, physical,
cognitive and personality development of the child (Botha et al. 1995:299). Play can thus serve
as an opportunity that could be used as a therapeutic intervention to free the child from
emotional problems which in turn causes behaviour problems to occur (see Chapter 4 in this
regard).

The main conclusions reflected in this subsection on social development, cognitive development
and emotional development can be summarised as follows:

Cognitive development: According to Piaget (Santrock 1995: 155), children from birth to
two years are in the sensori-motor phase which implies that they acquire knowledge of
themselves and the life-world via their senses and actions. They "think with their bodies".
Between two and seven years of age children are in the pre-operational phase of
cognitive development. They now develop a set of internal symbols in which they can
think. Their thinking is characterised by egocentrism, centring, irreversibility, being
bound to the concrete, transductive reasoning, animism and realism.

Moral development: According to Kohlberg (Santrock 1995:334), they are in the premoral or pre-conventional phase as they do not yet have an idea of "right" or "wrong"
and are thus not able to judge when they have done some thing wrong. The child only
obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.

Personality development: According to Sullivan (Meyer et al 1997:193-195), children in

the early childhood phase have progressed from the infancy stage when the first signs of
articulated speech could be heard to the childhood stage where the child starts to be on
the look out for playmates of the same age. The mother/child relationship is important
during this phase, especially the degree of empathy and care that the mother exhibits
towards the infant. The personifications of the good me and the bad me is integrated into
the self-system and the child categorises his or her own behaviour as good or bad. The
self-concept is gradually shaped by the experiences of himself or herself within his or her
environment.

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The child becomes conscious of his or her own gender and that it is a fixed matter that
cannot be changed. He or she also gets to know about the specific behaviour that suits
his sex as he or her role models his behaviour on the behaviour of the parent of the same
sex and thus his sex-role identity is established.

Emotional development: The needs of children in this life phase are of a particular

physical and emotional nature and consist of the need to be fed, to feel secure and to be
cared for lovingly. Exhibiting feelings of love towards the child, comforting the child, or
praising the child, needs to be done in such a manner that these children, in their early
childhood years, can physically experience it through their senses. Fear, separation, and
anxiety are common feelings experienced by children during this life-phase.

According to Erikson (Meyer et al. 1997:216), the child in the early childhood phase
between birth and six years is experiencing a crisis of basic trust versus mistrust with the
synthesis of hope (birth to one year); The next emotional crisis that the child is
experiencing is autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-2 years) with the synthesis of
willpower. The third crisis that children during the early childhood phase experience is
the initiative versus guilt (3-6 years) with the synthesis of purpose. Secure attachment sets
the stage for the normal psychological or emotional development later in life, especially
if the mother tends to be sensitive, accepting and expresses affection towards the child.
Research findings indicate that infants who have experienced secure attachment to their
mothers were more socially competent and performed better at school. (See Chapter 5
in this regard.)

Social development: the child has been socialised [Link] sense that the child now knows

what members of the family system, as well as significant other persons outside the family
system, expect of him or her in terms of behaviour.

2.3.3 The primary school years (6-12 years)

According to Louw et al. (1995:311 ), Santrock (1995: 27 4-301) and Prinsloo et al. (1996:99-

101 ), learners need to master the following developmental tasks during the primary school years:

developing motor skills necessary for games;

accepting a sex-role identity;

stimulating concrete operational thinking;

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acquiring more knowledge and the development of academic skills (reading, writing,
numeracy);

exploring his or he~ surroundings and escaping reality by fantasising. Their thinking is
egocentric, irreversible, self-centred and transductive. The child is in the sensori-motor
phase, as described by Piaget. The child is thinking with the body;

developing social skills and involvement with peers;

developing greater self-knowledge;

acquiring preconventional morality (conscience, sound morals and a system of values);

developing positive attitudes towards diverse social and cultural groups, in terms of
different religious, cultural and race groups, different gender groups, the own school
group and groups from other schools;

stabilising personal independence (physical independence, psychological independence

and intellectual independence, for example the acceptance of responsibility for decisions
made);

acquiring wholesome attitudes towards the self (acceptance of physical and personal
strengths and abilities, as well as to care for his or her physical appearance); and

acquiring concepts needed for everyday living on a concrete, semi-concrete and abstract
level, in order to enhance the child's later intellectual development.

In this phase the maturation process of the brain is almost complete. The brain now has many
more neural connections which enable the child to reason on a more complex level and to
perform more complex skills.

On the cognitive level, according to Piaget (Lauw et al 1995:316-317; Prinsloo 1996:105;

Ausubel & Sullivan 1970:576-580), these learners are in the concrete operational phase (7-11
years). In the beginning of this phase the thinking processes are still concrete and not on an
abstract level.

The ability to form concepts improves at a relatively substantial pace. They

gradually become less egocentric, so that by the end of this phase they can see another's point
of view. They begin to decentre and can think of more than one thing at a time (e.g. form,
colour and function).

Their understanding becomes truer to reality and they become less

animistic. However, they still have a powerful imagination and derive a lot of pleasure from
fantasy related stories.

Their ability to reason improves and their thinking become more

inductive. They enjoy games which have logical rules. They are not always bound by concrete
realities, however, the act of thinking still has a concrete point of departure - hence the term
concrete-operational (Lauw et al. 1995:316). They are not yet able to think about ideas or to
reason with somebody by making use of arguments. However, during the latter part of this life-

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phase, towards 12 years, they are more able to think on an abstract level and not so much on a
concrete level. Logic becomes more important especially in problem solving. Children are now
able to solve a variety of problems as they have gained a concept of numbers, are able to classify,
can manage serialisation, can understand conservation and understand transition.

Regarding the meaningfulness of knowledge in the cognitive development of the child, Louw et

al. (1995:326) maintains that the teacher can make use of the knowledge in the following ways:

The teacher realises that their thought and language ability differs from the language and
thought ability of an adult. Attention must thus be paid to this, when the teacher teaches
learning content.

Learners must be active when learning as the child's actions determine the knowledge
that he or she will acquire.

Learners learn mostly by being provided with new experiences. Teaching large groups
are thus not very successful. Educational programmes during this phase should be
individualised.

Learners should be given many opportunities to debate and argue about their own
viewpoints. Thus they will become conscious of their own shortcomings and in which
way their ideas differ from those around them.

When the learner starts a school career, life changes considerably as, although the home is still
important, the school has now become a very important system that impacts on life in different
ways. Louw et al. (1995:337) contend that the personality of the child has become more
important, as it now provides the child with either a secure or insecure base, from where he or
she approaches and gets involved with significant other role players in his or her lifeworld/environment. Previous social experience is important as the child will benefit from it when
he/she is settling down in the new school environment.

According to Louw et al. (1995:338), teachers "not only play a central role in the learning
experience of every schoolchild, but also exert a powerful influence on virtually every aspect of
the child's development" (see Chapter 5 in this regard).

During the beginning of this phase, children/learners have to go to school, and their emotional
resilience is tested to the limit. They must be able to leave their loved ones, control their
feelings to a greater extent and be able to work with others. Because they begin to outgrow the
cognitive limits of the previous phase, they gradually begin to look more critically at themselves

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and realise that they may not always be the most beautiful or the best, which can make them feel
insecure and inferior.

The primary school years are the period in a learner's life when he or she has become

emotionally more mature. The learner has changed gradually from a child who has been
helpless, to a more independent learner - somebody who is self-sufficient, more flexible,
emotionally stable, and able to differentiate on an emotional level. The expression of emotions,
during this period of a learner's emotional development, is more specific, more diverse, as well
as more sophisticated in nature. Because of the greater emotional differentiation, the learner is
able to express a wider variety of emotions. As the learner's sense of rationality improves and
the learner acquires an ever-widening frame of reference, via new learning experiences, the
learner can understand and control his or her emotions far better and can restrain from impulsive
expression of feelings (Prinsloo et al. 1996: 113). Learners come to realise that a person can
experience different emotions simultaneously. Sex-role stereotyping influences learners during
this life phase, in terms of the nature and quality of emotional expression, for example boys do
not cry (Prinsloo et al. 1996:114; Ausubel & Sullivan 1970:404).

Learners in this phase no longer think egocentrically as they are able to now place themselves
in other people's shoes and see things from their perspective (Lauw et al. 1995:317; Meyer et

al 1997: 194). Their concerns for classmates and friends are genuine. In the early childhood
phase, the child was focussed predominantly on him or herself. They live in their own world and
everything that they do or say is aimed at themselves. They are not sensitive towards another
person's viewpoints or feelings that could shape that person's behaviour (Prinsloo

et al.

1996:87). From six to eight years, the learner begins to realise that other people's needs, wishes,
and feelings are important as well. They now begin to realise that there could be a difference
between what a person says and does, and his or her thoughts. The learner's perception of other
significant role-players' needs and feelings begins to assume relevance and they actually would
like to get involved with these significant other role players in their environment. According to
Louw et al. (1995:360), a definite link between the moral development and the development of
sensitivity towards others exists. The older the learner becomes, the more altruistic the learner
gets. The learner is now more capable of showing sympathy and empathy towards significant
other role players in his or her life-world. He/she actually enjoys pleasing his or her teachers and
parents. Adults, especially the teacher, become the hero of many young learners.

The learner who is eight years old, begins to realise that his or her behaviour can have an impact
on the behaviour of the significant other role players in his or her world. Because of the fact that

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the learner, in this phase, considers the feelings of others, ridicule, criticism and failure
stimulates a negative response from the learner. Prinsloo et al. (1996: 114) advises teachers to
deliberately avoid situations where either they themselves or a learner will hurt another learner's
feelings. The marring of feelings should rather be substituted with sympathetic support, praise
and an opportunity to experience success.

Learners are more capable to control and hide their own feelings. They experience the following
feelings during the primary school years (Louw

et al. 1995:346-347; Prinsloo et al.

1996:113, 114):

Fear. Learners in primary school are less fearful about physical well-being, for example
injury or diseases. They are also less afraid of dogs, storms and noises, as was the case
when they were younger. They, however, still fear supernatural phenomena, such as
ghosts or monsters. New fears begin to emerge in relation to his or her academic
performance, teachers and friends. Concrete fears in effect appear to be fewer, but
abstract fears can still cause learners to experience pain and distress. A significant number
of learners begin to fear that their parents may die, with a consequential increase in a
need for security.

Learners in the primary school phase are inclined to feartheirfathers more than any other
adult - disciplinary action and possible sexual abuse could be the causative factor.
Today's primary school learners tend to fear phenomena that characterise the time in
which they live, for example fear of violence, war, hunger, unemployment, Aids, crime,
and rape. Quite often learners' fears are not completely irrational in nature. Teachers,
parents and significant other role players need to keep this fact in mind. Quite often the
existence of a fear can be traced back to an unpleasant experience or event in the
learner's past, for example a learner's fears of a male teacher can be related back to being
sexually molested by the stepfather. Something they had read in a book or a movie/video
that they had watched or a even a television

programme could have a similar

consequence. Learners react in an individual, unique way to fear. When learners are
shouted at, either at home or at school, or humiliated in front of other learners or siblings
at home, it can trigger feelings of fear, apprehension and mistrust.

Love. Although children are capable of showing love from the day they are born, they
do not understand the abstract meaning of love until they are cognitively fairly mature.
Children who have experienced love are much more capable of showing love or affection

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themselves. The way that the learner has experienced the expression of love during the
formative childhood years, will determining how he or she will, during the primary
school years, in turn express love, for example oy kissing or hugging. These learners, also
come to realise that love can be expressed in different ways, for example through
community service. In effect the learners begin to act less egocentrically and begin to
show love in a more mature manner.

Sex roles and expectations from a boy or a girl, may influence the way in which a learner
shows or expresses love, for example boys are expected not to be too gentle, otherwise
they may be labelled as being "sissies". In contrast girls are not expected to act
aggressively. Stereotyping of roles, in terms of preconceived behaviour patterns, as they
relate to a certain sex, can force children to suppress important emotional feelings.

Aggression.

During the primary school years, learners show aggression openly, in

contrast to the early childhood years, when they showed aggression in order to grab a toy
from another child. Primary school age learners want to hurt other learners. If a learner
is inclined to act aggressively, during the primary school years, the learner will also act
aggressively during adolescence. Boys are deemed to be more aggressive than girls during
this stage. A variety of factors varying from biological to cultural variables can act as
causative factors.

With the commencement of his or her school career the life world of the learner is changed quite
dramatically. While the home still tends to remains a primary influence, the school now also has
an important influence on the learner's development. Louw et al. (1995:337) and Santrock
(1995:318) maintain that the personality of the learner is a determining factor, in the sense that
it determines the way that the learner experiences school. Meyer et al. (1997:12) assume a
broader perspective in defining personality as "the constantly changing but nevertheless
relatively stable organisation of all physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics of the
individual which determine his or her behaviour in interaction with the context in which the
individual finds himself or herself". The learner's context is now extended in scope to include
the school environment and the foregoing definition needs to be seen within the light of this
reality.

According to Sullivan (Meyer et al. 1997: 194), a learner in this life phase, is in terms of his or
her stages of personality development in the youthful stage and towards the end of the phase in
the pre-adolescence stage. The youthful stage is characterised by a need for playmates of the

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same age and eventually a need for an intimate friend of the same sex. Learners also learn to
master the more complex skills of interpersonal behaviour, for example competition, cooperation and compromise. During the pre-adolescerce stage which usually lasts up to the onset
of puberty, learners experience a need for a best friend of the same sex. A genuine interest in
another person is shown in comparison with the previous egocentric focus on their own interests
and needs.

In the discussion on personality during the early childhood phase, it became clear that sex role
identification and self-image form part of the personality. The primary school learner has in
reality already established his or her own self-image to a certain extent. The learner will for
instance know his or her name, age, gender, placing in relation to a brother or sister, what the
learner's abilities entail, and how he or she feels about their bodies and maturing personality.
The relationships that learners are involved in with peers provide opportunities for the learner
to get to know themselves, a case in point being acceptance by the peer group or not and the
reason therefore. In the classroom they behave in such a way that they obtain confirmation of
how they perceive themselves, or they change their perceptions of themselves accordingly.

Felker (Prinsloo 1996:124) explains the role of the self-image, as being that of an internal filter
that makes incoming perceptions more meaningful and links up with the learner's own ideas of
him or herself. Teachers therefore have an important role to play, in the sense that they can act
as filters that can replace the learner's negative perceptions of him or herself with more positive
images. Teachers should also attempt to assist learners, who are unable to deal with their self
images, to be able to more effectively cope with their feelings, for example learners can be
guided not to internalise all the mistakes they make and not regard themselves as being a failure.
Learners need to learn how to accept themselves as they are, together with the mistakes they
have made or are still making, as well as to recognise and appreciate their positive points.
Teachers who are dedicated can assist learners on an individual basis to evaluate themselves
realistically. They can make use of group work in the classroom to enhance a specific learner's
perception of him or h'erself, for example by praising the learner in the presence of other learners
(see Chapter 5 and 6 in this regard).

Sigelman and Shaffer (1995:274) show that from as early as the first year of school, primary
school children are aware of how they compare with others, and therefore know whether they
are as good, betteror weaker than others. As in the previous phase, the outcome of this crisis can
have a long-term effect on them._ Feelings of inferiority, which triggers feelings of incompetency
and worthlessness in a classroom, can elicit all sorts of behaviour problems. This can make it

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difficult for a teacher to manage the class effectively and to offer learners optimal learning
opportunities Learners with a poor self-image may demand attention and be difficult at times.
They may become bullies or give vent to other serious 'Jehaviour problems, for instance stealing,
to try to impress their peer group.

Feelings of inferiority can cause a child to not explore and discover the world. Newman and
Newman (Louw

et al. 1995:370) regard the primary school years as a critical period for the

development of the learner's self-concept. As from six to seven years old, learners begin to
develop an idea of who they are, as well as how they would like to be. The learner now starts
to describe him or herself in terms of the activities in which the learner partakes. The learner can
also develop the ability to assess him or herself. Harter (Louw

et al. 1995:370) in fact asserts that

learners are quite accurate in their assessments of themselves, as their assessments frequently
correlate with the assessments of friends and teachers. The learner's self-concept is also
influenced by a number of factors, such as his or her personal needs, the expectations that
others have of them, as well as the degree to which the learner is in control of his or her
behaviour. The faith that the learner has developed in his or her own ability, will have a direct
impact on their determination to realise personal goals, as well as social expectations of
significant other persons in their environment (see Pringle, par. 2.3.1 for further information in
this regard).

The research findings of Coopersmith (Louw

et al. 1995:371) tend to affirm that the self-esteem

of boys hardly changed between the ages of ten and thirteen years. He verified that children
with a positive self-esteem, were more inclined to be creative, popular with peers, independent,
and far more able to actualise their full potential. His research findings clearly seem to suggest
that a positive self-esteem, does have a definite impact on the learner's performance, be it on a
behaviour or a scholastic level. Coopersmith (Louw

et al. 1995:371) emphasises that the way

adults, especially the parents, treat children, has an important impact on the development of the
child's self-esteem. For the purposes of this study, it is noted that the teacher will tend to have
an important impact on a learner's self-esteem.

Santrock (1995:325) maintains that a learner's self-esteem can be improved by implementing the
following (see Chapter 5 in this regard):

the factors contributing to a bad self-esteem should be identified in the first instance, as
well as the learner's domains of competence (defining the sources of self-esteem);

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the learner should be emotionally supported, by the significant other role players within
his or her environment;

positive behaviour characteristics should be socially approved and supported (learners

should be assisted to identify and value their areas of competence);

opportunities to succeed should be created for the learner; and

opportunities need to be generated to allow the learner to cope on his or her own.

Temperament, as part of personality, focuses specifically on the biological and psychological

dimensions of the personality. Psychologists focus on the three individual components of the
definition separately, namely the role of the person, the situation and the interaction between
the role and the situation. These viewpoints are categorised as personism (behaviour is
determined by the personality of the individual), situational ism (the situation is the only or the
most important determinant of behaviour) and interactionalism (the interaction between the
individual's characteristics and the situation). The individual does not therefore only react to the
situation, as such, but also to his or her own behaviour manifested in the situation. This
interactional perspective is imbedded in ecological systems theory. Implied is the notion that the
child who is exhibiting behaviour problems, cannot be studied in isolation of his or her lifeworld. The child or learner must be studied within the situation where the problem behaviour
is being exhibited. His or her behaviour is the outcome of the system, instead of only being a
product of the individual or as a result of the outcome between the child and the observable,
here and now situation.

Learners who are emotionally secure, who were exposed to preschool experiences outside the
context of the home (e.g. attending a nursery school), and who have developed autonomy, as
well as control over aggressive impulses, will be more successful in adapting to the new school
environment. Older siblings can assist the primary school learner to adapt more easily, as they
will emotionally support and familiarise the learner with the environment, the schoolwork and
the teachers concerned.

Prinsloo et al. (1996: 114) describe the "happy child with a stable emotional life" by attributing
the following characteristics to such a child or learner: "the learner can face challenges occurring
daily with courage and enthusiasm, has a good self-image, although the learner might have
experienced failures and succeeds academically and socially". The prerequisites for being a
happy child with a stable emotional life are: warm, loving and secure relationships with
especially the parents and the teacher as an in locus parentis person. Santrock (1995:318)
maintains that "almost everyone's life is affected in one way or another by teachers". Factors
beyond the control of the learner may have resulted in disrupted families, thereby forcing the

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teacher to act on the behalf of the parents. Examples are war, the death of one or both parents,
the struggle against poverty, and political systems that results in parents "giving up" and thus no
longer caring for their children (Prinsloo et al. 1996: 114).

A learner in primary school enjoys good humour and thus likes to play practical jokes and tell
jokes. As the learner's cognitive development progresses, the learner's ability to appreciate
humour increases. Learners can only enjoy humour if they understand the joke. On the other
hand if learners have the perception that the material is too simplistic, they do not enjoy it:-
According to Stone and Church (Louw et al. 1995:370), the typical jokes that learners during
primary school enjoy stay the same generation after generation. Louw et al. (1995:370), in a
similar vein, point out that other variables that could have an impact on the learner's enjoyment
of humour are influenced by television and play.

Prinsloo et al. (1996:120) maintain that the single most important factor

influencing the

learner's socialisation, is the family, as here the child's basic needs (food, water, clothing and
shelter) as well as psychological or emotional needs, for example the need to be loved, to feel
secure and safe, to be treated with warmth, to be praised, are met. On a social level, the child
learns to socialise with people, starting off with his or her siblings and parents and relations and
friends of the family. He/she also learns how to relate to authority and gets to know
himself/herself. The school is an important factor that has a direct impact on the child's
socialisation process. At school the learners learn to relate to the authority of the teachers, they
learn to follow new rules, make new friends and even get along with children from different
cultural groups, who may not necessarily be their friends, and they soon acquire knowledge and
skills.

On a social level, peers become more important and learners begin to spend less time with the
family. It becomes very important forthe learner to be accepted by the peer group, as this forms
an essential element of the learner's social development (Prinsloo et al. 1996:120). They like
to play in groups, especially with friends of the same sex. They like to conform to the
expectations and demands of peers, for example wearing the same type of clothing. The learners
concerned tend to prefer games with set rules. It is important for them to be accepted by their
friends, otherwise they easily feel left out and lonely.

During the primary school years, learners interact more with other learners of the same age and
sex. They have similar interests and their cognitive development is at a similar level. The peer
group initially functions on a flexible foundation which allows any learner into the group and

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their play is based on what group members decided at a specific moment in time. Towards the
end of the primary school phase, cohesion and a greater solidarity develops within the peer
group and admission to the group is often controlled, through, for instance, initiation rituals.
Learners like to conform to the type of clothes that group members tend to wear. Gangs flourish
during this phase. According to Louw et al. (1995: 363-364) the peer group provides members
with the following: comradeship; opportunities for trying out new behaviours, especially those
behaviours that adults do not agree on; the facilitation of the transfer of knowledge and
information, varying from informal tasks to jokes, puzzles, superstitions and games; the teaching
of obedience to rules and regulations; the reinforcement of sex roles; the opportunity to become
emotionally more independent from the parents as well as the provision of opportunities to
experience involvement with different types of relationships in which they can on equal footing
compete with members of the peer group.

Peer group pressure can harm the learner's sense of reality and logical thinking. The attachment
to the peer group can overpower the learner's individual degree of self-reliance and
independence. It can also result in the learner taking part in undesirable and illegal activities,
because the learner's emotional needs are unmet and he or she is looking for the satisfaction of
these needs towards the peer group.

Not all learners, however, are equally popular within the peer group. So for instance Louw et
al. (1995:366) maintain that popular learners are friendlier, inclined to be extroverts, are more

cooperative and are generally more pleasant than their counterparts, who are unpopular with
peers. Papalia and Olds (Louw et al. 1995:367) describe the unpopular learner as follows:

One of the saddest figures amongst schoolchildren is the child who is chosen last
for every team, is on the fringes of every group, walks home alone after school,
is not invited to birthday parties, and sobs in despair, "nobody wants to play with
me".

Hartup (Louw et al. 1995:367) found that if a learner is not popular in primary school, this
variable links up with behaviour problems or emotional disorders that the learner experiences
later in life. Learners who exhibit behaviour problems also experience problems in terms of
social skills and establishing and maintaining social relationships (Gearheart et al. 1986:306;
Reinert 191980:4). In this regard Bierman's (Louw et al. 1995:367) research findings are of
relevance, in that they indicated that when social skills have been taught to a learner, that
learner's popularity amongst other learners tends to increase. These skills should include, for

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example how to conduct a conversation, show an interest in other people, advise others, be of
assistance to others, and how an invitation should be worded and be presented. Asher et al.
(Louw et al. 1995:367) found in their research, that the home circumstances and parenting style
of parents are relevant to the learner, in terms of being popular or not with friends. A "model"
home and "model" parenting style would include the following: families of popular learners are
more closely attached to one another, the parents do not condone aggressive or antisocial
behaviour in their children, the children typically try not to frustrate their parents, while the
parents generally do not punish their children excessively. In contrast they often reassure their
children by telling them that they love them, they take great care that their children can socialise
by playing with various children, and they buy toys and other equipment that could be used by
their children to encourage group interaction and play.

In terms of the preceding discussion it may be concluded that the peer group and learners'
socialisation within a peer group, has substantial significance in an analysis of behaviour
problems. In the following section the social development of the learner is reviewed. It is
particularly important as socialisation constitutes the process whereby learners learn to conform
to society's expectations in terms of acceptable behaviour.

Aspects of the social development of a preschool child, includes socialisation, prosocial

behaviour, and antisocial behaviour. According to Botha et al. (1995:285) and Prinsloo et al.
(1996:91 ), socialisation (a process during which the child learns to conform to moral standards,
to meet the role expectations of others and to behave according to standards of accepted
behaviour that is prevailing in the society) during the preschool years aims at:
,..

maintaining and controlling biological needs, such as a toilet routine;

,..

the development of a greater language ability;

,..

the shaping of a conscience;

,..

developing an understanding of social relationships;

,..

the development of independency and initiative;

,..

acquiring appropriate sexual behaviour;

,..

acting in a socially acceptable way;

,..

the adoption of suitable gender roles; and

,..

the development of acceptable social attitudes.

Although the socialisation process differs from culture to culture, Schell et al. (Botha et al. 1995:
285) maintain that the same individual and social mechanisms are present in learners from
different cultures, namely a need to:

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be accepted, regarded with dignity, to be loved and recognised;

...

avoid unpleasant feelings resulting from rejection or being punished;

...

imitate others; and

...

be like specific role models whom the child respects, love or admire.

127

Other factors of relevance to the socialisation process, are categorised under:

external factors, to be found within the environment of the child, for example

...

moral values, traditions, behaviour norms. The learner's behaviour is either directly
or indirectly influenced by varius socialisation agents or significant other role
players; and
internal factors, genetically determined factors, for example temperament that

...

determines how learners will react to socialisation actions of significant other role
players within their life world. Prinsloo et al. (1996:91) mention that many of the
problems that are experienced in South African schools and communities on the
political, social and educational front can be related to a culture of intolerance in
the country. They maintain that if a child grows up with a sense of intolerance in the
home, little hope exists that the child's behaviour in future will be different from
those of his or her role models.

Prosocial behaviour is characterised by positive social interaction, including aspects such as:
positive social interaction, cooperation, helpfulness and a willingness to give. Prosocial
behaviour can be encouraged by means of either modelling or by role play (Botha et al.
1995:288). Staub (Botha et al. 1995:288) found that role play served as the most effective means
for encouraging prosocial behaviour. Prinsloo et al. (1996:91) argue that the child will show
more prosocial behaviour towards the members of the family than to strangers outside of the
family circle.

Antisocial behaviour is directly linked to negative social activities (e.g. selfishness, taking the
toys of another child, telling lies, and. aggression) that cause conflict within the learner's
relationships with significant other role players (Prinsloo et al. 1996:91 ). Feshbach (Botha et al.
1995:289) distinguishes between hostile aggression (wants to hurt someone) that occurred more
frequently amongst older learners and instrumental aggression (wants to recover something).
Young learners were more inclined to be physically aggressive, while older learners are more
inclined to show verbal aggression.

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Botha et al. (1995:291) identified the following factors that could contribute towards the learner
acting aggressively:
~

frustration that leads to the appearance 'Jf aggression;

competition that stimulates aggression especially if a reward is at stake;

family factors where a child identifies with family members who act aggressively

and where aggression is accepted as a way of self-assertiveness and is even

rewarded and
~

cultural factors whereas different cultures encourage or prevent children to act

aggressively.

Different viewpoints exist on how to control aggression, for example the catharsis-hypothesis
presupposes that when aggressive feelings are not allowed to be expressed, they will build up
to a violent outburst. It is argued that an expression of feelings is better than a so-called,
"bottling up" of feelings. Other studies, however, have indicated that the expression of
aggression can encourage it, instead of controlling it. Learning-theorists maintain that aggressive
behaviour can be redirected by rewarding the child for prosocial behaviour, ratherthan focussing
on the punishment of aggressive behaviour. The child/learner then has to find alternatives, as to
how he or she is going to deal with aggression in a socially acceptable way. Prinsloo et al.
(1996:91) recommend that when a child is deliberately hurting another child, this type of
aggressive behaviour must be actively discouraged.

The peer group offers the following to learners in terms of their total development (Ausubel &
Sullivan 1970:335; Prinsloo et al. 1996:121 ): "companionship, enjoying the company of equals,
acquiring knowledge and information, getting to know rules and regulations, the strengthening
of gender roles and encouraging the learner to become more emotionally independent from the
parents and to experience individuality and dignity as a person".

Prinsloo et al. (1996:122) advise teachers to keep in mind how important the peer group is to
a learner in primary school and they should therefore not attempt to break up groups because
they are troublesome in the classroom - other methods should rather be utilized, for example
rewarding the group for positive behaviour or success. Teachers need to be sensitive to peer
group pressure and the impact thereof on the learner's behaviour and consequently any
behaviour problems that may be manifested by the learner. Excessive conformity to a peer group,
especially if it is a dubious group, must serve to alert the teacher, as this could be a causative
factor of behaviour problems in the classroom.

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The self-image of the learner is frequently affected by the response of the peer group and this
can be either of a positive or negative nature. Of especially significance in this regard, is the
case where a learner is rejected by certain members of the peer group or by the whole peer
group. Teachers should discuss the rejection of learners by a peer group in the classroom. The
teacher may be able to improve peer group relationships and assist a particular learner in being
accepted by the peer group, through the utilization of group activities. Private discussions with
members of the peer group or with the peer group when the learner is not present, can also be
effective in stabilising peer relationships. Teachers need to keep in mind that learners behave
according to the expectations of significant other role players in their life world, such as the
teacher, parents and peers. If a certain learner is therefore labelled as stupid, the peers will also
label the learner likewise and treat the learner in the same way as the teacher does (Apter &
Conoley 1984:7 4; Prinsloo et al. 1996: 123). Teachers can thus change the behaviour of learners
towards teachers by changing the label that is attached to the particular learner in question.

Erikson (Meyer et al. 1997:218; Santrock (1995:38) identifies a crisis of industriousness versus
inferiority with the synthesis of competence in this phase (6-12 years). Learners/children are
naturally eager to learn and are curious, which gives parents and teachers a golden opportunity
to stimulate them to think and act creatively. Support and understanding from the parents and
teachers will stimulate learners to develop a zest for life. If encouragement from the parents and
the teacher are however not present, the learner will not be able to cope on his or her own with
the school environment and the expectations of significant other role players. The learner may
thus experience feelings of inferiority instead (Louw 1995:341 ). The tendency of children to
learn is being met by society in the creation of opportunities for children to learn and to
cooperate. Formal schooling in the modern, technological society implies that the child will
acquire basic scholastic skills like reading, writing and numeracy. They will also tend to
assimilate traditional, cultural skills and habits, as they relate to a specific culture group. If the
child does not acquire the necessary skills and habits of his or her culture, feelings of inferiority
may well be nurtured, which in turn could have a demoralising effect on the learner. The
synthesis of this phase, namely competence, thus indicates a balanced feeling of competency,
which will enable the child to successfully participate in the typical cultural processes of
producing and raising his or her own family.

Children in this phase or stage, experience a lot of initiative and this forces them to come into
contact with many new experiences. As they get to the middle and late childhood period, they
focus on the mastering of new intellectual skills and on obtaining knowledge. Such learners will
work hard and productively with the necessary encouragement.

However, if they

are

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continuously criticised, and their efforts are ignored, they will eventually no longer accept any
new challenges and will lose their enthusiasm and self-confidence, which could manifest in
various types of behaviour problems, for example attention-seeking behaviour, shyness and
withdrawal. Santrock (1995:318) maintains that effective teachers should actually be able to
stimulate a sense of industry instead of inferiority. Teachers should also know how to create an
atmosphere within the classroom that is conducive to learning, one where learners can feel good
about themselves and their accomplishments. They should also know how to understand and
assist learners to whom school has become a problem.

When learners are exposed to phenomena like violence, a constant change in schools and
unmotivated parents, they will lose their self-confidence and interest. A feeling of inferiority
could consequently materialise, which in turn could well have a direct bearing on their
behaviour. According to Louw et al. (1995:341) if learners experience success in school, they
will develop a positive self-image and a good feeling of self-worth.

Elkind (Louw

et al.

1995:341) in a similar sense contends that if a learner experiences many opportunities to partake
in different activities at school, the learner will have more opportunities to develop feelings of
self-worth and competence.

As

regards their moral development, younger learners tend to accept the moral values

expounded by adults, in order to become part of their life world and not to feel left out. One of
the most important moral developmental tasks that the learner accomplishes, is being able to
distinguish between "good" or "bad" behaviour and "right" and "wrong" behaviour. Piaget
(Lauw et al. 1995:342; Santrock 1995:263) maintains that a positive link exists between moral
and cognitive development. Cognitive development is regarded as a prerequisite for moral
development, although a high level of cognitive development does not necessarily guarantee a
high level of moral development. Koh Iberg (Louw et al. 1995:343) did not agree with all Piaget's
research findings. While he tended to agree that children develop different cognitive skills, as
they go through the different stages of moral development, Kohlberg (Louw et al. 1995:343)
did not however, like Piaget, believe that by the end of the primary school years a child's moral
development will have reached complete moral maturity. Kohlberg maintains that children
during this stage of life, still need to develop morally as is being characterised by autonomous
and individual principles of the conscience (Louw et al. 1995:343; Santrock 1995:263).
Kohl berg's theory of moral development was also criticised by theorists.

Kohl berg (Louw et al. 1995:343-346; Prinsloo et al. 1996:118, 119; Santrock 1995:334-335)
draws a distinction between three levels of moral development, on the basis of solutions

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presented for dealing with the dilemma in a case study called "Heinz and his dying wife". Each
level is subdivided into further stages namely:

level 1:

Preconventional level: 5-9 years. The child obeys rules to avoid punishment and to
get rewards or favours:

level 2:

Conventional level. Most adolescent and high school students: The child essentially
obeys rules to be accepted and to avoid rejection. The learner accepts rules because
he or she can identify with them and perceives them as essential for preserving
society.

level 3:

Postconventional level. Only a small percentage of adults reach this level. Rules are
regarded as contractual agreements aimed at protecting the rights of the individual
and promoting the common good. The person acts on self-chosen principles, based
on universal values. Notably, the values of parents are no longer accepted
unconditionally.

Prinsloo et al. (1996:119, 120) advises teachers to treat, reprimand or punish learners according
to their age group and their level of moral development, for example a six-year-old who tells lies
should be treated differently than a 17-year-old learner who is guilty of the same type of
behaviour. They advise teachers (and parents) not to threaten learners with a list of punishments
if they have violated rules or misbehaved, as this will only reinforce the tendency to persist in
an authority-maintaining level of morality. Teachers or parents can also promote moral
development by discussing idealised conduct and the reasons why such conduct is necessary.
Teachers can for instance offer guidelines on how to behave according the "Golden Rule of

Behaviour".

The main conclusions drawn from the sections dealing with the social, personality, cognitive,

emotional, and moral development of primary school learners can be summarised as follows:

Social development. Learners in this life phase are starting to accept a specific sex-role
and to develop a sex-role identity that matches their choice. They are becoming more
skilled with the application of their social skills, they are more involved with and more
concerned about peers than during the previous phase, especially seeing that the peer
group becomes very important the older they get during this phase. Research findings
indicate that learners that are exhibiting behaviour problems, experience problems with
social skills. Learners are becoming more independent in their decision-making than
before and can thus now accept responsibility for decisions made.

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Learners are getting to know what social norms imply and are structuring their behaviour
in line with these norms. They like to please the teacher and get on fairly well with adults
in general. The family becomes especially important, as it provides them with an
opportunity to practise their social skills, and it creates a chance for emotional needs to
be met. The school also contributes towards the shaping of the learner's social skills.
Learners, as they progress in this phase, distance themselves more and more from the
family in order to link up with the peers. They compare themselves with peers in the
classroom so that they know whether they are rated as good, bad or a total failure. The
conclusions that they come to, have a direct bearing on their self-images. The faith that
he or she has developed in his or her own abilities will determine the way that he/she
will be meeting personal, as well as social expectations of significant other persons in the
life-world/environment. The same individual and social mechanisms are present in
learners from different cultures. According to Erikson, learners in this life phase, are
experiencing an industriousness

versus inferiority crisis

with the synthesis of

competence, as learners have to acquire the tools and general skills (like reading, writing,

numeracy) as well as specific skills of their culture group in order to develop a sense of
competency as they are able to successfully participate in the cultural activities and
respect the cultural norms and values and function as worthwhile members of the
cultural group in the community.

Personality development. The learner develops a need for a best friend of the same sex.

In the relatior\ships of the learner, his or her self-image is shaped accordingly. Feelings
of inferiority can elicit all sorts of serious behaviour problems which can have a direct
bearing on his or her determination to realise personal goals as well as social
expectations of significant other role players in his or her environment. The impact of the
teacher as well as the impact of the familial relationships on the learner's self-image will
determine his or her self-image. Warm, loving and secure relationships will ensure a
stable emotional life for the learner.

Cognitive development. In terms of cognitive developmental milestones, as defined by

Piaget, learners during this life phase are in the operational phase - they gradually
become less egocentric, as they progress during this phase. Their understanding becomes
truer to reality and they can think of more than one thing at a time and they can see
another person's point of view. Learners become less animistic, they begin to decentre,
have powerful imaginative skills, can reason and their thinking patterns become more
inductive. In the beginning of this phase they still make use of concrete operational

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thinking skills, implying that they later will be more able to think on a more abstract
level.

Emotional development. This is a time of greater emotional maturity. The transformation

is one from helplessness to one of independence and self-sufficiency. Sex-role
stereotyping influences the nature and quality of emotional expression and learners
become aware of the social rules governing such expression. Learners' fears are
essentially related to issues such as a fear of failure and their fears tend to more rational
in nature. Those learners who experience love and affection are better able to in turn
express love in different ways. They tend to outgrow their egocentrism and become more
sensitive toward other people. Learners also begin to display aggression more openly.

Moral development. During this life phase, it is important for the learner to be able to
distinguish between "good" and "bad" and between "right" and "wrong" behaviour. At
this stage of life, the learner has, according to Kohlberg, passed the first two stages of
moral development namely punishment and obedience orientation and naive hedonistic

and instrumental orientation. This implies that the behaviour of the learner has changed
from being egocentric, fearing punishment because of unacceptable behaviour, no real
conscience has been established to being concerned to meet his or her own needs,
acting individualistically and allowing others to meet their own needs. Later during this
phase, learners obey rule~ simply because they want to be accepted and want to avoid
rejection. They accept rules because they can identify with them and perceives them as
essential for preserving society. They try to please authority figures and to live up to the
role expectations of the significant other role players. Learners are trying their utmost to
behave well by being concerned about the "golden rule" by being concerned about
others and by exhibiting virtues like trust and loyalty. Behaviour tends to be judged in
terms of the learner's motive.

2.3.4

The secondary school years (12-18 years)

Adolescence is perhaps the most challenging, interesting and insecure phase of human life. This
phase is characterised by complex and diverse physical, cognitive, emotional, personality and
moral changes that are constantly taking place. In effect adolescence is nothing less than a
journey towards adulthood. It is during this developmental phase that educators often find it
difficult to understand or direct the adolescent's behaviour.

According to Mitchell (1979: 192), it is a popular myth and untruth that adults like adolescents.
He maintains that "youth are a mixture of nuisance, inconvenience and menace and adults do

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not know quite what to make of them". Menninger (Mitchell 1979:192) argues that society is
inclined to regard adolescents as "an unfortunate inconvenience, a sort of bad moment that we
half wish would go away; a distraction or maybe a disruption that gets in the way of real
business of living for the rest of us; a kind of incidental way station in life that will surely pass
if we wait long enough or hold our breath or look the other way".

Adolescence extends from about 11 to 21 years of age. In practice age boundaries tend to be
variable and it is therefore preferable to demarcate the various development stages on the basis
of specific developmental characteristics, rather than merely to rely on age as the determining
factor. Individual and cultural differences, as well as the nature and character of the society, can
influence the onset and end of adolescence. For the purposes of this study the focus will be on
the age group ranging from twelve to eighteen years, which is the average age of learners
attending secondary school.

Mitchell (1979:192-234) in discussing the myths surrounding adolescence, highlights the

following truths that will enable teachers to better understand learners in the secondary school:

Adults tend to fear adolescents, especially adolescents in the late adolescent phase.
Adolescents in the early adolescent phase, irritate adults in terms of their manners,
physical appearance and language utilization. The activities that adolescents, in the
middle adolescent phase, engage in creates a feeling of resentment within many an
adult. The fear of adults towards adolescents is triggered by, for example the fact that
they might not be able to control adolescents. They also tend to fearthat their values and
beliefs might be rejected by the adolescent - so they rather reject the adolescent in
advance, before they are rejected. Rules are created to establish a form of adolescent
control, by replacing youthful excess with youthful orderliness.

A frequent belief held by many adults is that adolescents are sexually active, they can
find a suitable partner whenever they need to and sexual arousal is part and parcel of
their lives. Few myths are further from the truth. Mitchell (1979:201) maintains that
adolescents are not sexually active to the extent that adults expect them to be. They
regard sex, as something serious, personal, intense, concrete and romantic. Young adu Its
are inclined to be much more involved in sexual activity than adolescents.

It is contended that the role of the peer group in the life-world of the adolescent is more
often than not misunderstood. Because of the fact that adolescents are isolated from
adults and family members during the day, they naturally are left with the company of
their peers. Adolescents do not inherently favour the values of peers more that those of

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adults - they learn to do so, in the absence of having an appropriate adult role model
available. Mitchell (1979:205) makes the statement that we "misread youth because we
do not understand what they need; we concentrate too much on what they do wrong and
not enough on what they do right. We see their actions as caused by age, but they are
better understood if we concentrate on social dynamics."

Adolescents appreciate adults who treat them in a dignified way. The experience, power
and insight of the adult, attracts the adolescent. Although adolescents sometimes want
to be with peers, they don't want their whole life-world to revolve around peer groups.

Peer groups are functional in the sense that they provide the adolescent with an
opportunity to achieve importance and develop a social system with entrenched rules.
The adolescent is quite often called "the marginal man" as the adolescent interchanges
between acting more adult-like and, all of sudden, acting like a child in the preadolescent phase.

A so-called "generation gap" does not exist - it is rather a conflict between adolescent
and adult, created by confusion and unacceptability of messages sent to each other,
which results eventually in a power struggle. According to Mitchell (1979:210) these
conflicts are not different from the power struggle between the toddler and the parent.
More serious power struggles exist between the late adolescent and the early adolescent.
Mitchell (1979:209) maintains that" generational differences are often little more than
differences in outlook for achieving the same goal".

Not all youths experience adolescence as a time of intensive turmoil. Mitchell

(1979:216) argues that myths on adolescence, as a period of extreme turmoil, has been
clouded by the views of extremists. The theorists that maintain that adolescence is a
period of turmoil dealt with youths who were disturbed. Offer (Mitchell 1979:217) in his
research on so-called "normal" adolescents, found that not all adolescents experienced
turmoil. Adolescents who do experience adolescence as a period of turmoil, are
experiencing a normal rather than a neurotic crisis.

Mitchell (1979:220) makes the statement that youths are hypocritical because "their
desire for social acceptance, their need to explore forbidden pleasures, and their
preoccupation with the present incline them toward social pragmatism and self-centred
expediency - the nuclear ingredients of all hypocrisy". Hypocrisy is stimulated by the
fact that adolescents are continuously expected by adults, to be somebody other than

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themselves or to live by rules that do not take their needs and aspirations into
consideration.

Adolescents are often judged by adults as being "incompetent". Mitchell (1979:225,226)

argues that their inabilities stem from the fact that they are not granted opportunities by
adults to prove their competency, nor are they provided with a mentor who could guide
them, especially in the onset phase of the assignment. Another factors which can add to
a picture being created of adolescent incompetency, is that adolescents are not always
occupied with some or other task and they consequently restlessly hang out at public
places, mill around and mock one another.

Mitchell (1979:2-6) describes the following typical characteristics of an adolescent learner that,
in terms of this study, is deemed to be of specific relevance to teachers:

They are confronted on a daily basis with the same general interaction problems
confronting persons in other life phases, for example they need to learn to get on with
others and develop intimate relationships.

Adolescents are likely to be physical, sensual, hyperactive and experience strong

passions. They are energetic and create an impression to outsiders of a chaotic and
disordered life-style. Their behaviour is mostly functional and just as adults often need
to "let off steam", adolescents are continually in a process of releasing surplus energy.

They are inclined to get involved in roles that are essentially set aside for adults, for
example having a job, and caring for younger siblings whilst the parent is at work.
Although they occupy adult roles, there is much of the child still left within them. They
also still have strong feelings of dependency on authority figures and on occasions may
display immature behaviour patterns.

Adolescent learners are interested in what the future holds for them. They are inclined
to act egocentrically, be self-centred, and focussed on their self-interests. They only
partake in an activity when they are particularly interested in the activity concerned.
Although they exhibit a natural curiosity as to what the future may have in store for
them, they experience a gut feeling of fear of the future. The fear partly stems from
cognitive disapproval of society's values al)d partly from an inherent immaturity within
this development stage.

They are ethic-bound in their decisions or viewpoints on sexual behaviour and are not
as many adults believe, mere carriers of sexual energy that can be triggered by any
possible suggestive gesture, thought, or picture. They develop their own ethical and
moral standards, often modelled on that of their parents.

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Adolescent learners have to a large degree mastered the skill of cheating, exploiting and
manipulating significant others. They tend to feel that they are not being understood by
their parents and that the rules that have be2n laid down, do not necessary take their
needs into consideration.

They have acquired the basic virtues of truth, beauty and goodness.

Adolescents experience sexual problems which relate to personal realities such as body
image, self-concept, and feelings of masculinity or femininity.

They are good at camouflaging their true psychological motives by making use of societal
weaknesses and limitations, which makes it difficult for adults to know whether they are
acting out their own personal feelings of confusion or whether they are opposing some
social condition which they think deserves protest.

Adolescent learners tend to act egocentrically, which enables them to understand their
first-person experiences better. They also tend to role model people who are also
inclined to act in a similar way. They are consequently influenced by people that they
look up to.

They act with hostility when adults treat them like young children and fail to
acknowledge their integrity and personal identity.

Modern societies tend to require that adolescents need to master the following developmental
tasks which will determine their adjustment to an advanced and technocratic society
(Thom, 1995:379):
"

acceptance of the changes taking place within their bodies;

"

development of a gender-role identity;

...

establishment and development of heterosexual relationships;

"

emotional involvement with another person;

"

preparation for responsibilities concerning a family and marriage;

"

development of independency from parents and other adult significant role

players;

"

acceptance of him or herself, as a person and the development of an identity;

"

development of socially responsible behaviour;

"

acceptance of and the adjustment to groups, with different cultural or religious

values;
fulfilling of adult responsibilities by the development of intellectual skills and
I

concepts;
"

choosing and preparing for a career;

"

achievement of being financially independent;

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...

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development of realistic and scientific world views in order to develop a value

system;
acquiring of guidelines for behaviour by the development of moral concepts and
values; and
development of an own philosophy of life.

The degree to which adolescents master these developmental tasks depends on the quality of
educational support given by the educators. Adolescents need understanding and sympathetic
guidance towards the shaping of an identity and in preparing for responsible adulthood. In a
complex society that is characterised by discontinuities, the transition from childhood to
adulthood is rather problematic, especially if new views, behaviour patterns and roles
continuously replace old ones.

In secondary school a learner's physical development is characterised by changes taking place

as they enter a phase of rapid growth and secondary sexual changes, frequently termed the
"adolescent growth spurt" (Thom 1995:385; Papalia & Olds 1975:567). Adolescents who mature
physically at an earlier stage, are generally expected to behave more like adults and they
consequently acquire a premature personal and occupational identity. They can also be put in
a marginal social position, as they are favoured by older boys, although they are not emotionally
mature enough to deal with the social relationships that evolve. Girls, however, do not have
much in common with peers of their own age group. This is a time of secondary sexual changes.
The difference between the physical abilities of girls and boys becomes all the more evident. The
emphasis now falls on precision of movement and the integration of coordination, muscle
strength, agility and thought. The adolescent learner experiences his or her new sexual identity
within his or her interpersonal relationships and attempts to integrate it with the rest of his or her
new found identity.

The cognitive system of the learner of eleven or older is far more complex and better organised
than that of a younger child. The cognitive ability of the adolescent learner extends both on a
quantitative and qualitative level, as he or she is better able to master more intellectual tasks than
before. As changes take place regarding the thought processes and cognitive structure, learners
can think on a more abstract and logical level, with many more possibilities opening up before
them. He or she is now able to:
...

think and to draw conclusions about other conclusions;

...

consider all possible solutions to a problem posed;

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139

make use of a hypothetical-deductive method of thinking and interpropositional

logic in their thinking;
make use of formal operational thinking, which enables him or her to grasp the
concept of proportionality or relationships; and

"

think of all the possible combinations of elements in a set- this ability is a result
of proportional thought.

The influence of the adolescent learners' enhanced cognitive abilities is seen in their questioning
of their parents' values and viewpoints instead of them merely accepting and idealising their
parents and their values. They rebel against the world, their parents, teachers and the norms and
values of society in general, as they realise that reality differs from the ideal world that they have
mentally created for themselves. They think about all their own experiences and this inclination
tends to reverse them to a state of egocentrism, similar to that of the early childhood phase. They
create an imaginary audience in thinking primary about themselves, their behaviour, and
physical appearance. A case in point being the need to conform to the norms set by their peers.
They therefore need to wear denim shorts when they goes out, just like they do. They think that
everybody will immediately notice it when they are not wearing similar denim shorts to that
worn by their peers. The adolescent learner enjoys his or her uniqueness to such an extent that
he or she thinks that nobody has ever loved, as he or she is able to love and more often than not
feels that nobody really understands him/her. After the age of sixteen, his or her thinking
becomes more objective and realistic, less self-centred and more capable of establishing genuine
relationships.

Piaget (Conger 1991:140,143-146) contends that adolescent learners are in the

operational phase of cognitive development (12 years and up).

formal

They gradually lose their

naiveness, idealism and egocentrism as they approach the late adolescent phase. Notably, they
are now able to look at and judge themselves objectively, and consequently their self-concept
is more in line with reality. A shift of emphasis is also now possible, namely from the strictly
factual, to the possibility of such a fact existing. Alternatively, the shift may viewed as being from
what reality it is like at a moment in real life, as viewed by the adolescent, to what it might be
in the future or to how the adolescent might view it in future. This mind shift of the adolescent
is one where he or she is thinking on a more abstract level, which allows them to view their lifeworld in a totally different way. They therefore are able to think more hypothetic-deductively
and no longer merely focus on concrete realities.

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The adolescent learner is more conscious of his or her own thoughts and tends to think more
about the future, than is the case with younger children, who prefer to focus on the here and
now. Although the basic thinking processes remain the same, gifted adolescents are more
inclined to use their imaginations. They are also more flexible and precise in their exercising of
formal operational thinking, than is the case with adolescents that are not equally gifted. Social
cognition develops during adolescence and this enables adolescents to think about themselves
and the significant other persons in their life-world. They are able to evaluate their inner feelings
with regard to the relationships that exists between themselves and the other significant persons
concerned.

The emotions and behaviour of these learners are far more complex and less easy to understand
than is the case with a younger learner. The protective mechanisms that adolescents adopt are
more sophisticated than those of younger learners and therefore they can mislead their teachers
and parents with far greater ease. In addition, their feelings last longer and they cannot forget
the emotions they experienced as easily as younger learners are able to do. In this phase a circle
of friends is of utmost importance. Girls begin to pay more attention to the opposite sex. Their
appearance assumes substantial importance, and they quite frequently develop complexes and
a sensitivity, as regards their appearance. Hormonal imbalances frequently give rise to skin
problems like acne. They easily imagine themselves to be too fat, too thin, too short or too tall.
Girls are often shy if their bodies are less well developed than that of their peers. The situation
is further aggravated if others, in particularly boys, comment thereon.

They are often

unnecessarily critical of themselves and may even have a completely false perception of their
appearance.

As previously alluded to, adolescence is a time when the self-concept surfaces and becomes a
powerful force in the adolescent's life-world. In general, the self-evaluation (self-concept) of
children in this phase (self-concept) becomes increasingly accurate and realistic. Adolescents
become painfully aware of how wonderful they would like to be. Glick and Zigler (Sigelman

& Shaffer 1995:27 4) have found in their research that the older the learner becomes, the larger
the gap between the true self and the ideal self becomes. Hence older learners run a far greater
risk, than younger learners, of seeing themselves as unqualified and unacceptable.
therefore, quite easy to distort such a learner's self-image.

It is,

They quickly feel rejected and

isolated. Emotional tension can even cause adolescents to relapse temporarily, so that they no
longer have the same degree of emotional security they had before.

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Simmons (Sigelman & Shaffer 1995:278) have found that it is particularly in their twelfth and
fourteenth year that high school learners experience problems with their self-concept. This is
the period in which learners move from primary to high school. However, Dusek and Flaherty
(Sigel man & Shaffer 1995:279) found that the self-concept of the majority of adolescents is the
same at the end of this phase, as was the case at the beginning. In spite of a far more extensive
and controlled level of cognitive development, most learners in this phase (12-18/25 years) go
through an emotional crisis.

Erikson (Meyer et al. 1997:218; Santrock 1992:50; Santrock

1995:38) terms this the crisis of identity versus role confusion.

An adolescent's feeling of security is all too frequently impaired by the demands of key role
players within his or her life-world, in terms of having to make a career choice and having to
cope with the physical changes of puberty and sexual maturity. Adolescents continually wrestle
with the questions of: "Who am I?", "What am I all about?, "What will I accomplish in life? What
am I in the eyes of other people? How can my previously acquired roles and skills fit into the
career world and my projected future?" According to Prinsloo et al. (1996: 160) "identity"
provides an answer to the question of "Who am I?". Erikson (Meyer et al. 1997:218) identifies
this phase, as one of a "quest for self-image", during which the adolescent has to find a balance
between his or her self-image and the role expectations of the society. Identity is the personal
experience of himself or herself as an independent and unique human being, with a particular
place and role within the community - somebody who is experiencing an integration of their
ideals, wishes, expectations, abilities, skills and drives, whilst society provides them with
opportunities to develop their own unique identity. In order to accomplish this, the adolescent
learner needs to integrate the different changes which are shaping his or her identity, so that he
or she maintains a unified existing identity. He or she needs to experience a feeling of still being
the same person.

An identity crisis is experienced when the adolescent becomes confused in the quest for
identity, because of a possible clash with the existing rules, values and norms of society and
those of the significant other role players, who are close to the adolescent. Erikson (Meyer et al.
1997:219) argues that society is not very tolerant towards the adolescent's search for identity.
It, however, provides him or her with a degree of vital support in the form of social institutions,
for example universities, vocational training, military service and tribal schools. In a quest for
identity adolescents frequently come into confrontation with the rules, customs and traditions
of society. The danger here, is that they may become confused in their search for identity and
a suitable social role (Meyer 1997:219). A synthesis of the crises of identity, versus role
confusion, is termed by Erikson (Meyer 1997:219) as being reliability or fidelity, implying that

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the adolescent feels certain about his or her own identity, is aware of other possible choices that
he or she could have made in terms of his or her identity, as well a capacity to act in accordance
with his or her social role(s).

Sullivan (Meyer et al 1997: 194-195) draws a destination between seven stages of personality
development.

Early adolescence, according to Sullivan (Meyer et al 1997: 194-195),

is

characterised by the introduction of physiological changes associated with puberty, together

with a strong desire to get involved in an intimate relationship with a person of the opposite sex.
He regards this crisis, as the turning point of personality development. The adolescent has to
become capable of managing intimate relationships, coupled with the development of a
powerful "lust dynamism" leading to the desire for an intimate relationship or relationships with
the opposite sex. This stage in effect is one where the adolescent may either become capable of
managing intimate relationships or experience substantial problems therewith. Homosexuality
occurs when the adolescent cannot make a transition from intimate same sex relationships to
intimate opposite sex relationships.

The main crises to overcome during the pre-adolescent period, according to Sullivan (Meyer et
al. 1997: 194), is the establishment of healthy interpersonal relationships. It is essentially during
this period that a genuine interest in another person emerges, while the relationships in previous
phases are essentially egocentric in nature.

Sullivan (Meyer et al. 1997: 194-195) stresses that during the late-adolescent stage learners are
able to establish a lasting love relationship resulting in the successful integration of the lust
dynamism and intimacy. Syntax experiences are important, as adolescents begin to test new
ideas, attitudes and ways of living by comparing them with others. They are in effect discovering
a personal style of living. They also begin to demand more from the other persons involved in
the interpersonal relationships. In entering this stage with an inflated self-esteem or excessive
anxiety in interpersonal relationships, the adolescent may well experience negative
consequences from a personality development perspective. Notably, the development of selfrespect is a characteristic of this developmental phase.

Factors that contribute towards the establishment of an identity are typically the following:
"'

the shaping of an integrated and persistent profile of the total self as a person,

"'

an association with members of the peer group,

"'

the development and final shaping of a sex role identity, and

"'

a shaping of a vocational identity.

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143

is generally associated with growth and

development. Although adolescent learners change and "mature" and their identities expand,
they soon reach a peak of scope and intensit; during the adolescent life stage. Prinsloo et al.
(1996:160) contend this is a direct result of ensuing physical maturity, as well as changes taking
place at the emotional, cognitive, moral, sexual and social levels. The changes taking place are
often threatening to the adolescent learner's feelings of security, as their stable and established
feelings of themselves change to confusion. This in turn maytriggerfeelings of self-consciousness
and tension. Adolescent learners now have to develop an identity that will bridge the gap
between, who they have experienced themselves to be as children, how they now experiencing
themselves to be, and as to what they ought to become as future adults. Apart from this gap that
the adolescent learner has to bridge, they also have to discover who they are in terms of the
image they have of themselves and the image that they think other significant role players have
of them, and what these role players expect of them.

According to Sigel man and Shaffer (1995:281) and Thom (1995:428,429), the following factors
contribute to the shaping of the adolescent's self-concept, their level of independency and
search for identity:

Cognitive growth. This enables learners to use their intellect to reject or accept specific
information. If a boy who is dumped by his girlfriend, claims that she is stupid and ugly
and that he did not want to be seen with her in any case, she will be able to reason that she
hurt him and that is why he is going around saying these unpleasant things about her.

Parents' behaviour. Parents who do not want to overprotect their children, but would like
to give them the opportunity to "find" themselves, free from the protective influence of the
parents, allow their children to satisfy their need for independency. They are also giving
them the opportunity to develop a positive self-concept. The behaviour of parents varies
from exhibiting a love-hostility relationship to one of autonomy-control, resulting in the
adolescent becoming more or less independent as he or she is allowed by the parents.

Parenting styles in exercising authority.

An autocratic, authoritarian, democratic,

permissive, equalising and laissez faire parenting style can in practice be identified. It
spans from not allowing the adolescent to have his or her own opinions and make his or
her own decisions, to parents abandoning their parental role and allowing the adolescent
to accept or reject parental decisions as he or she wishes.

Social experiences outside the home. The opportunity to make independent choices and
decisions outside the home, allows children to develop a positive self-concept.

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Ambivalent childish and adult behaviour. Parents and adolescents feel insecure about the
adolescent's independence and this causes the adolescent to behave in an ambivalent
manner, alternating between childish and more adult-like behaviour. This kind of
behaviour is negatively reinforced by parents' inconsistent behaviour towards the
adolescent and treating him or her in ambivalent ways.

Different expectations according to different sexes. Expectations regarding instrumental

and emotional independence vary from culture to culture.

Cultural influences. These determine what may be expected from a child in a particular
situation, as in what can be expected of a nubile young girl, for example.

During adolescence, adolescents redefine themselves and their role in society. All the

old

identities of the adolescent, that have been acquired during previous life phases, are forged into
a new identity, via the process of ego synthesis. During the process of consolidating past and
present identities, adolescents must be able to experience themselves as unique as well as come
to the realisation that they are still the same people they were during their childhood years.

To create a feeling of being part of society and especially adult life and to redefine their identity,
adolescent learners have to establish their sex-role identity and their occupational identity.
During the period of psycho-social moratorium as Erikson phrases it, the adolescent can, whilst
searching for his or her identity, over identify with peers. This could result in their getting
involved in negative activities (e.g. drugs) or with peers (e.g. gangs) and this that can give rise
to problem behaviour. Falling in love with a partner from the opposite sex provides him or her
with an opportunity of finding out who they really are. It simultaneously provides them with
degree of status amongst their peers.

Thom (1995:441) contends that the adolescent has to complete the following tasks in order to
overcome the identity crises:

Time perspective versus time diffusion (this aspect serves as a reminder to the adolescent
that on the one hand he or she has enough time available to complete his or her
developmental tasks but that there is a time limit and on the other hand it prevents him
from feeling that he or she must act impulsively as if it is a matter of "now or never").

Self-certainty versus apathy (the adolescent escapes into a state of apathy if he or she does
not develop a sense of self-certainty, independence, and self-confidence, related to social
status within the peer group).

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Role experimentation versus role fixation (role fixation can occur when an adolescent does
not make use of the opportunity to experiment with different kinds of roles to the fullest
and fixates prematurely on certain roles, thereby preventing him or her from finding his or
her true identity).

Achievement expectation versus work paralysis (work paralysis takes place when the
adolescent has misjudged his or her own abilities and sets too high expectations for himself
or herself. A similar situation exists when they chose a career that does not match up with
their personality or when they live in the shadow of a person they idolised and eventually
come to feel frustrated in realising that they are a unique and totally different person.)

Sexual identity versus bisexual confusion (as the adolescent's body changes, he or she
becomes sexually mature and also defines his or her psychosexual role, which can result
in great confusion. They have to identify with one sex as their sexual identity forms part of
their overall search for identity and uncertainty develops if they do not know with which
sex to identify).

Leadership polarisation versus authority confusion (authority confusion occurs when the
adolescent finds it difficult to accept authority. They also cannot lead when they need to
do it. In their search for themselves, adolescents must be able to, in this regard, see
themselves as a leader in certain situations and as a follower in other situations.)

Ideological polarisation versus confusion of ideals (adolescents must work out their own
set of values which, on the one hand, provide them with a basic philosophy or ideological
framework and, on the other, with anchors for their life).

During the adolescent life phase, the central theme concerning the social development of the
learner, is about the repudiation of egocentrism and becoming a socially more mature person.
Physical, cognitive, emotional maturity and social factors (e.g. the attitudes and reactions of
society to a specific subculture, the family system and the impact of parents on the family, the
complexities of life in modern societies in which the learners are raised) determine the learner's
ability to develop a socially acceptable philosophy of life.

Adolescent learners must achieve the following "social goals" during this phase: they need to
find their niche in society, be able to identify and accept changes in the community life, learn
to conform to the existing values and roles in the society in which they live, acquire
interpersonal skills, for example to be sensitive to the needs of others, listen to other peoples'
ideas and contributions, learn to be tolerant about personal and cultural differences in society,
and after feeling good about themselves, develop self-assurance.

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The peer group influences the adolescent learner's behaviour substantially. The peer group acts
as the point of departure for the adolescent, in terms of the actualisation of the learner's potential
for and growth towards independence. Peer group members act as sounding boards for testing
a learner's opinion, and they provide opportunities to exchange thoughts on specific topics especially those that they feel they cannot discuss with parents or teachers. The peer group
serves as a means for learners to learn how to listen to others and in particular how to express
themselves clearly and logically. Friendships during adolescence develop from being superficial
and sharing activities during puberty and early adolescence to being enriched by the
personalities of friends and individual differences being accepted during late adolescence. They
also provide opportunities for self-actualisation and meeting the needs of learners, in terms of
changing physiological and developmental needs, all of which have an impact in shaping the
learner's self-image. Opportunities for learners to become socially acceptable, in contrast to
living in loneliness or exclusion, are a definite advantage of peer groups. In addition peer groups
provide learners with opportunities to conform with group norms, they therefore have an
influence in shaping the adolescent's values, that he or she attaches to education. Peer groups
provide a learner with emotional support, as well as engendering a feeling of group acceptance.
In essence a learning environment is created for the development of skills, concepts, values and
attitudes.

Thom (Thom 1995:424,425) maintains that parents, in different culture groups, are still regarded
by adolescents as significant other role players in comparison with the peer group. Research
findings indicate that adolescents are inclined to follow their own opinion regarding politics,
career choice, entertainment, clothing, sexual behaviour and steady relationships, but in matters
regarding basic values, for example religion, moral and social behaviour, adolescents identify
with the values of their parents. Thom's (1995:425) research findings seem to indicate that
English speaking adolescents feel that the nature of the situation will determine whether or not
they will consult with their parents or peers, whilst Afrikaans speaking adolescents feel that
although the nature of the situation is important, they would still choose to consult their parents.
Black adolescents are inclined to always, no matter what the nature of the situation, regard the
advice of their parents as valuable.

Heterosexual relationships are a very important aspect of the adolescent learner's social
development (Thom 1995:425). The development of these heterosexual relationships seems to
follow a fairly similar pattern in different cultures (Prinsloo et al. 1996:156). Teachers and
parents should act sympathetically and with understanding towards the problems that adolescent
learners experience in having to deal with in their heterosexual relationships, as these

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relationships are a frequent source of heartache, pain and stress. Sympathetic and deliberate
guidance in sensitive issues that learners have to deal with, for example premarital sex and
sexual promiscuity, will avert many dangers. BE cause of the conflicting moral values relating to
sexual activity, as reflected in the media and in society, many adolescent learners are uncertain
as to how they should deal with these issues. Sexual intercourse is increasingly becoming
acceptable to many adolescent learners, as they are curious in nature and need to know more
about sex. They experience peer pressure to do what others do and to conform to adult
behaviour patterns, in order to prevent the other party from breaking up the relationship that
develops. The pressure is often directed at meeting a need to furnish a visible sign of
commitment to the other party (Prinsloo et al. 1996:157). Adolescent learners, without doubt,
need to be guided to understand the difference between sex and mature love relationships.

Because learners from different culture groups do not interact sufficiently in early childhood, as
well as the fact that the formation of adolescent peer groups is mostly determined by factors
such as socio-economic classes (e.g. racial segregation), friendships across cultural barriers
usually are only formed by mid and late adolescence. Other factors that could influence the
formation of multicultural peer groups are, for example, the existing difference among different
cultural groups, educational aspirations, academic achievement, their attitudes towards school
life and life within the different cultural groups per se. Additional factors relate to a lack of
knowledge about and insight into the habits and traditions of other cultures, misunderstandings
about different cultures, and intolerance towards

one another (Prinsloo et al. 1996:158).

Teachers will have to be trained to underestand and assist in the emotional needs of learners
from different cultures, in order to prevent behaviour problems and to achieve a good
understanding amongst learners from different cultural groups.

When adolescent learners become arrogant in response to the impact of their environment on
them, parents and teachers can experience feelings of despair. Teachers in particular may
experience, an inability to reestablish a culture of learning in the classroom. They may even be
accused of being unwilling, or of not teaching conscientiously and with enthusiasm. Adolescent
learners and their educators may even become estranged, because of the violent nature of
political conflict. The challenge to remain a devoted teacher, becomes even bigger when dealing
with learners whose parents were incapacitated in fulfilling their roles as role models and
supporters of their children - especially as the teacher then needs to acts as a substitute parent
for the learners. Adolescent learners, as a result of political conflict, frequently turn to violence.
Criminal acts surround them, rebelliousness prevails, juvenile delinquency abounds,
disobedience is rampant, and they are caught up in webs of no return to diligence and regular

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learning patterns. Eventually these learners end up drcpping out of school and become a future
member of society who is unable to fit into society's political, educational, economic and social
institutions. These adolescent learners are often stereotyped as being "marginalised youths",
rebellious adolescent learners of today who can become the outcasts of tomorrow (Prinsloo

et

al. 1996: 159). These so-called "marginalised youths" must be supported by teachers and parents
by means of a show of warmth, love, understanding and acceptance. The adolescent learners
should be accepting authority, via participation in decisions being taken and negotiations to have
their ideas and rights accepted.

Prinsloo

et al. (1996: 149) argue that the quality of a learner's development at all levels, is

determined by the educational impact of the family. The quality of the fulfilment of social needs
of the learner by family members since early childhood, up to the adolescent life phase,
determines the quality of the learner's socialisation and the degree to which the community will
accept the learner. In addition it will impact on the quality of the adolescent learner's selfactualisation. A positive self-image can only develop if the learner's basic social needs have
been met. These needs tend to be similar across cultural boundaries. Parents and teachers are
as a rule in a position to satisfy the social needs of learners.

Prinsloo

et al. (1995: 151) contend that learners who grow up in homes, where the parents are

not actively involved in the raising of the children, where one parent is absent, or where
circumstances are unstable and unloving, are disadvantaged in comparison with learners who
are raised in stable and loving homes. He defines the "stable home", as a home where the
atmosphere in the home, is loving, where children experience emotional security in order to
explore the world and get involved in relationships in their environments (Prinsloo

et al.

1996:151 }. At school the learners are industrious and are able to cooperate with their peers.
Internal control exists in the stable home and parents do not act vindictively, nor do they lack
control over the children in the home. These children obey the rules and regulations that are set
by their parents, not as a result of coercion, but of their own free will. They gradually develop
self-discipline and an inner control, because of the internalised rules. The parents are genuinely
interested in their children and try to understand the behaviour of the children, even if they
misbehave. They are also willing to support the children, as well as disciplining the children
when required. They are available when the children are distressed and experience anxiety, and
are prepared to do things with their children. Although they are strict, the children are treated
with the necessary respect and know that they can voice their opinions. These children are keen
learners and like to explore different relationships. The parents guide the children towards
independence, by being neither overprotective, nor overindulgent. Children learn to act

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responsively when they enter the adult world. These factors that enhance the possibility of a
"stable home" can act as enabling factors, in order to assist the child to actualise his or her full
potential. The child also tends to behave appropria'ely within the class environment at school.

The "unstable home" or inadequate family is defined by Prinsloo et al. (1996:152, 153) as one
where little love exists within the home. There tends to be no internal control, no mutual
understanding, nor interest or respect for one another. No adequate guidance towards becoming
more independent and gaining control of their inner self exists within these homes. Although
research findings seem to suggest that poor large families, appear to be more vulnerable, in this
regard, it is important to note that this type of family emerges on all socio-economic and cultural
levels. The inadequate family experiences financial problems and tend to live from hand to
mouth. They are often overloaded with problems and therefore have little time for attending to
their children's needs. Consequently, a distance amongst family members exists, there is a lack
of understanding, the parents are frequently suspicious and teachers are disdained by the parents.
The parents generally experience problems in disciplining the children and they do not act as
positive role models for the children. They often show shallow affection towards their children.

Teachers, as substitute parents, have a very important role to fulfil. They need to provide
substitute acceptance and security for the learners, who need to develop emotionally and
become self-actualised. Teachers need to be made aware that they should offer understanding
and a little additional sympathy for learners from single parent homes, divorced homes, stepfamilies and street children. If these emotional needs, like understanding and acceptance, are not
satisfied, these learners will in secondary school exhibit unacceptable behaviour. These learners
are also prone to psychic damage and poor academic performance. Teachers should be sensitive
to the needs of these less fortunate learners, for example they need to know if a grandparent is
maybe not able to help the children with their homework. Teachers can also contribute towards
the elimination of social stigma, rejection and other negative attitudes often associated with
divorce. The teachers can in fact assist learners to develop positive self-images, although they are
finding life tough. The difference between success and failure is determined by teacher attention,
empathy, tolerance, patience and consistency.

One of the main developmental tasks of the adolescent is the achievement of emotional

independence. This implies that the adolescent learner is heading for total independence by
slowly

becoming more independent,

by relying more on himself or herself and thereby

becoming more responsible. The adolescent wants to take responsibility for his or her own
decisions (e.g. who to go out with) and moral or value independence (the adolescent wants to

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think about and work out his or her own set of values that will guide his or her behaviour). The
way that the adolescent learner will be able to deal with feelings of personal security or
insecurity and self-confidence, will be influenced by the acquisition of physical, cognitive and
social skills.

Adolescence is a time in the life of the learner when he or she experiences a period of conscious
intellectual understanding and makes quite an intense emotional assessment of the place and
value of an individual person. Developing their cognitive abilities contributes to the daily
expansion of experiences, which has got an intense impact on the adolescent learner, for
example the emotional conflict which arises as the learner realises the difference between the
ideal self and the real self. Learners are self-conscious during this life phase and this influences

their emotional development, for example being irritated and being fretful. Continuous mood
changes cause an apparent despondency and fickleness. Emotional outbursts and overreaction
are typical of the behaviour of learners during this life phase. Girls blush, giggle and cry easily,
while boys try to hide their embarrassment behind brutality or aloofness.

Both male and female adolescents are troublemakers and cause family members to be caught up
in a conflict situation. Emotional behaviour like tears, moodiness, irritability and over
sensitiveness are typical of this life phase. When learners feel bad about themselves, they usually
hide behind a mask of acting arrogantly, rebelliously or nonchalantly. If adolescent learners
experience an inadequate and imperfect self-image, they try to defend themselves by acting
aggressively, withdrawing, or daydreaming. They are trying to hide their actual need for
acceptance by significant other role players in their lives. Becoming independent and
responsible, causes the adolescent learner to experience conflicting feelings. They want to be
free and independent, but also like to be reassured by the parents, in order to neutralise their
incompetence and uncertainty in social situations. Only if an adolescent learner experiences
efficient support will they gain enough confidence to part with the safe environment of
childhood.

Learners in secondary school learn how to conform with the peer groups without doing away
with theirown ideas and viewpoints. They get involved in successful relationships with learners
of the same and opposite sex. The learner's identity is being shaped and within the family home
the learner feels safe and secure. The learner also establishes an own unique identity. These
factors collectively assist in enabling the learner to be capable of tolerance and developing an
acceptance of other identities and cultures. In order to develop a personal value system the
adolescent learner has to question and accept values. The adolescent learner has to reach a

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cognitive developmental level of formulating hypotheses, investigating these hypotheses, making

deductions from these hypotheses, and to begin to think abstractively, in order to evaluate
alternative values and make an assessment thueof in a rational and logical manner.

The development of moral values is an important part of the total development of the adolescent
learner. During this phase the learner wants to show the world how independent and responsible
he or she can be. They can be regarded as morally mature if they are able to make use of
conscious knowledge to evaluate whether something is right or wrong and direct their conduct
accordingly. The development of a personal value system, is an important facet of personality
development during adolescence. Learners observe and question the values of their role models,
in developing their own set of values. Thus the educator and significant other role players within
the community, have an impact on the values of the adolescent learner. Restrictions that the
adolescent learner has to overcome are for example:

egocentrism, feelings of inferiority,

dependency as well as a fear of adults.

Thom (1995:412,413) alludes to the following factors that determine and shape the adolescent's
moral development:

Attitudes and actions of parents (the internalisation of values are stimulated by the

parenting style of parents that seem to be warm and loving, who are good role models for
moral behaviour, who make use of inductive disciplinary techniques when reasoning with
their adolescent children, as well as to illustrate values to their children).

Reactions of the peer group (the adolescent learner conforms to peer group values and

standards because acceptance by the peer group is important to him or her).

The impact of religion (moral development and behaviour is affected by the adolescent's

attitude towards religion).

Sex role (the mature adolescent who is able to think on a post conventional level of moral

judgement will act according to his or her own preferences and moral values and not
according to stereotyped values and the expectations of social dictates).

Although adolescents do not accept the values of societies unconditionally, they respect the
following values: respect for all individuals, to act socially responsibly and to be honest in
interpersonal relationships. Spiritual values overpower materialism and competitiveness.

Prinsloo et al. (1996: 144, 145) maintain that the following factors are of relevance in evaluating
to the impact of the educator on the moral development of learners during this life phase:

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The quality of the teacher/learner relationship or the quality of the parent/child

relationship.

A conscience develops when mutual acceptance, trust, respect and

communication exist in the relationship that evolves between learners and significant other
role players, for example teachers and parents (Prinsloo et al. 1996:144). Adolescent
learners are able to make their own decisions, when significant other role players
deliberately convey positive expectations, provide sympathetic support and discuss
potential ground rules with the learner. Adolescent learners are enabled to acquire
principles of their own, when significant other role players create opportunities for them
to discover principles that are basic to all rules and regulations that they need to comply
with. If the significant other role players, like the teacher or parents, force the adolescent
learner to accept whatever values, rules or regulations they want them to accept, arguments
and quarrels will cause tension, which will negatively reinforce the learner not to abide by
these rules, regulations and values.

The

intensity

and

constancy

of

the

parent/teacher/learner

interaction

and

communication. Factors such as the constancy of the parent/teacher/learner interaction

determine the degree to which the learner identifies with the parent or teacher of the same
gender. Values and norms are conveyed by means of constant interaction in a positive and
warm relationship between the teacher/parent and the learner. Inadequate role
identification is the result of insufficient or negative interaction between an adolescent
learner and an uninvolved or autocratic parent or teacher. The total absence of a parental
model has a detrimental effect on the moral development of the learner, which in turn is
manifest in rebellious, aggressive and negative behaviour (Prinsloo et al. 1996:14).

The educational style and discipline of the teacher or parent. The impact of discipline,

be it implemented by the teacher or the parent, will be determined by whether (Prinsloo

et al. 1996:145):

..

the discipline is applied at random or consistently,

..

it was implemented in a democratic way,

..

it has been clearly explained when applied,

..

it was administered in a just and fair way, and

..

an attempt was made to avoid punishment and abuse of the learner's dignity, for
example by avoiding sarcasm, discrimination, ill-humour, and faultfinding.

The successful application of discipline enhances feelings of security within the learner.
Feelings of insecurity can in turn, lead to feelings of fear, confusion, instability,
disobedience and animosity. Behaviour problems, such as drug abuse, sexual
permissiveness, delinquency and suicide, are often related to poor disciplining (Prinsloo

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et al. 1996: 146). Significant other role players treat adolescents in a different way than they
would treat younger learners when disciplining them. The ultimate aim of discipline,
during the adolescent life phase, is to guide the learner to act more and more in accordance
with an inner self-control, to become less dependent on discipline and control by teachers
and parents. The adolescent learner eventually becomes self-disciplined and develops an
active conscience that will guide them in making decisions as how to behave.

The impact of teachers and parents as role models. Teachers and parents can only serve
as role models for adolescent learners, if they live out their values and beliefs through their
day to day actions. Being a role model for adolescent learners implies that the social,
political and moral values of parents and teachers will be questioned by the learner before
they will be accepted (Prinsloo et al. 1996:146-147). Parents and teachers need to gain an
understanding of how important it is to maintain a relationship of trust, understanding and
acceptance with the adolescent learner. Such a relationship is fundamental in assisting
learners to respect authority and accept moral and religious convictions. If parents and
teachers allow rabble-rousers and circumstances to negatively affect their communication
with learners or if learners are allowed to lose all respect for teachers and parents because
of the adults' irresponsible and indolent behaviour, learners will turn their backs on them
and will not accept their advocated values. According to Prinsloo et al. (1996:147) the
following tragedies experienced in the nineties, are the result of traditional and
conservative values that have been discarded, namely:

drug abuse, alcoholism, suicide, gang warfare, people in prisons because

of offences being committed, homeless people that litter the streets, sexual
molestation of children, sexually transmitted diseases contaminating
people, HIV that affects homosexuals and heterosexuals, bad scholastic
performance of learners and low pass rate, illiteracy amongst members of
the public is increasing, the structures of community have broken down,
crime, violence and murder are increasing, people fear of their lives being
in danger, public places have become battlegrounds of people being
disrupted so much that they are battling to cope with the demands of daily
life.

The avail<tbility and type of opportunities offered by teachers and parents in order to
allow adolescent learners to become independent. Prinsloo et al. (1996:148) argue that
disruption is inevitable when a society implements and accepts modern ideas and

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humanistic viewpoints (e.g. education taking place without considering moral values or
accepting the premise that no God exists and therefore no transcendent purpose exists and
life has become meaningless). Committed teachers and parents who are willing to guide
learners with love and tenacity, is the only safeguard that learners have against life in a
society with confused values. Learners desperately need positive role models to identify
with and who can by their example assist learners to develop their own conscience.

This stage may be subdivided into more than one sub-stage, the first being community rights

versus individual rights. Learners begin to understand that values and laws are relative and that
moral standards may vary from individual to individual. However, they also realise that laws are
necessary, but that they can be changed if needed. The second stage is that of universal ethical

principles. At this level a learner formulates his or her own moral standards, based on universal
human rights. If there is a conflict between obeying the law and his or her conscience, he or
she would rather follow their conscience, even if this might put them at personal risk (Santrock
1992:375). It however needs to be noted, that not all people necessarily reach this last phase of
moral judgment. Some people spend their whole lives in one of the earlier phases, such as
obeying the law, so as to avoid punishment, and never reach an advanced internal conviction,
as to what is morally right or wrong (Zionts 1985: 141 ).

Meyer and Van Ede (1995:93) and Erikson (Meyer et al. 1997:221) list the characteristics of

optimally developed people - a person whose emotional needs have been met and who has
dealt successfully with the specific developmental crises during each life phase and for whom
the successful dealing with these crises has resulted in the acquirement of ego strengths, which
will in turn impact in a positive way in his or her behaviour in the following ways:

Their perceptions of reality and the social environment are realistic.

They are capable of accepting their own shortcomings and are able to laugh at themselves.

They are not obsessed with their own personal problems and are

thus capable of

concentrating on a task.

They can maintain stable relationships with other people.

They are capable of living a full life and are interested in what is happening around them,
in effect they experience life intensely.

Their views on life are reasonably systematic and can be regarded as constituting a well
balanced outlook on life.

They can accept another person's views without having to feel that they are obliged to
agree therewith.

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They have trust and hope in their partners, as well as the future of their families.

They are goal-directed in terms of the moral education of the family.

They are competent enough in order to work hard so that the family is cared for.

They are reliable to such an extent that the family knows that they can depend on them.

They are capable of loving their families.

They have acquired the necessary wisdom and insight into life, identity and whatever
decisions have been taken up to now.

The main viewpoints in this section on the normal development of the older learner can be
summarised as follows:

Cognitive development. The adolescent learner's cognitive ability develops quantitively

and qualitatively, as he or she is more capable of mastering intellectual tasks with ease and
the nature of his or her thought processes changes to more abstract thinking, combinatorial
thinking, hypothetical-deductive thinking, proportional thinking, scientific thinking and
thinking about the actual realistic situation versus possible other situations. During the
onset of the adolescent life phase the adolescent learner is less egocentric in his or her
thinking, but as he or she approaches the late adolescent phase, he/she becomes more
egocentric in his or her thinking.

Moral development. The adolescent learner has to establish a personal value system. To

be able to establish a personal value system, he or she must either question or accept the
values of others. Factors that impact on moral development are: parental attitudes and
actions, the peer group, religion and the sex role. Competitiveness and materialism
becomes less important to the morally mature adolescent learner as he or she focus on
respecting everybody, acting socially responsible and being honest in interpersonal
relationships.

Social development. Social goals to achieve include the finding of a niche in society, to

be able to identify and accept changes in community life, learn to conform to existing
values and roles in society, to acquire interpersonal skills, for example to be sensitive to
the needs of others, to feel good about themselves and to develop self-assurance. The peer
group acts as the point of departure for the adolescent in terms of the actualisation of the
learner's potential for and growth towards independence.

Personality and emotional development. During adolescence, apart from physical changes

that are taking place, the search for identity is regarded as one of the main purposes of
adolescence. Old identities and new identities must be integrated into one holistic, new
personality which provides the adolescent with a feeling of uniqueness and sameness. The

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156

adolescent experiences role confusion which is brought on by physical changes taking

place during puberty. They need to also establish a sex-role identity and an occupational
identity. Certain tasks need to be overcome ;n order to overcome an identity crisis for
example self-certainty versus apathy. Four identity statuses are identified as indicators of
to what degree the adolescent has solved the identity crises, for example status/identity
achievement, as the adolescent has worked out his or her own set of values and has made
a career choice. Factors that impact on the adolescent's search for identity are for example
cognitive differences as the adolescent's cognitive ability is important in his or her dealing
with/thinking about matters on an abstract level.

The profile of a person that has reached optimal development has, for example, the
following characteristics: he or she has realistic perceptions on reality, he or she is capable
of accepting his or her own shortcomings, his or her social environment is realistic, he or
she can laugh at himself, he or she is not obsessed with his or her own personal problems.

2.4 CONCLUSION
In the preceding section of this chapter, the following theoretical models have been discussed:

the psychodynamic model, the behaviour model, the biophysical model, the sociological model,
the ecological model and the countertheory model. Theoretical models on behaviour are mostly
heuristic. Paul and Epanchin (1982:27,28) summarise the purposes of these theoretical models
being used as a frame of reference in dealing with behaviour problems in the classroom, as
follows:

Behaviour problems can be readily identified.

Educational planning and practice can be guided by theoretical models.

It provides an intellectual framework for reality.

It leads to better understanding of the behaviour of learners.

It assists the teacher to be able to make sense out of the situation and explains the
behaviour of the learner.

Theoretical models guide teachers in their evaluation of the meaning and significance of
the behaviour patterns, of the learners per se, as well as their evaluation of the impact of
the behaviour on the significant others within the environment of the learners concerned.

It guides the teacher on how to intervene and when to intervene.

Each model adds to the teacher's understanding of the learner, him or herself.

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It serves as a guide in directing day-to-day activities and as to how teachers should respond
towards the learner.

Each of the models discussed, provides different perspectives on behaviour and specifically
behaviour problems. Each model prescribes a set of guidelines for teachers to follow if they want
to assist the learner with behaviour problems. No model, however, provides-teachers assisting
a diversity of learners, with a holistic answer, as to how to assist each learner in the classroom
with his or her unique needs, in the most effective way. Some models can be more useful than
others or more efficient than others. Keeping this fact in mind, the eclectic model or approach
poses to be useful in dealing with the behaviour problems of learners, as it takes the best from
every theory and applies it to the situation.

A complete model must, apart from providing a conceptual framework, give clear-cut guidelines
to teachers, in order to enable them to match the needs of learners with the appropriate
intervention strategies for understand and assist behaviour problems in the most effective
manner. The ecological systems model, which focussing on the complexity of the environment,
matches this description to a large degree. In terms of the ecological model, a holistic approach
is adopted in dealing with behaviour problems. This approach links up with the eclectic
approach whereby not only one theoretical approach is favoured, but that the best options are
selected from all the theories to assist the learner with behaviour problems.

The development of children/learners should be understood by teachers, parents and significant

other role players, in order to assess their level of development and thereby render appropriate
assistance to the child in terms thereof. The development of children has specific characteristics
and they unfold in terms of a particular pattern. A distinction is drawn between the baby,
toddler,

preschool, primary, and secondary school phases, in the development of children.

Each of these phases is characterised by specific cognitive, personality, emotional, social and
moral traits which are more characteristic of these particular phases than at any other time and
has a direct bearing on the learner's behaviour. Children have to deal with specific crises in these
phases.

If they are given enough loving understanding and support by their parents and

teachers, they will be able to survive these crises without to serious conflict. Each child/learner
is, however, unique and should not be labelled "deviant" or "abnormal" on the mere basis of a
superficial, subjective judgement. Learners develop at a different pace and this should be taken
into consideration in assessing a child/learner's level of development.

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In the following chapter on behaviour problems in international and local context, behaviour
problems that are currently manifested in South African schools, as well as international trends
in this regard, will be discussed. To be able to identif1 behaviour problems in the classroom, the
learner's behaviour must be evaluated in terms of the expected so-called "normal" behaviour of
a learner of that specific age group. The theoretical models that have been discussed in this
chapter will serve as a frame of reference whereby the manifestation of problem behaviour, as
well as the causative factors thereof, can be better understood.

CHAPTER THREE
BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL AND
LOCAL CONTEXT
... it has become increasingly clear that the individual/learner is not
a passive recipient of environmental influences, but reaches out to
the environment and receives feedback which tends to modify
behaviour ... individuals/learners are agents in their own
development, unwittingly but sometimes powerfully
Clarke & Clarke (1988:4)

3.1

INTRODUCTION

Wheldall and Merrett (1988: 13) contend that "teachers frequently cite classroom behaviour
problems as one of their major difficulties".

This contention is supported by several

researchers who have come to a similar conclusion in terms of their research findings (Borg
& Falzon 1989:251; Burden 1981 :28; Kerr & Nelson 1989:173; Stone 1990:15). This,

together with the truths reflected in the introductory quotation, namely that a learner's
behaviour is determined by the reciprocal interaction patterns taking place within his or her
environment, emphasises the need to pay attention to the manifestations of behaviour
problems in the classroom, as well as the causative factors that give rise thereto.
Undoubtedly, effective strategies thatteachers can implement in the classroom, are required
for understanding and assisting the behaviour problems concerned. A precondition for
developing such a strategy would be the identification of the various types of undesirable
classroom behaviour encountered, before the teacher can put in place an appropriate
strategy to effectively understand and assist the behaviours concerned (Borg & Falzon
1989:251).

Guttmann (1982: 14) argue that interpersonal interactions to a great extent determine the
development and persistence of behaviour problems exhibited by learners. The quality of
interaction can be affected by the congruence between the reasons and causes cited forthe
occurrence of a certain behaviour pattern and the responses of various significant other
persons in the learner's environmental context. Apter and Conoley (1984':53) tend to support
this argument when they assert that "all the children are both victims of and participants in
the dysfunctional lives they lead. No child can be held responsible for the abuse that he or
she experiences as a child."

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There are research findings that seem to indicate that mental health professionals, just like
teachers (Meyers in Johnson 1993:166), are inclined to relinquish the responsibility for
understanding and assisting learners with behaviour problems by transferring the
responsibility therefore to the persons who are exhibiting the behaviour concerned
(Guttmann 1982: 15). Significantly, Dwerk and Quarantelli (Guttmann 1982: 15) assert that
this tendency does not keep in mind the impact that significant other role players have on
the development and perpetuation of behaviour problems. This tendency certainly does not
stimulate effective understanding and assistance to a learner with behaviour problems.
Meyer (1997:8) similarly argues that "a complete description and explanation of behaviours
would only be possible on the basis of a thorough understanding of all the factors which
determine behaviour, including the complex ways in which these factors influence one
another". A more inclusive approach is therefore deemed to be appropriate in gaining an
insight into learners' behaviour problems and human functioning is therefore evaluated in
terms of a larger systems theory perspective. See Chapter 2 (sec. 2.2.5) and Chapter 4
(sec.4.3) for further information relating to the Ecological Systems Model which has
relevance in this regard ..

The focus on the social context or environment of the learner and the impact of the
significant other role players on the learner's behaviour and vice versa, seems to suggestthat
a major theoretical mind shift is taking place. It is a shift from the traditional approach of

blaming it all on the child or the parent to one of considering environmental factors that may
play a role in shaping a learner's behaviour patterns. Therapy thus aims at altering the
functioning of the social system together with an expectation of changing the behaviour of
the learner, rather than having to change the learner him or herself (Rutter 1985:929) - see
section 3.5 of this chapter.

In order to develop a tailor-made model for teachers in South African primary and secondary
schools to more effectively understand and assist with behaviour problems in the classroom
(Chapter 5), the following aspects of behaviour problems need to be discussed in this
chapter.

The profile of the learner exhibiting behaviour problems in the classroom.

Manifestations of behaviour problems in primary and secondary schools.

Specific behaviour problems exhibited by primary and secondary school learners.

Causative factors of behaviour problems of primary and secondary learners - an

international and national perspective.

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A qualitative investigation of behaviour problems in selected South African schools.

In the following section, the profile of the learner exhibiting behaviour problems, will be
discussed.

3.2

PROFILE OF THE LEARNER EXHIBITING BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN THE

CLASSROOM

A fundamental question that needs to be answered before any assistance programme can be
developed or implemented is one of "who is the learner who is exhibiting behaviour
problems?;' The answer to this question, as found in the literature, seems to vary in
accordance with the researchers' views: some have a negative stigmatising inclination, whilst
others regard these learners as ordinary human beings with unmet emotional needs and as
children crying out for understanding and assistance.

Strom and Torrance (1973:156) maintain that when learners commence their school career
they in effect have entered a marketplace where people are commodities rather than
persons: "His self-esteem depends on conditions beyond his control. If he is successful, he
is valuable, if he is not, he is worthless. The degree of insecurity which results from this
orientation can hardly be overestimated. If one feels that one's value is not constituted
primarily by the human qualities one possesses, but one's success on a competitive market
with ever-changing conditions, one's self-esteem is bound to be shaky and in constant need
of confirmation by others." The picture presented, of learners as commodities, stands in
stark contrast to that which most responsible educators would like to see featured within the
classroom.

Apter and Conoley (1984:29) designate descriptions of the characteristics of behaviour

problems as shorthand descriptive language which is needed when mental health
professionals need to discuss childhood disorders, types of emotional disturbances, or
develop educational programmes for children with behaviour problems. Different medical
and psychiatric classifications (Apter & Conoley 1984:30) have existed in the past and are
to a certain extent still used to classify and categorise children according to their behaviour
and symptomatology. These typically are:
~

the classification system of the American Psychiatric Association;

the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (DSM IV); and

the behaviour classification systems developed by Quay.

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Apter and Conoley (1984:37), however, warn that persons interested in helping children
with behaviour problems should not be too focussed on categorising their behaviour by
assigning a psychiatric category or label thereto, but should rather focus on the child and
his or her problem.

While keeping in mind the uniqueness of a human being, the following characteristics of
the learner exhibiting behaviour problems, or as Apter and Conoley (1984:29) phrase it,
"ways that children relate to the world" can be identified, namely (Apter & Conoley
1984:38; Boston & Szur 1983:125; Kaul 1997:83; Kemp 1993:291; Lewis & Doorlag
1995:4; Mcnamara & Moreton 1995: 1; Raths 1972:3-5; Silberg & Kluft 1998:38; Van
Niekerk 1998:44-46; Williams & Banyard 1999:3,4):

The intelligence levels of these learners do not differ significantly from that of other
learners.

The appropriate age-related social skills, as well as the necessary study-skills might
be lacking.

The unmet emotional needs of the learner are manifest in the behaviour patterns of
the learner as follows (see also Chapters 4 and 5 in this regard):
..

They are inclined to act impulsively in the expression of their unmet emotional
needs.

..

They experience feelings of not being loved or cared for, being rejected or
abandoned, being incompetent and depressed (e.g. feelings of sadness and
hopelessness).

..

They tend to exhibit a poor self-image and place little, if any, value on the
efforts they make.

..

They are inclined to act aggressively towards other people and exhibit little
concern for the property of others. The anger they experience is a sign of
emotional anguish. They are so badly hurt and the anguish they experience is
so great that the learner is unable to deal therewith and it consequently .
translates into feelings of aggression.

..

The learners' relationships with significant other role players in their

environment are characterised by an insecure attachment.

..

They seldom are happy or enjoy life in general. Their moods are predominantly
sad and depressive, forever depicting a sense of hopelessness and despair.

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"'

163

They are inclined to isolate themselves from others, observing events instead
of participating, exhibiting regressive behaviour, and in instances can be
extremely submissive - as Raths (1972:4) contends: "he is a captive of those
around him".

"'

They are eager to please others and seem to be too afraid of voicing their own
opinion on issues. Sometimes this kind of behaviour is associated with crying
or whimpering, and feelings of insecurity.

"'

They experience psychosomatic symptoms at certain times of the day, for

example a severe headache during a mathematics period.

"'

They feel stressed in general and experience an absence of internal well-being

(Raths, 1972:5).

"'

They are often not actualising their full potential, as their unmet emotional
needs act as barriers to learning and cause them to exhibit problem behaviour.

"'

They tend to act impulsively and in an irrational and immature way (Raths
1972:3-4).

The learner can experience secondary behaviour problems, as the primary problem
is a learning problem which manifests in reading disabilities or attention deficit
disorder.

Learners who exhibit behaviour problems may attempt to cover up inappropriate

behaviour when they realise they have not behaved in an acceptable manner - they
are concerned about being caught, exposed, blamed or punished, instead of worrying
about the fact that they have behaved incorrectly. Some of these learners do not
experience a sense of guilt and are therefore inclined to either blame others or their
circumstances for their unacceptable behaviour.

The learners exhibiting behaviour problems can be described, forthe purposes of the
study, as abused and neglected children - children who exhibit behaviour problems
because of emotional abuse and neglect. Their lives were dominated by "a continuing
need to keep at bay the intolerable emotions of their past experiences of deprivation.
They have a pervading preoccupation with the complex of experiences relating to
their sense of deprivation which left little space in their lives for anything else, thus
diminishing their capacity to benefit from ordinary maturational experiences. One
wants to blame someone for not having cared enough" (Boston & Szur 1983:125).

The problem behaviour of the learner can be a manifestation of deep seated

psychological symptoms and disorders, as a result of being exposed to traumatic
events, for example physical or sexual abuse, violence at school, the home, or in the
community, the witnessing of a suicide or being involved in a hijacking incident.

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164

The problem behaviour of the learner can be a way of expressing or acting out the
hurt that was caused by a traumatic event via dissociation. These children are inclined
to worry a lot. They have realistic and understandable concerns about maintaining
relationships and the well-being of those closest to them. These learners are sensitive
to the opinions of others and their ability to act appropriately. They experience the
usual post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms of fears, flashbacks of the traumatic
event, avoidance behaviours, intrusive thoughts on the traumatic experience and
traumatic nightmares. Objects, certain rooms, people, and situations stimulate
flashbacks and recall of the traumatic experience.

When a learner is inclined to exhibit dissociative behaviour, it is a warning sign that

the child may have experienced a traumatic experience which he or she has tried to
block-out, but which is still affecting his or her behaviour and emotional life to such
an extent that they make use of alternative personalities when reminded of the
trauma. A case in point being a learner, who becomes another person, unconnected
to the trauma and talking and behaving accordingly. They cannot remember events
that occurred, and behave in ways they are unable to explain. These children can be
accused of telling lies, while in reality the child is actually dissociating himself or
herself from the traumatic experience and therefore failing to remember anything or
even fractions of what has transpired. They sometimes are only able to fabricate a
story of what transpired on the basis of what other people have told them of the
event, as they cannot remember the exact event themselves.

Manifestations of dissociative disorders in the behaviour of the child will be manifest

in terms of forgetting questions posed and not responding thereto during interviews.
Typical manifestations encountered are amnesia during the earlier part of the
interview, staring into the distance when asked to answer a question, suddenly
changing from being a very talkative to become a quiet child, a change in activity
levels, continuous psychosomatic complaints, for example headaches, stomachache,
or troublesome sensory experiences, and depersonalization (for example seeing
oneself floating in the room, outside one's body). The alternative personalities that
the child experiences may cause sudden behaviour changes.

A common characteristic amongst children experiencing behaviour problems is an

inclination to be anxious. They may experience certain fears,

resort to

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165

anxiety-reducing rituals or experience a general feeling of sadness which hampers

their daily functioning.

The learner's behaviour and emotional state changes, for example a child that is
normally outgoing and spontaneous changes to a quiet and withdrawn child.

The changes that take place are ongoing and persistent and the child does not return
to the previous state of mind, for example the unhappy and sad child remains sad and
does not revert back to the spontaneous and carefree child.

The overall situation of the child is affected, for example health, peer group
relationships, classroom behaviour and school performance in general.

Teachers in the past were not generally afforded the opportunity to acquire the required
skills to recognise and deal with their own feelings, in relation to the feelings of the learner
with behaviour problems. These typically include feelings of not being in control of the
situation or frustration. They need to understand their feelings together with those of the

learner with behaviour problems in a positive way. Kemp (1993:291) concurs that teachers
in many instances have not acquired an understanding of the diverse emotional needs of
learners (especially the adolescent learner) during the different life phases and that they
consequently need to be specifically empowered in this regard. It is therefore postulated
that teachers do not know how to understand and assist with behaviour problems in the
classroom (Kemp, 1993:291 ). They tend to experience frustration when they try to get the
learners to change their behaviour patterns, in order to realise their full potential, with little
positive results. This frustration is further compounded by the realisation that the learners'
behaviour patterns are negatively impacting on the climate within the classroom, thereby
further impeding the learning process.

In many instances teachers come to find that the usual strategies they implement to retain
control within the classroom situation are no longer effective when it comes to
understanding and assisting the learner with behaviour problems. A combination of feelings
of frustration and concern for the learners, cause teachers to become disillusioned and
exasperated with the prevailing situation within the classroom. The learners themselves are
also angry, because of the deep-seated pain that they are experiencing and it would be futile
for the teacher to act in anger, as it will not address the learner's pain - it will in actual fact
only add to that pain (Mcnamara & Moreton 1995:1,2). Kaul (1997:83) argues that these
learners are suffering from "the poverty of love and nurture, that all children require at least
as much as food - the groceries of the soul". It is poverty that brings these learners to the

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166

doorstep of the teacher" And I can't do anything. They step in and I am powerless. All I can
do is point out doors, steps, openings" (Kaul 1997:83).

In terms of the preceding discussion, an attempt is made to construct an illustrative profile

of the learner exhibiting behaviour problems. The learner is someone who:
~

is not specifically mentally retarded, but has a normal intelligence;

has an emotional need for love, security, acceptance, responsibility, stimulation

and trust, and these unmet needs are reflected in the learner's behaviour
patterns;

may be emotionally abused or neglected/deprived by the significant other role

players in his or her environment;

may have experienced a traumatic event, which has had a significant impact on
their emotional well being, as reflected in their behaviour patterns;

can be making use of dissociative behaviour in order to cope with a traumatic

experience and such behaviour manifests in for instance the telling of lies or
stealing, which could result in significant problems for him or her;

can be experiencing problems in relating to other people and in studying

effectively;

is inclined to act impulsively in expressing his or her unmet emotional needs;

may be experiencing learning problems or enduring another form of disability,

for example blindness or shortsightedness, deafness and hard of hearing; and

is desperately crying out for understanding and assistance - especially to the

teacher as one of the significant role players within his or her life world.

In the following section the manifestations of behaviour problems exhibited by the learners
in primary and secondary schools, will be addressed.

3.3

MANIFESTATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

SCHOOLS

In the ensuing two sections the manifestations of behaviour problems in primary and
secondary schools will be discussed from an international and a South African or national
perspective. The latter will essentially be done on the basis of the research findings
emanating from the survey conducted as part of this thesis.

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3.3.1 Manifestation of behaviour problems in primary and secondary schools

This section is concerned with the nature of behaviour problems that are commonly
encountered amongst primary and secondary school learners and that make the teacher's
task significantly more difficult. These would not necessarily be the same kind of behaviour
patterns that make life difficult for parents.

Behaviour problems are encountered in learners of all ages. The following research findings
are

but a few examples illustrating the different perspectives from which behaviour

problems are viewed. Included in these perspectives or research findings are elements of
labelling (e.g. in terms of sex, age characteristics of behaviour patterns), as well as elements
of moral judgement. According to Herbert (1987:8,9), the art of labelling is rooted in social
judgements made on the bases on social criteria imbedded in society, that the researcher
finds suitable, whilst moral judgements are based on good or bad behaviour which is
founded on moral values and consequently exhibited in terms of moral problems. Barker
(1983:58-72); Conway (1994:313); Herbert (1987:10, 11 ); Lewis & Doorlag (1995:339);
McNamara (Houghton et al. 1988:309); Wheldall and Merrett (1988:24,87-91 ); and
Montgomery (1990:131) refer to the following points, some of which might be contradictory
and not applicable to all learners or groups of learners:

Behaviour problems are more common among secondary than primary school
learners.

Boys are more likely than girls to display problem behaviour.

They are more

frequently involved in juvenile delinquency and are more likely to be referred to a

reformatory.

Boys are more inclined to exhibit disruptive behaviour than girls.

Behaviour problems occur more frequently in urban than in rural areas.

Emotional reactions or behaviour patterns resulting from unmet emotional