Physics Unit 3 Notes
Graph:
How to find ___ value from the graph?
-
Gradient or area under graph
How does it improve results?
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Enables average to be taken
Shows anomalies
Will show if ___ value is changing
Why graph is straight?
-
Mention constant an mention the gradient
Either A B or compare with y = mx + c
Advantages of graphs?
-
Anomalies can be identified
Allows interpolation/extrapolation
Systematic errors can be detected
Relationship/trend can be indentified
Equation can be derived
Line of best fit averages results
Intercept/gradient/area can be determined
P.D v/s Current Graph Linear relationship
Remember E = V + Ir
Internal Resistance = negative of gradient
E.M.F = intercept with the potential difference axis/yaxis
Stress v/s Strain Graph
Gradient = Youngs Modulus
Area = energy stored per unit volume
Tables/Readings:
Points to remember Fill in column headings with units
Criticize the readings/set of measurements.
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Inconsistent precision / inconsistent significant figures in __ column
Less readings
Small range
Accuracy (e.g. only recorded to nearest 10 cm)
No mention of repeats/no repeats
Average taken should be of all normal readings and have same number of significant figures as
the readings
V/S:
Advantages and Disadvantages for [Analogue] device v/s [Digital Device]:
Advantages of Analogue:
- No power supply required
- Simple to operate or to set up
- Readily available, cheaper, easily transportable
Disadvantage of Analogue:
- More errors
- Effect of reaction time
- Insufficient precision for short values (e.g. short times)
- Graph would have to be drawn manually
Advantage of Digital:
- Fewer errors
- No reaction time
- Precise readings
- Graph drawn automatically
Disadvantage of Analogue:
- Power supply needed
- Needs training, setting up, alignment issues, time to set up
- Not easily available, expensive, not easily transportable
Advantages and Disadvantages for manual v/s data logger + graph method:
Advantage of manual:
- No power supply required
- Easily transportable
- cheaper
Disadvantage of manual
- Small no. of readings/ large time interval b/w readings
- Reaction time
- Random/systematic/parallax errors
- Easily broken (if apparatus like glass beaker is used)
Advantage of data logger + graph
- Large no. of readings/ small time intervals
- Graph drawn automatically
- Simultaneous reading of two values (if applicable)
Disadvantage of graph
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Power supply needed
Zero/systematic errors
Advantages and disadvantages of Digital Multimeter v/s Ammeter + Voltmeter (analogue)
Advantage of Digital Multimeter
- Only one meter needed/may be cheaper option
- No parallax error
- Variable scale/scale can be changed
- Two decimal places
- Only requires series connection
- Unlikely to be much heating effect
- Smaller uncertainty as only one reading
- No calculation required
Disadvantage of Digital Multimeter
- Zero error, contact resistance
- Internal battery required
- Less simple to graph for a fixed wire
Advantage of A+V
- Do not require individual batteries
- Graphical method possible
Disadvantage of A+V
- Two meters needed/may be more expensive4
- Parallax error
- Scales are fixed so requires interpolation
- Limited by size of scale divisions
- Requires both series and parallel connection
- Heating effect
- Greater uncertainty as two readings
- Need calculation from two readings
Experiments:
Percentage Uncertainty
Mean lower value 100
OR
Higher value Mean 100
Mean
Mean
Percentage difference
(Given value your value) 100
Given Value
Precautions:
-
Rule vertical/horizontal
Release object from rest
Practice
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Repeat
Avoid parallax errors
Sources of uncertainty
-
(if wire) small diameter/diameter only measured once/kinks in the wire
(if wire and circuit involved) Contact resistance/resistance of connecting wires
(if circuit) accuracy of ohmmeter or voltmeter or ammeter
(any device) Zero error
Wires snapping
Weights falling
Didnt reach terminal velocity/tube too narrow/distance between markers is too
small/ misreading of stopwatch or micrometer
Reaction time
Parallax error
Inaccuracy in measuring _______.
Why repeat?
-
Can identify anomalies, average can be taken, reduces random error/uncertainty
Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance:
-
Voltmeter is in parallel with wire
Current through voltmeter should be negligible (accept very small or
zero)
The voltmeter needs a high resistance to reduce current through it.
Ammeter should measure current in just the wire
If the voltmeter takes any current, the current recorded for the wire will not be correct
Assumptions for calculating stress:
-
Cross section has remained the same
Refraction Experiment
o
Also take readings at second face
Wire-extension
Vertical length of wire with masses on end OR horizontal wire with masses over pulley
Measure extension
use of mark on wire OR use of F = kx
extension = final initial length OR comparison of wires
Variables to be kept constant Initial length of the wires
Precautions - Use of goggles OR means of catching/avoiding falling masses, Protection
(of eyes) from snapping wire OR protection of feet/floor from falling masses
Viscosity Experiment
Apparatus: Oil. Ball Bearing, Measuring cylinder, light gates, timing device, rule,
micrometer
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Quantities to be measured: Diameter, distance, time (alt Diameter, velocity)
Instruments: Micrometer, metre rule, stopwatch
Independent: diameter/radius
Dependent: Terminal Velocit/time
Radius determined from diameter, velocity from dist and time. Graph of v against r2 and
find gradient
Source of uncertainty/systematic error: terminal velocity not reached, reaction time,
temperature not constant, zero error, measurement of diameter/distance fallen, parallax
error
Safety precautions: low risk experiment, mop up spills, use gloves, wear goggles, normal
laboratory rules should be followed
Determining Youngs Modulus
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o
o
o
o
o
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Apparatus: Wire, support, weight, micrometer screw gauge/vernier callipers/ digital
vernier
Quantities to be measured: Length, extension, diameter, mass/weight/force
Instruments: Metre rule, travelling microscope, Micrometer for diameter, balance for size
of mass
Independent Weight/force
Dependent Extension
Use of ?r2 and youngs modulus equation
The main source of uncertainty/systematic error: Extension/diameter
Risk of weights falling (hence toe protection) and snapping wires (hence safety glasses)
% Loss of Kinetic Energy
Drops ball of known mass vertically from known height
Determines height of bounce using a metre rule
mgh = 1/2mv2
States that mass cancels OR mass stays the same OR mass measured OR mass
known
% loss in KE = loss in PE x 100%
initial PE
Precaution: make measurement of height of bounce at eye level
Thermistor resistance
Apparatus: Circuit, Thermistor in water, means of heating/cooling (Bunsen or water
bath), thermometer, stirrer
Quantities to be measured: Resistance, temperature (alt Current, pd, temp)
Graph of resistance v/s temperature
Sources of uncertainty/systematic error: simultaneous reading of two variables,
systematic error on thermometer, parallax error, meter zero error, uneven temperature of
liquid
Safety: hot water and heated wires
Spring
o Apparatus: Spring, mass/weight, support, rule, set square, pin, balance
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o
o
o
o
Independent: Force/Weight/Mass
Dependent: Extension
Plot force v/s extension, gradient = k
Uncertainty sources: parallax, zero error, elastic limit not exceeded
Semi-circular block refractive index accuracy
Use of paper/pins to trace path of ray
Ensure there is a thin ray (from the ray box).
Comment on using centre of block
Normal drawn (at A) / measure from normal
Mark the ray, then measure the angle
Use large angles of incidence/wide range
Repeat and take average
Work in a dark room.
Circuit-related
Instruments: Ammeter, voltmeter, power supply, variable resistor/variable power supply
Determine R from V and I
Draw graph of R v/s V Positive intercept on R axis (either curve or straight line)
Uncertainty source: zero error on meter or difficulty of taking simultaneous
measurements
Safety Precautions: If low voltage supply low risk If bulb involved: Hot bulb, so do
not touch
Efficiency of motor
o Quantities to be measured: P.d, current, height and time
o Repeat?: Yes = for average. No = motor heats up, battery p.d reduces
o Power input = VI
Power Output = mgh/t
Efficiency = poweroutput/powerinput
o Uncertainty/Systematic error source: Zero error in meter, reaction time, parallax
o Safety Precautions: Risk of mass falling (wear shoes), low risk if p.d. is low, risk to eye if
string breaks (wear goggles)
Instruments:
Metre rule: Longer length so measurement to nearest mm appropriate
Micrometer: Measures to 1/100 mm
Stopwatch: reading to 0.1s or 0.01s
Ammeter/Voltmeter: 0.1A or 0.1V interval and state indentified range if bulb involved and value
given
>> Note: Resistance of variable resistor should not be reduced to zero so that circuit is not short
circuited (otherwise will get hot) OR to prevent high current through circuit
Reading: 5.5mm + 0.35mm = 5.85mm
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