CONSULTANT ON CALL > NEUROLOGY > PEER REVIEWED

Cerebral Infarction
Mark Troxel, DVM, DACVIM (Neurology)
Massachusetts Veterinary Referral Hospital
Woburn, Massachusetts

Profile
Definition
n 
Cerebrovascular disease refers to a group of disorders that result from a pathological

process that compromises blood supply to the brain.

n Such disorders may be either ischemic or hemorrhagic.
n Infarction is a local tissue injury or necrosis from reduced or absent blood flow to a
specific part of the body, including the brain.
n Cerebral infarction (cerebral infarct, cerebrovascular accident [CVA], or stroke) is
usually a focal ischemic event with an acute onset of asymmetric clinical signs that
are progressive for a short time.
n 
Global brain ischemia can also occur (eg, anesthetic accidents, cardiopulmonary
arrest).
n By definition, clinical signs must be present for at least 24 hours to be considered a
stroke.1,2
n Transient ischemic attack (TIA) is the term used to describe a cerebrovascular disorder in which clinical signs resolve within 24 hours following transient ischemia.

Pathophysiology
n There is little energy reserve in the brain, so it is dependent on continuous delivery

of oxygen and glucose for energy; it is capable of only aerobic metabolism.1

n The brain receives 20% of cardiac output and accounts for 15% of oxygen consumption, despite comprising only 2% of body weight.1
n Infarcts can be described based on their underlying pathophysiology or location
and size.

Cerebrovascular disease refers to a group

of disorders that result from a pathological process that compromises blood
supply to the brain.

Underlying Pathophysiology2,3
n 
Ischemic infarct is secondary to lack of oxygen delivery caused by blood vessel

obstruction; this is the most common form of cerebral infarct in dogs and cats.
n 
Hemorrhagic infarct is secondary to ruptured blood vessels leading to hemorrhage

within the brain parenchyma.

Location & Size1,3

n 
Territorial infarct is a large area of tissue damage secondary to obstruction of one of

the major arteries to the brain (eg, middle cerebral artery, rostral cerebellar artery).
n 
Lacunar infarct is a smaller area of tissue damage from obstruction of small superficial or deep penetrating arteries.

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CONSULTANT ON CALL

Table 1. Ancillary Diagnostics

Predisposing Conditions
for Cerebral Infarction

Ischemic infarction

Hemorrhagic infarction

Urine protein:creatinine ratio if proteinuria

Rickettsial disease testing

Endocrine testing for hyperadrenocorticism

(eg, ACTH stimulation test, dexamethasone
suppression testing)

Clotting studies: buccal mucosal

bleeding time, prothrombin time (PT),
activated partial thromboplastin time
(APTT)

Serum antithrombin III activity

von Willebrand factor analysis

d -dimer

Testing for Angiostrongylus vasorum in

endemic regions

tests

Echocardiography and electrocardiography

if underlying cardiac condition

n Aberrant parasite migration

(eg, Cuterebra spp, Dirofilaria

immitis)
n 
Angiostrongylus vasorum

infection
n Atherosclerosis
n Cardiac disease
n Coagulopathy
n Chronic kidney disease
n Extension of CNS infection
n Hyperadrenocorticism
n Hyperlipidemia
n Hypertension
n Hypothyroidism
n Increased blood viscosity (eg,

polycythemia, multiple
myeloma)
n Intravascular neoplasia

(eg, lymphoma,
hemangiosarcoma)
n Liver disease
n Protein-losing nephropathy
n Sepsis and bacterial

thromboembolism
n Vasculitis

Signalment

n A predisposing condition is identified

n Infarction can occur at any age but is

in just over half of dogs with MRI

evidence of infarction.
n See Predisposing Conditions for
Cerebral Infarction.

typically diagnosed in middle-aged

to geriatric dogs and cats.4-6
n No apparent gender predisposition.
n They can occur in all breeds of dogs
and cats, but the following breeds
may be at increased risk6-10:
n G
 reyhounds: Especially cerebellar
infarcts; these are often idiopathic
but may be hypertension-related.
n C
 avalier King Charles spaniels:
Possibly related to local alterations
in intracranial pressure secondary
to Chiari-like malformation.
n M
 iniature schnauzers: Possibly
related to hyperlipidemia.
n B
 rachycephalic breeds: Increased
risk for global ischemia, especially
with ketamine anesthetic protocols.

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n Patients are usually presented for

evaluation following peracute to

acute onset of neurologic signs that
are non-progressive after 24 hours.
n R
 arely, progression may occur at
48-72 hours because of secondary
cerebral edema.1,2
n Common clinical signs noted by
owners include vestibular dysfunction, seizures, altered mental status,
paresis, or ataxia.

Physical Examination
n General examination may be normal

Risk Factors
n The three most common risk factors

for cerebral infarction are hypertension, hypercoagulability, and

hyperviscosity.

Predisposing Conditions2,4,6,11
n The most common predisposing

causes are idiopathic hypertension,

chronic kidney disease, and
hyperadrenocorticism.
DWI = diffusion weighted images

History

or demonstrate changes consistent

with a predisposing condition (eg,
cranial abdominal organomegaly,
thin hair coat).
n Retinal fundic examination is
recommended.
n H
 ypertension may cause enlarged
or tortuous retinal vessels.
n P
 apilledema may be present if
increased intracranial pressure.
n C
 oncurrent chorioretinitis or infil-

trative disease (eg, lymphoma)

further suggests presence of a
concurrent, predisposing condition.

performed based on the type of

infarction present (Table 1, previous
page).

Diagnosis
Definitive Diagnosis
n Definitive diagnosis requires histo-

Neurologic Examination
n As with all neurologic disorders,

neurologic signs reflect lesion location and extent rather than cause.
n Common signs based on lesion location include:
n C
 erebrum: Seizures, mental obtundation, circling, pacing, inappropriate elimination
n T
 halamus: Signs of cerebral disease as above or vestibular dysfunction (possibly from damaged
thalamic relay centers associated
with cerebellar and vestibular
nuclei; damage to the medial
longitudinal fasciculus; input of
vestibular information to the thalamus; or diaschisis, a sudden
change in function in one area of
the brain from damage in a distant location).
n B
 rainstem: Altered mental status,
cranial nerve deficits, vestibular
dysfunction, paresis, ataxia.
n C
 erebellum: Paradoxical central
vestibular dysfunction, hypermetria, cerebellar (intention) tremors,
truncal sway/ataxia.

pathology at necropsy.
n C
 T- or MRI-guided stereotactic
biopsy may not provide a definitive diagnosis of infarction but
may help rule out other possible
causes (eg, neoplasia, encephalitis).
n A presumptive diagnosis can be
made via advanced imaging and
exclusion of other potential causes.

Imaging
n MRI is the advanced imaging modal-

Differential Diagnoses
n Intracranial neoplasia
n Immune-mediated, non-infectious

encephalitis (eg, granulomatous

meningoencephalomyelitis, necrotizing encephalitis)
n Infectious encephalitis
n Traumatic brain injury

Laboratory Findings

n Minimum database includes CBC,

serum chemistry panel, thyroid hormone analysis, and urinalysis.

n Serial systolic blood pressure measurements should be obtained to rule
out systemic hypertension.
n Thoracic radiographs and abdominal
ultrasound are recommended to
screen for neoplasia and predisposing conditions.
n Ancillary diagnostics should be

ity of choice given its superior soft

tissue resolution.
n T
 he classic MRI characteristic
of an ischemic stroke (Figure 1,
next page)
is an intra-axial lesion (often
wedge-shaped) that is hyperintense (bright) on T2-weighted
and fluid attenuation inversion
recovery (FLAIR) images, iso- to
hypointense (dark) on pre-contrast
T1-weighted images, and minimal
to no contrast enhancement.
n D
 iffusion weighted imaging
(DWI; Figure 2, next page) is the
sequence of choice for acute ischemic infarction.
DWI detects lack of normal
Brownian motion of molecules,
particularly lack of intercellular
water movement from cell swelling associated with cytotoxic
edema.
A n acute infarction appears as
a hyperintense region.
n T
 he MRI appearance of hemorrhagic infarction (Figure 3, next
page) varies greatly as blood
cells and hemoglobin degrade
(Table 2).

Table 2. MRI Characteristics of Hemorrhage

Stage

Time frame

Hemoglobin state

T2-weighted

T1-weighted

Peracute

<24 hrs

Oxyhemoglobin

Hyperintense

Isointense

Acute

1-3 days

Deoxyhemoglobin

Hypointense

Isointense

Early subacute

3-7 days

Intracellular methemoglobin

Hypointense

Hyperintense

Late subacute

>7 days

Extracellular methemoglobin

Hyperintense

Hyperintense

Chronic

>14 days

Hemosiderin

Hypointense

Iso- to hypointense

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CONSULTANT ON CALL

Treatment

Inpatient or Outpatient
n Patients with mild signs may be

treated on an outpatient basis.

C

n Non-ambulatory patients with mod-

erate to severe clinical signs, especially larger-breed dogs, may need to

be hospitalized until they are able to
walk with minimal to no assistance.

MRI images of a dog with a right cerebellar infarct

(A). Note the wedge-shaped intra-axial lesion in the
right dorsal cerebellar gray matter (arrow) that is
hyperintense on T2-weighted images (B), isointense on
T1-weighted images (C), and does not contrast enhance (D).

DWI obtained from a dog

showing a wedge-shaped,
markedly hypertintense
signal in the left dorsal cerebellar
gray matter consistent with a left
cerebellar infarct (arrow). DWI is
the MRI sequence of choice for
peracute to acute infarction.

MRI images from a dog with a presumed hemorrhagic infarct (arrows) based on improved
clinical signs and reduction in size on follow-up MRI imaging without definitive treatment.
There is a large, intra-axial lesion in the right parietal & occipital lobes. Images (A) and
(G) are parasagittal T2-weighted and T1-weighted images, respectively. Images (B) through (F) are
transverse images at the left of the midbrain. Image (H) is a dorsal view. The lesion is heterogeneous
and primarily hyperintense on T2-weighted (A, B) and FLAIR (C) images; hypointense on T2*GRE (D)
images consistent with hemorrhage; hypointense with a rim of hyperintensity on T1-weighted images
(E); and has moderate-to-marked peripheral rim contrast enhancement (F-H).

Hemorrhagic infarcts can be difficult to distinguish from hemorrhagic brain

tumors (eg, glioma, hemangiosarcoma).
T he T2*-gradient echo (T2*GRE) sequence is best for identifying hemorrhage
as it is hypointense on this sequence.
T2*GRE is also hypointense for mineralization, air, iron, melanin, and
foreign bodies.

26 [Link] August 2015

Acute Medical Treatment

n In general, there is no specific treat-

ment for cerebral infarction.

n So-called clot busters or thrombolytic

agents (eg, tissue plasminogen activator [tPA], streptokinase) are frequently used in human medicine.
n T
 hese medications are infrequently used in veterinary medicine because blood clots are rarely
a cause of infarction in dogs and
cats, thrombolytic agents need to
be given within 6 hours of infarction, and expense or limited availability preclude their use.
n Mannitol (0.5-1.0 g/kg IV over 10-15
minutes) or hypertonic saline 7.5%
(3-5 mL/kg IV over 10-15 minutes)
may be needed to reduce brain
swelling.
n T
 here is a theoretical risk for exacerbating hemorrhage or cerebral
edema if mannitol is given to
patients with intracranial hemorrhage, but benefits likely outweigh
risks.
n Hypertension should be treated to
prevent ongoing damage.
n I nitial treatment recommendations
include enalapril (dogs, 0.5 mg/kg
PO q12h) or amlodipine (cats,
0.625-1.25 mg per cat PO daily).
n Oxygen support is recommended in
moderate to severe cases, especially
if hypoventilation is present.
n Nursing care for recumbent patients is
critical and includes frequent turning
and thick bedding to prevent pressure

sores, urinary catheterization if indicated, and physical rehabilitation (at a

minimum, passive range of motion and
massage).

Chronic Medical Treatment

n Underlying predisposing conditions

should be treated as indicated to

reduce the risk for future infarction.
n Antithrombotics may be considered
if a thromboembolic disorder is
proven, but their use is controversial
and not proven to be beneficial.
n O
 ptions include clopidogrel (dogs,
1 mg/kg PO q24h; cats, 18.75 mg
per cat PO q24h) or aspirin (dogs,
0.5-1.0 mg/kg/q24h; cats, 40 mg
[1/2 baby aspirin tab] PO q48-72h

signs are progressive, further

examination is required as that
would suggest the patient did not
have a stroke.
n Clients should be instructed to
observe for signs of recumbencyassociated aspiration pneumonia
(eg, coughing, tachypnea, dyspnea).

References

Complications

4. Lowrie M, de Risio L, Dennis R, Llabrs-Daz F,

Garosi L. Concurrent medical conditions and
long-term outcome in dogs with nontraumatic
intracranial hemorrhage. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2012;53(4):381-388.

n I f

n The most common complication is

recumbency-associated aspiration
pneumonia.
n Other complications may be
observed depending on concurrent
predisposing conditions.

In General

Nutritional Aspects

Relative Cost

n There are no specific nutritional rec-

n Diagnostic workup and acute treat-

ommendations for infarction, but

diets higher in essential fatty acids
and omega-3 may be helpful.12
n Diet recommendations should also
be based on predisposing conditions,
such as a low-protein diet in patients
with kidney disease.

Activity
n There are no activity restrictions for

this condition.
n Physical rehabilitation is highly recommended to improve recovery and
shorten duration of signs.

Client Education
n Clients should be taught how to

provide nursing care for recumbent

animals, as well as how to treat
underlying predisposing conditions.

Follow-up
Patient Monitoring
n Patients should be monitored for

signs of progression that might be

consistent with a diagnosis other
than stroke.

ment: $$$$-$$$$$
n Chronic treatment and follow-up:

$$-$$$

Cost Key
$ = up to $100
$$ = $101-$250
$$$ = $251-$500
$$$$ = $501-$1000
$$$$$ = more than $1000

Prognosis
n In general, the prognosis for recovery

is good to excellent for patients with

focal infarctions that have limited
initial clinical abnormalities, if given
enough time and supportive care.
n Some patients have residual clinical
signs, but quality of life is acceptable
for most patients.
n The prognosis for global brain ischemia is guarded to fair. ncb

1. Platt SR, Garosi L. Canine cerebrovascular diseaseDo dogs have strokes? JAAHA.
2003;39(4):337-342.
2. Garosi LS. Cerebrovascular disease in dogs
and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract.
2010;40(1):65-79.
3. Hillock SM, Dewey CW, Stefanacci JD, et al.
Vascular encephalopathies in dogs: Diagnosis,
treatment and prognosis. Compend Contin
Educ Vet. 2006;28:208-217.

5. McConnell JF, Garosi L, Platt SR. Magnetic resonance imaging findings of presumed cerebellar cerebrovascular accident in twelve dogs.
Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2005;46(1):1-10.
6. Garosi LS, McConnell JF. Ischaemic stroke in
dogs and humans: A comparative review. J Sm
Anim Pract. 2005;46(11):521-529.
7. Garosi L, McConnell JF, Platt SR, et al. Clinical
and topographic magnetic resonance characteristics of suspected brain infarction in 40
dogs. JVIM. 2006;20(2):311-21.
8. Liu SK, Tilley LP, Tappe JP, Fox PR. Clinical and
pathologic findings in dogs with atherosclerosis: 21 cases (1970-1983). JAVMA. 1986;189(2):
227-232.
9. Timm K, Flegel T, Oechtering G. Sequential
magnetic resonance imaging changes after
suspected global brain ischaemia in a dog.
J Small Anim Pract. 2008;49:408-412.
10. Panarello GL, Dewey CW, Barone G, Stefanacci
JD. Magnetic resonance imaging of two suspected cases of global brain ischemia. JVECC.
2004;14(4):269-277.
11. Garosi LS, McConnell JE, Platt SR, et al. Results
of diagnostic investigations and long-term outcome of 33 dogs with brain infarction (20002004). JVIM. 2005;19(5):725-731.
12. Ozen OA, Cosar M, Sahin O, et al. The protective effect of fish n-3 fatty acids on cerebral
ischemia in rat prefrontal cortex. Neurol Sci.
2008;29(3):147-152.

Suggested Reading
Altay UM, Skerritt GC, Hilbe M, Ehrensperger F,
Steffen F. Feline cerebrovascular disease: clinical and histopathologic findings in 16 cats.
JAAHA. 2011;47(2):89-97.
Major AC, Caine A, Rodriguez SB, Cherubini GB.
Imaging diagnosis: Magnetic resonance imaging findings in a dog with sequential brain
infarction. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2012;53(5):
576-580.
Fulkerson CV, Young BD, Jackson ND, Porter B,
Levine JM. MRI characteristics of cerebral
microbleeds in four dogs. Vet Radiol Ultrasound. 2012;53(4):389-393.

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