Lectures 2-3

Hydrogen atom. Relativistic corrections of energy terms: relativistic mass correction,

Darwin term, and spin-orbit term. Fine structure. Lamb shift. Hyperfine structure.
Energy levels of the hydrogen atom so far:

Actual energy level scheme (no external fields)

2p3/2

Relativistic corrections of energy terms

Proper treatment: solve Dirac equation. However, the corrections are small so we can use our non-relativistic
solution and apply first-order perturbation theory.

Relativistic effects:
(1) The relativistic dependence of electron mass on its velocity small decrease in kinetic energy.
(2) Darwin term - smears the eective potential felt by the electron change in the potential energy.
(3) Spin-orbit term: the interaction of the magnetic moment of the electron [due to electron spin] with the
effective magnetic field the electrons see due to orbital motion around the nucleus.
1) Relativistic mass dependence
Nonrelativistic:

Relativistic:

For an electron in the hydrogen atom,

Class exercise: expand the square root (keep 3 terms) and find the expression for H'.

Then,

and first-order correction to the energy is given by

now energy
depends on l
fine-structure constant

2) Darwin term
Even in a model where the electron is considered to be a point charge, the momentary
position of the electron can not be defined more precisely than within the volume
Then, we can not determine the electron position, but only a
"fuzzy ball" about the size of
.

Compton wavelength
of the electron

To quantify the corresponding correction, we define effective potential that is the

average of the potential over the "fuzzy ball".
Electron "fuzzy ball"

Integrating the last term gives a result close to full relativistic calculation which yields

since

The radial wave functions are non-zero at the origin only for l=0, i.e. 1s, 2s, 3s, etc.

(3) The spin-orbit interaction

From special relativity, a particle moving in an electric field E experiences a magnetic field B in
its reference frame:

A simple explanation for hydrogen: in the coordinate system where the electron is at rest at the
origin, the nucleus with the positive charge Ze moves in a circle around the electron. This causes
a circular current that produces magnetic field at the location of the electron.
(factor of e comes in since electron's potential
energy equals its charge times the electrostatic
potential)
For hydrogen,

The interaction of the electron's magnetic spin moment with the orbital field gives the following
Hamiltonian of the spin-orbit interaction:

Bohr
magneton

Note that

However, the corresponding energy splitting's are twice as large as observed by the
experiment. This is due to Thomas precession - a relativistic effect that arises because we are
calculating the magnetic field in the frame of reference that is not stationary but rotates as the
electron moves about the nucleus, so

For hydrogen,

Class exercise: calculate

Hints:

"Fine-structure" refers to splitting of levels with the same

but different j. For example,

fine structure

Conclusion: putting all three effects together, we get the following expression for the energy:

Note that this expression does not depend on

have the same energy.

! Then, 2s1/2 and 2p1/2 levels of hydrogen still

Lamb shift
Prediction of the relativistic (Dirac equation) theory for hydrogen energy levels:

The solution of the relativistic Dirac equation for hydrogen gives the same energies of the
states with different l but the same j, such as 2s1/2 and 2p1/2 levels in hydrogen. However,
this contradicts experimental observations which show a small difference between the
energy levels of these states. Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford were the first to measure
this shift in 1947 [see W. E. Lamb and R.C. Retherford, Physical Review 72, 241 (1947).]
This observation was of paramount significance and led to the development of quantum
electrodynamics (QED) - quantum field theory that describes electromagnetic interactions.

In quantum electrodynamics, so-called "radiative corrections" to the Dirac theory are obtained
by taking into account interactions of electrons with the quantized electromagnetic field.
In QED, a quantized radiation field in the lowest-energy state of NOT the one with ZERO
electromagnetic fields, but there exist zero-point oscillations. [Note: remember for example
that the lowest energy (or zero-point energy) of the harmonic oscillator is not zero but h/2.]
Then, there are non-zero electromagnetic fields that are present even in the absence of any
external radiation due to the fields associated with zero-point energy. Such fields are referred
to as "vacuum" fluctuations since they are present even in the "vacuum", i.e. absence of
observable photons. The process where atomic electron emits and then absorbs a photon of
energy
during time
does not violate the energy conservation law because of
the uncertainty relation

Feynman diagrams for Lamb shift:

Element #1: Double line represents bound electrons
Element #2: Wavy line represents a virtual photon
Element #3: Double circle represent virtual electron-positron pairs.

There are two dominant QED contributions that cause the Lamb shift: self-energy and
vacuum polarization.
The electron self-energy QED correction is due to emission and absorption of virtual photons.
This leads to smearing of the electron ("fuzzy electron ball" effect again - remember the
Darwin term).
The corresponding Feynman diagrams is

The Feynman diagram for vacuum polarization QED term is

There is a "cloud" of the electron-positron pairs confined to a localized region around the
electron of order the Compton wavelength. It get polarized by the Coulomb field from
the nucleus [i.e. virtual electrons get attracted and virtual positrons are repelled by the
nucleus] which binds the s electron more tightly. This correction is very small in hydrogen.
This effect becomes important in highly-charged ions and muonic hydrogen as muon is 200
times heavier than electron and, therefore, more tightly bound.

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1955 was divided equally

between Willis Eugene Lamb "for his discoveries
concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum"
and Polykarp Kusch "for his precision determination of
the magnetic moment of the electron".

Willis Eugene
Lamb

For the second-order Lamb shift, virtual photons and electronpositron pairs interact with
themselves and each other to generate two loops.
Class exercise: draw 10 second-order Lamb shift diagrams.
Rules: there can be no more than two virtual photon lines and no more than two virtual
electron-positron pair loops in a second-order diagram.

Feynman diagrams for Lamb shift:

Element #1: Double line represents bound electrons
Element #2: Wavy line represents a virtual photon
Element #3: Double circle represents virtual electron-positron pairs.

The QED effects are enhanced in ions with high-nuclear charge, for example in H-like or Lilike U. [U with 91 or 89 electrons removed and only 1 or 3 electrons left like in H or Li] since
QED effects scale as Z4 . [Remember that nonrelativistic energy scales as Z2.]
IONS: atoms with one or more electrons removed
Hydrogen
Z=1, 1 electron
Electron binding energy 13.6 eV

Hydrogen-like U91+
Z=92, stll only 1 electron
Electron binding energy 132 000 eV

Measurements of Lamb shift in such highly-charged ions [i.e. ions with lots of stripped
electrons] allow to test QED predictions and study higher-order QED effects.

Experimental tests of second-order QED effects in H-like U91+

Energy scale (from Thomas Sthlker, GSIDarmstadt)

H-like U91+ Z=92 Eb=132 000 eV

Self-energy
355 eV
0.26%

Vacuum
polarization
- 89 eV

Nuclear size
effects
199 eV

Total for all second-order effects ~1eV

See https://www.llnl.gov/str/May06/pdfs/05_06.4.pdf for article on experiments in

Livermore National Laboratory on testing QED in Li-like U ion.

Hyperfine structure

All levels of hydrogen, including

fine structure components, are
split into two more components.

So far, we ignored the spin of the hydrogen nucleus (i.e. proton), which is I=1/2. Additional
splitting of the atomic energy levels appear because of the interaction of the nuclear
moments with the electromagnetic fields of the electrons. The level splitting caused by this
interaction is even smaller than the fine structure, so it is called hyperfine structure.
Hyperfine states that are split from the ground state make particularly good qubits for
quantum information due to their long lifetimes. The hyperfine splitting of the ground state of
Cs is used to define a second.
The hyperfine interaction in general form is given by

Rank k spherical tensor operator

acting on the electronic degrees
of freedom

Rank k spherical tensor operator

acting on the nuclear degrees
of freedom

k=0 just the Coulomb part

k=1 magnetic-dipole interaction (odd) - considered below
k=2 electric-quadrupole interaction (even)
...
Here, we consider magnetic-dipole hyperfine interaction, i.e. the interaction of the nuclear
magnetic moment
with the magnetic field produced by the electrons at the nucleus, k=1,
and the Hamiltonian is given by:

Magnetic field produced at the

location of the nucleus by the orbital
motion of the electron and the magnetic
moment
due to electron spin

total angular momentum of electrons

nuclear spin
We now define total angular momentum (nucleus + electrons)
Example: hydrogen ground state J=1/2, I=1/2 (proton) F=0,1, so two levels (see picture on previous page)
and introduce a magnetic-dipole hyperfine constant A:

Class exercise: derive the expression for the energy shift of atomic level due to
magnetic-dipole hyperfine interaction. Express your result in terms of I, J, F, and A.
Hint: remember the derivation of the spin-orbit interaction.

Final summary: H energy level structure

Fine-structure
splitting
4.510-5eV

2s hyperfine splitting
7.310-7eV (177.6 MHz)
2s1/2-2p1/2
splitting due to Lamb shift
4.410-6eV

-1.810-4eV
3.610-5eV

1s hyperfine splitting
5.810-6eV (1420.5 MHz)