Physics of Radiography
Yao Wang
Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY 11201
Based on J. L. Prince and J. M. Links, Medical Imaging Signals and
Systems, and lecture notes by Prince. Figures are from the textbook.
Lecture Outline
Atomic structure and ionization
Particulate Radiation
Focusing on energetic electron interaction
EM Radiation
Photoelectric
Compton scattering
Likelihood of each
EM radiation measurement
Attenuation of radiation
Radiation Dosimetry
Exposure, dose
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Atomic Structure
An atom={a nucleus,
electrons}
nucleons = {protons; neutrons}
mass number A = # nucleons
atomic number Z = # protons =
# electrons
Define an element with a
particular symbol: H, C, etc.
An element is denoted by its A
and Z
Ex:
12
6
C or C - 12
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Stable vs. Unstable States
Stable nuclides:
# neutrons ~= # protons (A ~= 2Z)
Unstable nuclides (radionuclides, radioactive atoms)
Likely to undergo radioactive decay, which gives off energy and
results in a more stable nucleus
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Orbits of Electrons
Ground state: electrons are in the lowest orbital shells and within the lowest
energy quantum states within each shell
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Electron Binding Energy
A free electron has higher energy than when it is bounded to an
nuclei in an atom
Binding energy = total energy with free electrons total energy in
ground state
Depends on the element to which the electron is bound and the shell
within which it resides in ground state
Sufficient to consider average binding energy of a given atom
One electron volt (eV) = kinetic energy gained by an electron when
accelerated across one volt potential
1 eV = 1.6 x 10^{-19} Joule
Binding energies of typical elements:
hydrogen = 13.6 eV, Smallest among all lighter atoms
Air: 29 eV
Lead: 1 KeV
Tungsten: 4 KeV
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Ionization and Excitation
Ionization is knocking an electron out of an atom
Creates a free electron + ion (an atom with +1 charge)
Occurs when radiated with energy above the electron binding
energy
Excitation is knocking an electron to a higher orbit
When the radiation energy is lower than the binding energy
After either ionization or excitation, an atom has higher
energy
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Characteristic Radiation
What happens to ionized or excited atom?
Return to ground state by rearrangement of electrons
Causes atom to give off energy
Energy given off as characteristic radiation
infrared
light
x-rays
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Example
Consider an electron accelerated through an X-ray tube where the anode if
made of tungsten. If the anode is held at 120 KV, what is the maximum
number of tungsten atoms that can be ionized?
Solution:
The electron will have 120 KeV kinetic energy when reaching the anode, by
definition of eV
The average binding energy of tungsten = 4 KeV
# ionized atoms = 120/4=20
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Ionizing Radiation
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Two Types of Ionizing Radiation
Particulate
Electro-magnetic (EM)
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Particulate Radiation
Radiation by any particle (proton, neutron or electron) if it
possesses enough kinetic energy to ionize an atom
Kinetic Energy = the energy gained due to motion
Mass of a moving particle : m =
m0
1 v
c2
Energy vs. mass : E = mc 2
Kinetic Energy : KE = E E0 = (m m0 )c 2
When v << c, KE =
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1 2
mv
2
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Particulate Radiation by Energetic
Electrons
We are only concerned with the electron accelerated in a X-ray
tube here
An electron accelerated across a tube with 100 KV potential
possesses 100 KeV kinetic energy
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Energetic Electron Interactions
Two primary interactions
Collisional transfer
Most common
Produces heat
Radiative transfer
Produces x-ray
Characteristic radiation
Collide with K-shell
Bremsstrahlung radiation
Collide with nucleus
More common than
characteristic radiation
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Collisional Transfer
The energetic electron collides with an atom in the target
Typically, a small fraction of the kinetic energy of the electron is transferred
to another electron in the atom
As the affected atom returns to its original state, infrared radiation (heat) is
generated
Occasionally, a large fraction of the incident energy is transferred to another
electron, the newly freed electron may form a delta ray
The incident electrons path may be redirected, and many other subsequent
interactions may occur, until the kinetic energy of the incident electron is
exhausted
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Characteristic X-Ray
The incident electron collides with a K-shell electron,
exciting or ionizing the atom, leaving a hole in that shell.
As the atom returns to its ground state, the k-shell hole is filled
by a higher shell electron
The loss of energy creates an EM photon, known as
Characteristic x-ray
The energy of the x-ray photon = difference between the binding
energy of the two shells (element dependent)
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Bremsstrahlung Ray
As the incident electron approaches the nucleus of an atom, the
positive charge of the nucleus causes the incident electron to bend
around the nucleus and decelerates
The loss of energy leads to the Bremsstrahlung x-ray (energy vary over
a continuous range, depending on the speed loss)
Occasionally when the incident electron collides with the nucleus,
the electron is annihilated, emitting a photon with an energy equal to
the kinetic energy of the incident electron (highest possible energy)
Primary source of x-rays from an x-ray tube
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Spectrum of X-Ray
Different curves
are generated
when different
voltage
potentials
applied in a x-ray
tube
Generated when K-shell
electrons are replaced by
different outer shells
When the
incident
electron
collides with
a nucleus
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EM Radiation
EM radiation comprises an electric wave and a magnetic
wave traveling at right angles to each other
Typical EM waves:
Non ionizing: radio, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet
Ionizing: X-rays, gamma rays
Energy of a photon of an EM wave with frequency v:
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EM Waves for Medical Imaging
X-rays and Gamma rays:
Have energy in the KeVs to MeVs -> Ionizing Radiation
used in X-ray/CT and nuclear medicine respectively
X-rays are created in the electron cloud of atoms due to ionizing
radiation
Gamma rays are created in the nuclei of atoms due to
radioactive decay or characteristic radiation
Radio waves
Used to stimulate nuclei in MRI to generate EM radiation
Visible light
Used in radiography to improve the efficiency of photographic
film to detect X-rays
See Table 4.2 for more details
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EM Radiation Interactions
Two main interactions
Photoelectric effect
The incoming photon is completely absorbed and ejecting K-shell or
L-shell electrons, producing characteristic x-ray
Compton scattering
The incoming photon changes its direction
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Photoelectric Effect
An incoming photon interacts with the nucleus of an atom, causing
ejection of a K-shell or L-shell electron (photoelectron)
Atom completely absorbs incident photon and all energy is transferred
The photoelectron propagates away with energy
E = hv E
e
The affected atom produces characteristic x-ray, while outer electrons fill
the K-shell.
Sometimes the characteristic x-ray transfers its energy to an outer
electron (called Auger electron)
Both photo electron and Auger electron are energetic electrons that
can interact with the matter as discussed before
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Photoelectric Effect
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Compton Scattering
An incoming photon ejects an outer shell electron,
yielding a Compton electron
The incident photon loses its energy and changes its
direction
The scattered photon is called Compton photon
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The energy of the scattered photon depends on the
scatter angle
The maximum energy loss occurs when the photon is deflected
backward (\theta=180^o)
When E is higher, more photons scatter forward
The kinetic energy of the Compton photon = E-E
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Which interaction is better?
Photoelectric effect helps to differentiate different human
tissues/organs
Compton scattering causes incident photons to deviate
from straight path, and causes unnecessary exposure of
x-ray to untargeted areas
In medical imaging, we want to increase the likelihood of
photoelectric events, while minimizing Compton
scattering
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Probability of Photoelectric Effect
Recall that photoelectric event happens when incident photons
interact with the coulomb field of the nucleus of an atom
More likely when colliding with an atom with more photons (higher Z
number)
Less likely when incident photons have higher energy (higher
frequency)
The probability increases abruptly when the photon energy rises above
the binding energy of L-shell or K-shell electrons (so as to eject the
electrons), then begins to diminish
Rationale behind the use of contrast agent
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Probability of Compton Scattering
Recall that Compton scattering occurs when an incident photon
collides with outer shell electrons
Likelihood proportional to the number of electrons per kilogram of
the material (the electron density or ED)
Relatively independent of incident photon energy in the biological
material
ED =
N AZ
Wm
N A : Avogadro's number (atoms/mole)
Z : atomic number (electrons/atom)
Wm : molecular weight (grams/mole
ED is approximately constant for various biological material, ~
3E26, except for Hydrogen (6E26)
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Relative Likelihood
Compton scattering is equally likely in various materials
and invariant of incident energy
Photoelectric effect is more likely in high Z material and
less likely with high incident energy
Overall, Compton scattering is more dominant with
higher incident energy in the same material
But the percent of energy deposited due to photoelectric
event is larger because all incident energy is absorbed.
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Measures of X-ray Beam: Photon Count
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Measures of X-ray Beam: Energy Flow
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Spectrum of X-Ray
The x-ray beam produced by an x-ray tube (mainly
Bremsstrahlung) is polyenergetic (consisting photons
with different energies or frequencies)
X-ray spectrum S(E):
The number of photons with energy E per unit area per unit time
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Spectrum of X-Ray
Different curves
are generated
when different
voltage
potentials
applied in a x-ray
tube
Generated when K-shell
electrons are replaced by
different outer shells
When the
incident
electron
collides with
a nucleus
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Attenuation of X-ray Radiation: Narrow
Beam, Monoenergetic Photons
Photons will be absorbed/deflected through the slab
# photons lost through the slab (n) ~ N x
linear attenuation coefficient: = n/N / x
is the fraction of photons that are lost per unit length
# of photons at x = N(x)
N(x) N = -n = - N x
dN/N = - dx
The fundamental photon attenuation law
N(x) = N exp{- x}
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Linear Attenuation Coefficients of
Biological Tissues
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Homogeneous Slab
Homogeneous slab: the attenuation rate is the same
over the entire slab
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Half-Value Layer (HVL)
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Example
Consider the image taken of a bar phantom uniformly
irradiated by monoenergetic x-ray photons
Assuming the bars are made of material that has a HVL of 0.2cm
Assuming x-ray photons pass through the space between bars
w/o attenuation
Assuming the intensity of the image is proportional to the
number of detected photons in a unit area
What is the contrast of the resulting image?
Go through in the class
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Non-Homogeneous Slab
The attenuation coefficient depends on x
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Polyenergetic Photons
The linear attenuation coefficient depends on the medium property as
well the energy of incident photon (E)
For a given material, can be denoted by (x;E)
When the incident photons are polyenergetic, with spectrum S(E), the
outgoing photon spectrum is
S ( x; E ) = S 0 ( E ) exp ( x' ; E )dx'
0
In terms of intensity
I = E ' S ( E ' )dE '
0
I ( x) = S 0 ( E ' ) E ' exp ( x' ; E ' )dx' dE '
0
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Radiation Dosimetry
Previous topics deal with the production of radiation and
measurement of radiation wave
Radiation dosimetry considers the effect of radiation to
the interacting media
Exposure
Dose
Kerma
Effective dose
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Exposure (Creation of Ions)
Exposure (X) is measured in terms of the number of ions produced
in a specific volume of air by EM radiation
SI unit: C/kg
Common unit: Roentgen (R)
1 C/kg = 3876 R
Exposure decreases with distance from source (d) following a
inverse square law
X (d ) = X (0) / d 2
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Does (the deposition of energy)
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Kerma
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Dose vs. Exposure
D = fX
f - factor depends on material :
material
f = 0.87
air
: mass attenuation coefficient
f = 0.87 for air
f 1 for soft - tissue
See Table 4.6 for the mass attenuation coefficient of typical materials
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Equivalent Dose
Dose equivalent
The effect of radiation depends on the source of radiation (energy)
Dose equivalent: H = D Q
Q: quality factor
Q = 1 for x-ray, gamma ray, electron, beta particle (used in medical imaging)
Q = 10 for neutrons and protons
Q = 20 for alpha particles
Effective dose
Effect of a dose also depends on the tissue type
Effective dose measures the average effect over different tissue types
Deffective =
w H
j
organs
w j :weighting factor for organ j
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Summary
Ionization: ejection of an orbiting electron from an atom, the affected
atom produces radiation in the process of returning to ground state
Two types of ionizing radiation
Particulate
EM
Particulate radiation transfers energy via
Collisional transfer: resulting in heat
Radioactive transfer: resulting in characteristic x-ray and
Bremsstrahlung x-ray
X-ray is produced by energetic electrons accelerated in a x-ray tube,
consisting primarily Bremsstrahlung x-ray
EM radiation transfers energy via
Photoelectric effect: incident photons completely absorbed
Compton scattering: incident photons are deflected
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Summary (cntd)
Attenuation of EM radiation:
Linear attenuation coefficient is the fraction of photons that are
lost per unit length
Depends on material property and the incident photon energy
Fundamental photon attenuation law
Homogeneous slab
Heterogeneous slab
Radiation dosimetry
Exposure vs. dose: D=fX
Equivalent dose: H=DQ
Effective dose: D
effective = w j H j
organs
w j :weighting factor for organ j
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Reference
Prince and Links, Medical Imaging Signals and Systems,
Chap 4.
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Homework
Reading:
Prince and Links, Medical Imaging Signals and Systems, Chap
4.
Note down all the corrections for Ch. 4 on your copy of
the textbook based on the provided errata.
Problems for Chap 4 of the text book:
P4.4
P4.5
P4.6
P4.8
P4.10
P4.11
P4.12
P4.13
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