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Analog Signals: Both Independent and Dependent Variables Can Assume A Continuous Range of Values Exists in Nature

This document compares and contrasts analog and digital signals. Analog signals have continuous independent and dependent variables while digital signals are discretized. Digital signals are represented in computers through sampling and quantization. Sampling makes the independent variable discrete by taking samples at regular intervals. Quantization makes the dependent variable discrete by mapping samples to discrete values using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Proper sampling requires sampling at least twice the maximum frequency to avoid aliasing. The sampling theorem states the sampling rate must be greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency. Signals can be represented in both the time and frequency domains, with the frequency domain showing the signal's amplitude and phase as a function of frequency.

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Arunabh Bhattacharya
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60 views15 pages

Analog Signals: Both Independent and Dependent Variables Can Assume A Continuous Range of Values Exists in Nature

This document compares and contrasts analog and digital signals. Analog signals have continuous independent and dependent variables while digital signals are discretized. Digital signals are represented in computers through sampling and quantization. Sampling makes the independent variable discrete by taking samples at regular intervals. Quantization makes the dependent variable discrete by mapping samples to discrete values using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Proper sampling requires sampling at least twice the maximum frequency to avoid aliasing. The sampling theorem states the sampling rate must be greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency. Signals can be represented in both the time and frequency domains, with the frequency domain showing the signal's amplitude and phase as a function of frequency.

Uploaded by

Arunabh Bhattacharya
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Analog Signals

Both independent and dependent


variables can assume a continuous
range of values
Exists in nature

Digital Signals

Both independent and dependent


variables are discretized
Representation in computers

Sampling

Discrete independent variable


Sample and hold (S/H)

Quantization

Discrete dependent variable


Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

Digital Signal

Sampled Signal

Digitized Signal

Depends on number of bits


12 bits = 4095 levels
0.0 Voltage 4.096
2.56 and 2.5601 TO 2560
Each level (LSB) = 0.001
Error LSB
Called Quantization Error

Digitized Signal

Depends on number of bits


12 bits = 4095 levels
0.0 Voltage 4.096
2.56 and 2.5601 TO 2560
Each level (LSB) = 0.001
Error LSB
Called Quantization Error

Quantization Error

Usually like random


noise
Noise is present in
most signal
acquisition systems
Random
uncorrelated
samples added to
the original signal

Proper Sampling

If the original signal can be


reconstructed unambiguously from the
sampled signal

Cycles/ Sample =
=

Number of cycles per second


Number of samples per second
Analog Frequency
Sampling Rate

Is it Proper Sampling?

DC signal
Freq = 0.0 x Sampling Rate
Proper

Is it Proper Sampling?

Freq = 0.09 x Sampling Rate


Each sample covers 0.09 cycles
Proper

Is it Proper Sampling?

Freq = 0.31 x Sampling Rate


Larger fraction of cycles per sample
Proper

Is it Proper Sampling?

Freq = 0.95 x
Sampling Rate
Much larger parts of
cycles per sample
Not Proper
Aliasing
Changes frequency
and phase

Sampling Theorem

Proper Sampling: At least one sample


per half cycle
Freq 0.5 x Sampling Rate
Sampling Rate 2 x Frequency
Nyquist Rate

Time (Spatial) Domain vs.


Frequency Domain

Any one dimensional analog signal can be


represented as a linear combination of sine
waves of different frequencies

1D Signal

Representation in Both Domains


2
Amplitude

Example: Once scan line of an image


Amount of each sine wave defined by its
amplitude and phase

0
180
Time Domain

Frequency Domain

Frequency

Phase

-180

Frequency

Representation in Both Domains

Time Domain

Frequency Domain

Phase

Amplitude

Extending it to 2D

Amplitude

Amplitude

How much details?


Sharper details signify higher frequencies
Will deal with this mostly

Phase

Where are the


details?
Though we do not
use it much, it is
important,
especially for
perception

10

Low Pass Filtering

Hierarchical Image Filtering


A1(f)

h1(x)

x
h2(x)

x
SPATIAL DOMAIN

A2(f)

f
FREQUENCY DOMAIN

11

Hierarchical Filtering
1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

N/4 x N/4

N/2 x N/2

NxN

1x1

Gaussian Pyramid

12

Band-limited Images
(Laplacian Pyramid)
Bn-1= Gn-1-Gn-2
Bn= Gn-Gn-1

fn-2<fn-1<fn

fn-2

fn-1

fn

Gn-2
Gn-1
Gn

Band-limited Images
(Laplacian Pyramid)

13

Edge Crispening

Second Order Edge Detection


A.
B.

C.

D.

The image
Image after
convolution
Segmented
convolved image
Edge detected
image

14

Scaling Problem

Edges in coarser
level do not
disappear in finer
levels
New edges are
added
Coarser level edges
are most important
Advances like a
hierarchy

15

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