10-Photovoltaics Part 2

ECEGR 452
Renewable Energy Systems

Overview

Solar Radiation Absorption

Illumination Current
PV Circuit Equivalent
PV Cell Arrangements
Maximum Power Point
PV Module Spec. Sheets
Fill Factor
Temperature Effects

Dr. Louie

Introduction
Last lecture we described the behavior of a PV
cell
In the dark, behaved like a diode
Under light, illumination current flows

In this lecture we develop a circuit model for the

PV cell and examine its power output
characteristics

Dr. Louie

Illumination Current
Current out of an illuminated pn-junction is:
I IL ISat

V VT

How is IL determined?
Is

IL

p-type

ID

n-type

Dr. Louie

Solar Radiation Absorption

Solar radiation is composed of photons
c
e

Energy carried by a photon:

l

where:

e :energy of the photon (eV) [1 eV = 1.6e-19 J]

C: speed of light (m/s) (300,000,000 m/s)
l: wavelength (m)
: Plancks constant 4.135 x 10-15 eV-s

Recall the frequency/wavelength relationship

f

Dr. Louie

Solar Radiation Absorption

Spectrum of solar radiation

Source: Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future, G. Boyle

Dr. Louie

Solar Radiation Absorption

How many photons, Ntotal, are radiated on a
square meter of earth per second?
Assume:
G = 1000 W/m2
Assume average wavelength is 0.8 mm

Dr. Louie

Solar Radiation Absorption

For 1 second over 1 m2: 1000 J
Converting to eV: 6.25e21 eV
6.25x1021 Ntotal e Ntotal
Ntotal 6.25x10

21

l
c

6.25x10

(0.8x106 )

21

4.135x1015x 300x106

4.03x1021

Note: this is rough approximation only!

Dr. Louie

Solar Radiation Absorption

If each photon excited one electron into the
conduction band then for each square meter:
IL = (4.03e21) x (1.6e-19) = 644 Amperes!

Dr. Louie

Solar Radiation Absorption

Generically the illumination current can be found
from:
IL = q x N x A

Where
q: charge (C)
A: area of the junction (m2)
N: number of photons that excite electrons per
square meter

Dr. Louie

10

Solar Radiation Absorption

Not all of the incident radiation is suitable for PV
energy conversion
If the photon has:
Too little energy, the electron does not jump to the
conduction band
Too much energy, only the portion of the energy
that is sufficient to promote the electron to the
conduction band can be used

Dr. Louie

11

Solar Radiation Absorption

Energy of the photon must be > 1.1 eV (wavelengths
less than 1.1 x 10-6 m)
~23% of the solar radiation (AM 1.5) does not
meet this requirement
~33% of solar radiation (AM 1.5) is wasted by
having too much energy

At most, <50% of energy radiated on a solar

panel can be used
Actual efficiency is closer to 16%

Dr. Louie

12

Solar Radiation Absorption

Suitable for PV

visible
spectrum

Dr. Louie

13

Illumination Current
Irradiance and IL are proportionally related under
short circuit conditions (Isc = IL)
Double irradiance and IL will double

Mathematically:
G
IL (G)
GSTC

IL (GSTC ) (under short circuit)

Where
G: irradiance on the PV panel (W/m2)
GSTC: rated irradiance of the PV panel under
Standard Test Conditions (W/m2)
IL(GSTC): short circuit current of the PV panel
under Standard Test Conditions (A)
Dr. Louie

14

Illumination Current

1000 W/m2

Current (A)

2
1.5

500 W/m2

250

0.5
0

0.1

0.2

Voc is
insensitive
to G

W/m2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

15

PV Circuit Equivalent
Equivalent circuit of an ideal PV cell
V VT

I IL ISat e
1

IL
VOC VT ln

I
Sat
ISC IL

IL

+
V
-

Note: this reduces to a simple

Diode in the dark (IL =0)

Dr. Louie

16

PV Circuit Equivalent
Let

R = 0.25 W
Isat = 10-10 A
Vt = 25mV
IL = 1.5 A

IL

Find V

Dr. Louie

+
V
-

17

PV Circuit Equivalent
Let

R = 0.25 W
Isat = 10-10 A
Vt = 25mV
IL = 1.5 A

IL

Find V

+
V
-

V IR
I IL ISat

V VT

V
V
1.5 1010 e 0.025 1
R

Transcendental function,
numerically solve

Dr. Louie

18

PV Circuit Equivalent
We can take a brute force approach
Try a range of values of V until f (the error) is less
than some tolerance (say, 0.025)
I IL
0

V
R

V
f
R

V VT

ISat e
1

V VT

IL ISat e
1

V VT

IL ISat e
1

Dr. Louie

19

PV Circuit Equivalent
We are dealing with one PV cell, the range of
voltage we should try should be between 0 and
about 0.6 V.
Error
1.5

Error

0.5

region of acceptable error

-0.5

-1

-1.5

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

20

PV Circuit Equivalent
We will rely on numerical solutions for solving PV
circuits when a load is attached
Previous example:V 0.38

We can now directly solve the circuit for any

other quantity
I IL ISat

V VT

Dr. Louie

21

PV Circuit Equivalent
PV Cell Characteristic
2

current source

1.8
1.6

I
+
V
-

Current (A)

IL

1.4
1.2
1

voltage source

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

22

PV Circuit Equivalent
Losses can be modeled by including shunt and
series resistances
Rseries

+
V
-

IL

Rshunt

We will assume the PV cell is ideal unless

otherwise noted

Dr. Louie

23

Maximum Power
Power out of the cell:
P = IV

Current (A)

There is a unique point

that maximizes P
Goal often is to operate
at this point

PV Cell Characteristic
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

24

0.6

Maximum Power
constant
power

PV Cell Characteristic
2
1.8
1.6

Current (A)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

25

Maximum Power

Current (A)

Want to find the value

2
of R that maximizes
1.8
power output
1.6
Resistors have linear V-1.4
I characteristics
1.2
1
Slope is 1/R

PV Cell Characteristic

R = 0.36 W

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

26

Maximum Power
PV Cell Characteristic

R = 0.25 W

2
1.8

R = 0.36 W

1.6

Current (A)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6

R=1W

0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

27

Maximum Power
Point of maximum power output for a given
irradiance, G, is known as the maximum
power point (MPP)
Let

P*(G): maximum power output (W)

I*(G): current at MPP (A)
V*(G): voltage at MPP (V)
R*(G): resistance for MPP (W)

Note: * does NOT mean complex conjugate

Dr. Louie

28

Maximum Power
P*, I*, V*, R* depend on illumination
PV Cell Characteristic
2
1.8

1000 W/m2

1.6

Current (A)

1.4
1.2
1

500 W/m2

0.8
0.6

250 W/m2

0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

29

Maximum Power
Regardless of illumination amount, a general rule
of thumb:
PV Cell Characteristic
*

V 0.8 Voc (G)

2
1.8
1.6

Current (A)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

30

PV Cell Arrangements
Power, voltage out of a single cell is usually not
sufficient for most applications
Voc < 0.10 V
Isc < 5A (for cell dimension around 10cm x 10cm)
P < 0.5 W

Multiple cells are arranged in panels (modules)

Multiple panels are arranged in arrays

Dr. Louie

31

PV Cell Arrangements
Series cell arrangement (increases voltage)

contact

top
n-type

n-type

p-type

p-type

side view

Dr. Louie

32

PV Cell Arrangements
Output voltage, increased
by series connection:
V

Ncells

V
n 1

IL1

+
V1
I

where:
Ncells: number of cells

IL2

Same current flows out of

each cell

V2
-

V
I

IL3

Dr. Louie

+
V3
-

33

PV Cell Arrangements
IV characteristics can be easily aggregated
Shape of characteristic does not change
PV Panel
PV CellCharacteristic
Characteristic
2
1.8
1.6

Current (A)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

34

PV Cell Arrangements
Panel or Module: collection of PV cells
Array: collection of PV Panels (or modules)
Symbols:

Dr. Louie

35

PV Module Arrangements
I

2I

3I

+
V

+
2V
-

Load

Dr. Louie

36

PV Module Spec Sheets

Dr. Louie

37

PV Module Spec Sheets

Dr. Louie

38

Standard Test Conditions (STC)

STC is defined as
Irradiance (GSTC): 1000 W/m2
Spectral Distribution: AM 1.5
TC: 25 oC

STC rarely occur in actual PV systems

Tc > 25 oC (when G = 1000 W/m2)
How have often does G = 1000 W/m2 in Seattle?

Dr. Louie

39

Standard Test Conditions (STC)

Is it possible for a PV panel rated at 100 W to
output more than 100 W?
Yes
No

Dr. Louie

40

Standard Test Conditions (STC)

Is it possible for a PV panel rated at 100 W to
output more than 100 W?
Yes
No

If irradiance, temperature and load conditions are more

favorable than STC, then 100 W can be exceeded

Dr. Louie

41

PV Module Spec Sheets

All values referenced to STC

Dr. Louie

42

Notation
P*STC : the maximum power output under STC
Sometimes units are written as Wp (Watts peak)
Also known as the rated power
Possible for power to exceed P*STC

Voc,STC : open circuit voltage of PV module under

STC (V)
Isc,STC : short circuit current of PV module under
STC (A)

Dr. Louie

43

Notation
V*STC : voltage of PV module corresponding to
P*STC under STC (V)
I*STC : current of PV corresponding to P*STC under
STC (A)

Dr. Louie

44

Fill Factor
Theoretical maximum power output of a PV cell is
found by multiplying open circuit voltage with the
short circuit current
The ratio of actual maximum power to theoretical
is known as the Fill Factor, and provides a metric
to compare PV cell quality

Dr. Louie

45

Fill Factor
The maximum power output of the cell is:

PSTC
ISTC
VSTC
FISC ,STCVOC ,STC

Where

PV Cell Characteristic
2

F: fill factor

1.8

Typical value of F

1.4

Current (A)

0.5 to 0.83

Pmax

1.6

1.2
1

V*STCI*STC

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

46

0.6

Fill Factor
PV Cell Characteristic
2

1.8

1.8

1.6

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2

Current (A)

Current (A)

PV Cell Characteristic
2

1
0.8

V*STCI*STC

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

ISC,STC VOC,STC
(entire shaded area)

0.8

Voltage (V)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

47

0.6

Fill Factor
Assuming F is independent of:
Temperature
Irradiance

MPP under various conditions can be estimated

Compute or measure Voc(G)
Compute or measure Isc(G)
P *(G) FISC (G)VOC (G)

(assumes constant Fill Factor)

Dr. Louie

48

PV Array Power Output

Another method of estimating power:
*

STC

P (G) P

G
STC

Where GSTC = 1000 W/m2

Assumes:
Operation at MPP
I* = I*STC x (G/GSTC)
V* = VOC(G) = Voc,STC

Ignores:
Thermal effects

Dr. Louie

49

PV Array Power Output

Find the fill factor and the maximum power output of
the following cell if G = 600 W/m2. Ignore thermal
effects.
VOC(600) is measured to
be 44.04V

Dr. Louie

50

PV Array Power Output

Find the fill factor and the maximum power
output of the following cell if G = 600 W/m2.
Ignore thermal effects.
VOC(600) is measured to
be 44.04V

PSTC
ISTC
VSTC
FISC ,STCVOC ,STC

PSTC
185
F

0.757
ISC ,STCVOC ,STC 5.43 45

Dr. Louie

51

PV Array Power Output

Find the fill factor and the maximum power
output of the following cell if G = 600 W/m2.
Ignore thermal effects.
VOC(600) is measured to
be 44.04V
F 0.757
600
ISC (G) 5.43x
3.258 A

1000
P * (G) FISC (G)VOC (G) 108.6W

Dr. Louie

52

PV Array Power Output

Alternatively, we could estimate P*(G) for G =
600 W/m2 to be:
G
P (G) P

G
STC
600
2
P *(600) 185

111
W/m

1000
*

STC

Dr. Louie

53

PV Array Power Output

Dr. Louie

54

Temperature Effects
PV cells often operate in areas of high solar
irradiance and high ambient temperatures
PV cells, like diodes, are temperature sensitive
Effects of temperature:
Increase PV cell current
Decrease PV cell voltage

Dr. Louie

55

PV Module Spec Sheets

av: open circuit voltage temperature coefficient
at STC (%/K, %/C, mV/K or mV/C)
percent change in voltage for every degree
difference in temperature from STC (25o C)

Dr. Louie

56

PV Module Spec Sheets

ai: short circuit current temperature coefficient at
STC (%/K or %/C)
percent change in current for every degree
difference in temperature from STC (25o C)

Dr. Louie

57

Temperature Effects
A PV panels rated open circuit voltage is 50 V.
Let av = -0.37 %/K. If G = 1000 W/m2 and the
panels temperature is 30oC, then:
Open circuit voltage changes by:
50(-0.0037 x (30 - 25)) = -0.925V
Voc is then: 50 0.925 = 49.075 V

Dr. Louie

58

Temperature Effects
A PV panels rated short circuit current is 5 A. Let
ai = 0.04 %/K. If G = 1000 W/m2 and the panels
temperature is 30oC, then:
Short circuit current changes by:
5(0.0004 x (30 - 25)) = 0.01A
Isc is then: 5 + 0.01 = 5.01 A

Dr. Louie

59

Temperature Effects
Mathematically:
VOC (Tc ) VOC (25 C)[1 av (Tc 25)]

VOC(Tc): temperature-corrected open circuit voltage (V)

VOC(25oC): open circuit voltage at TC = 25oC (V)

Important: if G = 1000 W/m2, then

VOC(25oC) = VOC,STC, else
VOC(25oC) must be adjusted for the irradiance

Dr. Louie

60

Temperature Effects
Mathematically:
ISC (Tc ) ISC (25 C)[1 a i (Tc 25)]

ISC(Tc): temperature-corrected short circuit current (A)

ISC(25oC): short circuit current at TC = 25oC (A)

Important: if G = 1000 W/m2, then

ISC(25oC) = ISC,STC, else
ISC(25oC) must be adjusted for the irradiance

Dr. Louie

61

Temperature Effects
A PV panels rated short circuit current is 5 A. Let
ai = 0.04 %/K. If G = 600 W/m2 and the panels
temperature is 27oC, then:
Short circuit current at G = 600W/m2, TC = 25oC:
ISC(25oC) = 5 x (600/1000) = 3A (irradiance-adjusted current)
Short circuit current at G = 600W/m2, TC = 27oC
ISC = 3 x [1 +0.0004x(27-25)] = 3.0024 A
irradiance-adjusted
short circuit current

Dr. Louie

62

Temperature Effects
A PV panels rated open circuit voltage is 50V. Let
av = -0.37 %/K. If G = 600 W/m2 and the panels
temperature is 27oC, then:
Open circuit voltage at G = 600W/m2, TC = 25oC:
recall from Lecture 9:
VOC Ncells
Let there be 80
series connected
cells in this panel

IL = ISC = 3A

IL
VT ln

I
Sat

Let: Isat = 9.4-10A

VT = 26mV

Dr. Louie

63

Temperature Effects
A PV panels rated open circuit voltage is 50V. Let
av = -0.37 %/K. If G = 600 W/m2 and the panels
temperature is 27oC, then:
Open circuit voltage at G = 600W/m2, TC = 25oC:
3
VOC (25o C) 80 0.026 ln
48.89V (irradiance-adjusted voltage)
10
9.4

Open circuit voltage at G = 600W/m2, TC = 27oC

VOC = 48.89 x [1 - 0.37x(27-25)] = 45.27 V
irradiance-adjusted
open circuit voltage

Dr. Louie

64

Irradiance/Temperature Effects
Irradiance

Temperature

Voltage (V)

Voltage (V)

Dr. Louie

65

Temperature Effects
PV voltage decrease dominates current increase
Result: percent decrease in power is
approximately equal to percent decrease in
voltage

Dr. Louie

66

PV Module Spec Sheets

ap: power temperature coefficient at STC (%/K or
%/C)
percent change in maximum power for every
degree difference in temperature from STC (25o C)

Mathematically:
P *(Tc ) P *(25 C)[1 a p (Tc 25)]

P*(Tc): temperature-corrected maximum power

point (W)
P*(25oC): maximum power at TC = 25oC (W). Must
be adjusted for irradiance if G is not 1000 W/m2

Dr. Louie

67

Temperature Effects
Conversion of mV/K to %/K
Divide mV/K by VOC,STC

For a cell with

av = -78 mV/K

With Voc,STC = 21.8 V

av = -0.36 %/K (much larger than ai)

Dr. Louie

68

Temperature Effects
To compute the change in voltage and/or current
with respect to temperature, we must know the
temperature of the cell

Dr. Louie

69

Temperature Effects
Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) is the
temperature of the cell (TC) under the following
conditions:

G: 0.8GSTC
Spectral Distribution: AM 1.5
Tamb: 20 oC
Wind speed: 1 m/s
No Load

This is known as Standard Operating Conditions

(SOC)

Dr. Louie

70

Temperature Effects
Do NOT confuse SOC with STC
STC is used to determine P*STC, etc
Note the difference in Temperature between NOCT
and STC (20 oC vs 25 oC)

Typical values of NOCT

42 to 50 oC

Dr. Louie

71

Temperature Effects
Cell temperature is computed by:
NOCT 20
Tc Ta
G
800

Where Ta is the ambient temperature

Dr. Louie

72

Temperature Effects
Consider a PV module with the nameplate values:

Dr. Louie

73

Temperature Effects
Under the following conditions:
G = 700 W/m2
Ta = 34 oC

Compute the open circuit voltage and short

circuit current

Dr. Louie

74

Temperature Effects
First compute Tc
NOCT = 45 oC
G = 700 W/m2
Ta = 34 oC
NOCT 20
NOCT 20
G
G Ta
800
800
45 20
Tc
700 34 55.9 C
800
Tc Ta

Dr. Louie

75

Temperature Effects
Now compute Isc
Tc = 55.9 oC
ai: 0.037 %/K
Isc,STC = 5.43 A
ISC = 3.801 x [1 +0.00037x(55.9-25)] = 3.84 A
5.43 x 0.7

Dr. Louie

76

Temperature Effects
Now compute Voc

Tc = 55.9 oC
av: -0.34 %/K
Voc,STC = 45 V
Ncells = 72
Assume Vt = 25 mV, Isat = 10.2-10 A

VOC = 44.4 x [1 -0.0034x(55.9-25)] = 39.32 V

Ncells

IL
VT ln

I
Sat

Dr. Louie

77

PV Array Power Output

Power output of PV array is:
Tc = 55.9 oC
ap: -0.48 %/K
P*STC = 185W
P * 129.5[1 0.0048(55.9 25)] 110.3 W

700 or could use Fill Factor method to

185

1000 adjust for irradiance (slide 48)

Dr. Louie

78

Temperature Effects
Sometimes ap is not known, so this
approximation can be used
a p av

VOC ,STC

V * GSTC

In the previous example:

a p 0.0034

45
0.0042
36.4

nameplate value: -0.0046

Dr. Louie

79

Comparison of Power Output

Power as computed by various methods:
*
1. PSTC
185 W

700
*
2. P PSTC
Ignoring temperature
1000 129.5 W

3. P FVOC (700)ISC (700) 118.9 W Using Fill factor, ignoring temp

*
STC

4. P P

(1 av

VOC ,STC
*
mp

(Tc 25)) 110.3 W

Estimated ap

5. P PSTC (G)(1 a p (Tc 25)) 112.7 W Actual ap, most accurate

Dr. Louie

80

Comparison of Power Output

Which condition is the most favorable for PV power
generation?

Cold with high irradiance

Hot with high irradiance
Cold with low irradiance
Hot with low irradiance

Dr. Louie

81

Comparison of Power Output

Which condition is the most favorable for PV power
generation?

Cold with high irradiance

Hot with high irradiance
Cold with low irradiance
Hot with low irradiance

Dr. Louie

82

Dr. Louie

83