CHEM 208

Module 2: The Scientific Method and Matter

The approach that scientists use to formulate and establish scientific laws
includes a set of steps, such as explaining the experimental observations and
subsequent measurements in terms of a model and then rectifying the model
with additional experiments. Although it is known as the scientific method,
this practice is not used by scientists alone. We all (through instinct) use and
experience the same approach in our daily lives.
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Performing Experiments
An experiment is a set of steps (procedures) that are performed under
controlled conditions to propose or test a hypothesis
2. Making Observations
Observations (key factor in scientific studies as well as in everyday life)
can be classified as:
Qualitative observation not using numbers
Quantitative observation is a measurement. Two components: a
measured quantity with an appropriate unit
3. Proposing a Hypothesis (based on the observations made)
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation to account for the observations of
an experiment. A hypothesis is valid provided that ones assumptions to
explain the observations of an experiment can be tested.
4. Confirming the Hypothesis (by repeated experimentation)
Validity of the hypothesis needs to be confirmed via repeated and
controlled experiments
To accept a hypothesis, must be no inconsistencies between the
hypothesis and the experimental observations
If there is inconsistencies, steps 1 to 4 must be repeated
5. Proposing a Scientific Law
By repeatedly performing experiments and modifying the hypothesis to
account for the observations from these experiments, one is able to
propose a scientific law.
Applying the scientific method led to the enunciation of the Law of
Conservation of Mass and Matter
Numerical Values: certain rules apply to the expression of the numerical
value and the system of units used in scientific measurements. Includes:
Scientific notation

Convenient way of expressing very large or very small number and

at the same time providing a method if increasing efficiently in
scientific calculations.
Mathematical expression as: N x 10+/- n where N contains only one
nonzero digit to the left of the decimal and n is an integer
N can only have one digit before the decimal (0.31 or 31.3)
n is a whole number, positive or negative

Significant figures (digits)

All calculations performed by using such measurements always have
some uncertainty (a characteristic of any measurement). This is due
to experimental error. In the case of measuring devices, the last digit
of the measurement is uncertain.
Significant figures in a measured number include all certain digits
and one uncertain digit.
The concept of significant figure is:
o Used to indicate the precision (reproducibility of measurements) of
a measurement or that of a calculated result using such
measurements.
o Doesnt apply to counted items such as exact numbers and
defined conversion factors (1inch=2.54cm)
o These have an infinite number of significant figures
Rules for Determining Significant Figures (Digit):
1)
2)
3)
4)

All non zero digits are significant figures

Counting begins from the left with the first nonzero number
Zeros between non zero digits are counted as significant figures
Terminal zeros (zeros to the right of a number)
a. There are always significant if the value contains a decimal point.
Example: 2.3700 no of significant figures: 5

Chemical Calculations
In calculations involving measured values (with a certain number of
significant figures), the number of significant figures in the final answer
depends on the operation performed.
Rule 1: In addition and subtraction of measured quantities, the final answer
contains the same number of decimal places as are in the measurement with
least number of decimal places (least precise measurement)
25.0 + 22.41 + 1.234 = answer has only one decimal place
Rule 2: In multiplication and division of measured quantities, the final answer
contains the same number of significant figures as are in the measurement
with the least number of significant figures.

9.20 x 2.450 = answer has three significant figure so. xx.x

Rule 3: In final answer of a calculation involving exact numbers, unit
conversion factors and constants, the number of significant figures is
dictated by the measured quantity involved. Exact numbers, unit conversion
factors and constants have no effect on the number of significant figures.
Rounding off chemical Calculations
Rule 1: For multi-step calculations: all numbers are carried to final result,
which is then rounded off to give the correct number of significant figures
Rule 2: If the digit being rounded off is > 5: you round the digit up by one
Rule 3: If the digit being rounded off is < 5: the preceding digit remains the
same
Rule 4: If the digit being rounded off is equal to 5: the preceding digit is
rounded up if it is odd and remains the same if It is even.
16.75 16.8

16.65 16.6

SI system of units (based on the metric system) :j known as System

International dunites. Some SI based and SI derived units length, volume,
mass, density, temperature and time.
Length: meters

d= lenght

Volume: SI derived unit: cubic meter m3

The most common: liter (L) and milliliter (mL) : 1 L = 1dm3 = 10-3 m3
1mL = 1cm3 = 10-3dm3 = 10-3L = 10-6m3
Volume depends on the size of the object. Some common types of
equipment used
to measure liquid volume include: laboratory (buret) and household
measuring
cups)
Mass: SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
Mass refers to the amount of matter an object contains, thus mass is
a constant.
Like volume, mass also depends on the size of an object
Density: SI unit is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3)
Density is expressed in the units of g/mL or g/L.
Density is a physical property of a substance
Density: Mass/Volume
Larger or smaller units than the base unit can be obtained by
combining the base

unit with one of the prefixes. (SEE PICTURE IN SITE)

Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method of solving numerical problems using both
numerical value and the unit. It involves the use of conversion factors to
change the units that a measured quantity is expressed in. The identical
units are multiplied or canceled.
cm x cm = cm2
g/g = nothing
Step 1: write equations relating the units. Ex: to convert from grams to
milligrams, the equation must show the relationship between one gram and
the number of milligrams in one gram.
1.0 g = 103 mg
Step 2: State the relationship as a fraction (conversion factor)
Step 3: Multiply the measured quantity by the conversion factor that cancels
unwanted units and gives the final answer in the required unit. A conversion
factor changes the units of the measured quantity but the actual quantity
does not change.
MATTER (Atoms, molecules, ions)

Used to describe occupied space (hence possessing volume and mass)

and are perceivable by our senses

It can be classified in terms of its

o physical state: solid, liquid, gas
o Chemical composition: element, compound, mixture
Elements are composed of one type of atom. Classified as metal,
nonmetal or metalloid (semi-metal)
Compound: Compounds are a combination of elements in a definite
proportion. Atoms of each of the individual elements are chemically
combined to form the compound. Properties of the compound are
different from those of the individual elements that it is comprised of. A
chemical change can break down a compound into its individual
elements. (pure)
Mixture: non-pure substance made of two or more elements or
compounds that can be separated by physical, as opposed to chemical,
procedures.

What are atoms?

Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Nucleus of the

atom contains the neutrons and protons. The electrons surround the nucleus
and are equal to the number of protons in a neutral atom.
Charge: Proton P +

Neutron 0

Electron

The atomic number of an element (Z) is equal to the number of protons in

the nucleus of its atoms. Each element has a different atomic number.
The mass number (A) is equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the
atom. To calculate the number of neutrons, subtract the atomic number from
the mass number:
Number of neutrons = A - Z
Every element has an atomic symbol (X). Both the atomic and mass
numbers are included with the atomic symbol.

Molecules are a combination of atoms in a definite proportion (molecule

of water)
H2O: hydrogen:Oxygen = 2:1
Ions are charged species formed by loss or gain of electrons from an atom
Cation cation generation: M(g) M+(g) + e- (loss of e-) [M=metal;
g=gaseous state]
Where M+ a positively charged ion is the cation
Anion anion generation: X(g) + e- X-(g) (gain of e-) [X=nonmetal]
Where X- a negatively charged ion is the anion

Module 3: Periodic table

Groups or families: Vertical column
Period: Horizontal rows
Groups
Groups are designiated from the number 1 (I) to 8 (VIII) and the number A or
B
A main group element
B transition element
The inner transition elements (lanthanides and actinides) are located
between groups 3B and 4B
Families
Same family similar chemical properties
Traditional group names or families are
Alkali metals (group A)
Alkaline earth metals (Group 2A)
Halogens (group 7A)
Noble (rare,inert) gases (Group 8A)

Periods different chemical properties

Physical state
physical states of elements include solid, liquid, and gas. The metals are
solids (at 25 Celsius) with the exception of mercury (Hg)which is a liquid at
25C. Metals lose electrons to form cations and the nonmetals gain electron to
form anions.
Metals/ Non metals/ Metalloids (semi-metal)
Essential elements
Most abundant in living system and are essential for life: H, Na, Mg, K, Ca, C ,
N, O, P, S Cl
Found in trace amounts in the living systems : Li, V, Cr, Mo, Fe, Co, Mn, In,
Cu, Zn, Cd, B, Is, Sn, Pb, As, Se, F, I
Classifying Compounds
Chemical compounds are classified as:

Organic: Compounds that contain at least one carbon atom.

Inorganic: Compounds that contain atoms other than carbon. Exceptions
are inorganic compounds such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide
(CO2), etc.

For the purpose of nomenclature (systematic naming), inorganic

compounds are classified as those:

containing a metal and a nonmetal (ionic compounds)

containing two nonmetals (covalent compounds)
More about Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are composed of ions. They are formed by the electrostatic
attraction between a positive ion (cation from the metal) and a negative ion
(anion from the nonmetal). Electrons are transferred from the atoms of one
element to the atoms of another element.
In general, metals lose electrons and nonmetals gain electrons. Ionic
compounds are charge neutral (zero net charge). Charges on ions involved in
an ionic compound must be known in order to name the compound formed
between them or to derive the formula for the compound.
Rules for naming and deriving formulas of Ionic compounds
Rule 1: For metals of Group 1A, 2A, 3A of the periodic table, the charge on
the formed monatomic cation is equal to the group number. The cation has
the same name as that of the metal and is always named first.
Rule 2: For nonmetals of Groups 5A, 6A,7A of the Periodic table, the charge
on the formed monatomic anion is equal to the group number minus 8. The
anion is comprised of the root of the nonmetal name and ends with the
suffix-ide.
Rule 3: Many metals (particularly transition metals) form more than one
cation, thus forming more than one ionic compound with a particular anion
(see table) to indicate which ionic compound id formed, the charge on the
metal ion is specified by using Roman numerals within parentheses following
the name of the metal ion.
Rule 4: Ions that consist of two or more atoms bonded covalently possessing
a net positive or negative charge are referred to as polyatomic ions.
Ammonium ion (NH4+) is an example of a polyatomic cation
Carbonate ion (CO32-) is an example of polyatomic anion
For more than one polyatomic ion, the ion is written in parentheses with a
subscript indicating how many there are the same polyatomic ions:
Calcium Nitrate Contains Ca2+ and two NO3 ions. Thus the formula is Ca(NO3)2
Rule 5: The name, formula and the charge for a number of commonly
encountered polyatomic (ions with two or more atoms joined together)
anions can be derived from common acids (H+ donors) and bases (producing
OH-). When an acid dissociates (breaks up) it produces H+ ions and a counter
ion of equal but opposite charge.

In case of sulfuric acid (H2SO4), it can do so in two ways:

1) lose one H+ ion leaving HSO4- ion (notice one positive charge and one
negative charge cancel out)
2) lose two H+ ions leaving the SO42- ion (two positive charges and two
negative charges cancel out)
Covalent Compounds
The sharing of electrons between nonmetals forms covalent compounds.
Rules for Naming Covalent Compounds

Rule
Rule
Rule
Rule

#1: Name the first element in the formula first.

#2: Name the second element as an anion.
#3: Use prefixes to indicate the numbers of atoms of each element.
#4: Do not use the prefix mono- for the first element.

Note: Some compounds are still known by their old names (and not by using
the system of nomenclature):

Water (H2O) [not dihydrogen monoxide]

Ammonia (NH3) [not nitrogen trihydride]
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) [not dihydrogen monosulfide]
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) [not dihydrogen dioxide]
Methane (CH4) [not carbon tetrahydride]
Ozone (O3) [not trioxygen]

Prefixes used in Naming Compounds

Prefix

Number Indicated

Mono-

Di-

Tri-

Tetra-

Penta-

Hexa-

Chemical reactions

Balancing: Chemical reactions are expressed as an equation (chemical

equation) using chemical formulas. For example, the reaction between
calcium metal and oxygen gas is expressed as the balanced chemical
equation:
2 Ca (s) + O2(g) 2 CaO (s)
Steps for balancing:
1) Identifies the reactants and products

2) Show the relative amount of the reactant(s) and product(s)

3) Indicates the physical state of the reactants and products (s=solid,

l=liquid, g=gas, aq=aqueous)

4) The balanced equation above complies with the Law of Conservation of

Mass and Matter (ie atoms and charges on both sides must be balanced

Writing Chemical equations

1) Fractional coefficients are avoided
2) Smallest whole-number coefficients are written
It is very important to understand the difference between a coefficient and a
subscript.
4 Al (s) + 3 O2 (g) Al2O3 (s)
Coefficients (numbers written in front of each formula) are: 4, 3, 2 (for Al,
O2, and Al2O3 respectively)
Subscripts are: 1,2,2,3 (for Al, O, Al & I in Al2O3)
Whereas the coefficients indicate the moles of reactants and products,
subscripts show the number of each atom present. Eg. Al2O3 contains 2
aluminum atoms and 3 oxygen atoms. There must not be changed in
balancing an equation. The coefficient multiplies every atom in the formula.

Thus: 2 Al2O3 represents 4 aluminums atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.

An example:
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 Kl (aq) Pbl2 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq)
Coefficient: 1, 2, 1, 2
Subscripts: the subscript for Pb is 1. For N it appears to be 1 and for O, 3.
However, N and O have a bracket around them and so the subscript outside
the bracket multiplies the subscript on both N and O by that amount. Hence,
the real subscript for N would be 1 x 2 = 2 and for O, 2 x 3 =6
1,1 for K and I in KI
1,2 for Pb and I in PbI2
1,1,3 for K, N, O respectively in KNO3
2KNO3 represents 2 potassium atoms, 2 nitrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms
Procedures
Phase 1: a main point of a balanced equation is that there are the same
numbers of atoms appearing in the reactants (left hand side) and the
products (RHS)
Let us balance the following equation:
K + H2O KOH + H2
K: 1
K: 1
H: 2
H: 3
O: 1
O:1
With two on the LHS and three on the RHS, hydrogen is not balanced. Note
that both K and H2 are in elemental form (ie, they are not combined with any
other element)
Can we just multiply one of them by some factor to balance the equation?
No. as a result, we will not look at them again until the very end.
Phase 2: Now, since hydrogen appears in both H2O and KOH, we will begin
balancing using these two, more complex species.
So, multiply each H2O and KOH by 2 gives:
K + 2 H2O 2 KOH + H2
K: 1
K: 2
H: 4
H: 4
O: 2
O: 2
Phase 3: Both H and O are now balanced, but K is not.

We can multiply K on the LHS by a factor to balance the overall equation? By

multiplying it by 2 the equation.
2 K + 2 H2O 2 KOH + H2
K: 2
K: 2
H: 4
H: 4
O: 2
O:2
So the balanced equation is : 2K + 2H2O 2 KOH + H2
Using balanced equations for chemical calculations
Balanced chemical equations are used for chemical calculations. As atoms,
molecules or ions are the basic units, the coefficients in such equations
denote their number. For example, according to the chemical equation:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

1 mole of nitrogen molecules consumes 3 moles of hydrogen

molecules
To yield (to produce) 2 moles of ammonia molecules.

Now if under a set of optimum conditions, solid calcium carbonate

decomposes
If under a set of optimum conditions, solid calcium carbonate decomposes to
produce solid calcium oxide and gaseous carbon dioxide, how many moles of
carbon dioxide gas will be produced (under similar conditions) from 5.00
moles of calcium carbonate?
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
According to the balanced chemical equation, 1.00 mole of solid calcium
carbonate produces 1.00 mole of carbon dioxide gas. Therefore, 5,00 moles
of carbon dioxide gas will be produced from 5.00 moles of solid calcium
carbonate.
A mole: can be considered a packaging unit for atoms, molecules, ions etc.
As a dozen (also a packaging unit) always refers to the number 12, a mole
always equals to 6.022 x 10 23 (Avogadros number)
Atomic masses (mass of 1 mole of atoms or mass of 6.022 x 10 23 atoms) of
elements are given in the Periodic Table
From these and the chemical formula, molecular masses (mass of 1 mole or
molecules or mass of 6.022 x 10 23 molecules) and formula masses (term
used for ionic compounds) can be calculated:
Molecular mass (of formula mass) = sum of atomic masses
Mole = Mass in grams/ Molar mass (of formula mass)

Module 4: Hazards in the Work Environment

Type of hazards:
In a workplace, the worker may be exposed to:
Safety hazards
Based on the nature of the work, safety hazards are due to material
handling, machines, energy, work practices, and confined spaces.

Material handling hazards: These can lead to muscle strains due to lifting
and carrying materials. The use of devices such as forklifts, cranes, etc.
exposes the worker to accidental contact with the moving equipment.
Machine hazards: Rotating shafts, moving belts, presses, etc. can cause
very serious injuries.
Energy hazards: All energy sources such as electricity, steam, hydraulic
pressure, etc. can lead to serious injury.
Work practice hazards: Failure to follow safe operating procedures may
lead to serious injuries.
Confined space hazards: In such spaces (for example, silos, storage tanks,
pipelines etc.) hazards arise due to difficulty of entry and exit, build-up of
hazardous materials and oxygen deficiency.
Health Hazards
The extent of occupational health hazards varies with the type of activity.
However, such hazards may have the potential to cause severe discomfort,
illness, and lack of efficiency among workers. Based on the nature of the
causative agent (or factor), occupational health hazards can be classified as
physical, chemical, biological and ergonomic.

Physical hazards are due to the presence of physical agents such as

pressure and temperature extremes, excessive noise and vibration, and
exposure to radiation.
Chemical hazards are due to the presence of chemical agents such as dust,
fume, gas, mist, smoke and vapor.
Biological hazards are due to the presence of biological agents such as
bacteria, moulds and viruses.
Ergonomic hazards are due to ergonomic stresses such as fatigue and
repetitious work.
Physical And Chemical
It is very important to note that the mere presence of a causative agent does
not necessarily constitute a hazard. A causative agent is classified as
hazardous in certain circumstances such as high concentration or intensity
and a prolonged exposure.
Workers have the right to:

Work in a safe and healthy environment

Know the processes and substances they are working with
Know potential hazards from these pro

Physical agents: radiation, vibration, heat, noise

Chemical agents: vapor, gas, fume, dust
Hazard Assessment
In order to recognize and assess the potential impact of occupational
hazards, walk-through surveys are performed. Such surveys generally
include a study of the following parameters in terms of their impact on the
surrounding environment and thus the workers.
Processes, operations and related activities
Generally various emissions are evaluated because the emission of any
physical, chemical or biological agents has the potential to be a health
hazard.
Equipment
Equipment is generally assessed in terms of mechanical and electrical
safety and the potential to create excessive noise and vibration.
Properties of substances used and produced
These include an evaluation of raw materials and finished products in
terms of their physical, chemical and toxic properties and effects.
Control measures
All engineering controls in place for proper materials handling, storage, etc.
are evaluated. Also considered are the ventilation system and the availability
of personal protective equipment.
Physical Agents
Although we are constantly exposed to such agents, their intensity and
duration of exposure may be more significant in the workplace. Such agents
may cause immediate or cumulative adverse health effects.
Commonly encountered physical conditions with a potential to cause
adverse health effects include:

pressure and temperature extremes

excessive noise and vibration
radiation
The action of physical agents consists of transfer of residual energy through
the surrounding air or the equipment the worker is in contact with. Except for
radiation, our senses can detect all other physical agents.
Pressure and Temperature
Pressure extremes: Our bodies are conditioned to work at normal
atmospheric pressure. Any extreme can be detrimental to one's health. Two
types of abnormal pressure-related conditions are hyperbaric and hypobaric.
Hyperbaric: Hyperbaric is defined as a pressure higher than normal
atmospheric pressure. Mining and underwater workers may be exposed to
hyperbaric conditions.

Hypobaric: Hypobaric is defined as a pressure lower than atmospheric

pressure. Hypobaric conditions are encountered by those working at high
elevations such as ski instructors and airline pilots.
Temperature Extreme: The biochemical processes in ones body take place
within a very narrow temperature range and hence the regulation of body
temperature is an important function. Temperature extremes affect the
working efficiency as well as the health of a worker.
Hot or cold depends on various factors
It is important to realize that apart from the surrounding temperature,
sensation of hot or cold depends on some other factors such as:
- Air movement
- Hot or cold objects in the vicinity
- Relative humidity
The terms heat stress and cold stress refer to excessive exposure to very hot
or very cold work environments. Both such conditions may interfere with
workers performance and may even be fatal.

Heat:
Some of the adverse effects in very hot work environments (depending upon
the individual worker and the heat intensity) include:
Heat exhaustion
Fainting
Heat stroke
Heat-related problems may arise for:
Outdoor workers (working in construction)
Industrial workers (working near furnaces)

Cold:
In very cold work environments (depending upon the individual worker and
intensity of cold), the adverse effects include:
Frostbite
Hypothermia
Workers at risk include:
Outdoor workers (divers)
Meat packers and handlers (working in refrigerated warehouses)
Noise & Vibration
Excessive Noise : Noise is a form of irregular vibration. It may be
conducted through gases (or vapors), liquids, or solids. Above a certain level,
the noise becomes of concern because it may hinder communication
between workers, thus leading to annoyance. This in turn may lead to poor
job performance and compromise the safety of the worker. In addition,
excessive exposure to high noise levels may cause loss of hearing.

Excessive Vibration: It is important to note that exposure to vibration is

more than just a nuisance. Whereas exposure to vibration may cause
discomfort, intense vibration has been known to cause serious health
problems such as back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome (a condition affecting
the hand and wrist) and damage to bones and joints.
There are two types of occupational vibration: whole-body and hand-arm
vibration. Whereas whole-body vibration is transmitted through the
supporting surface (feet, back, etc.), hand-arm vibration is transmitted to the
hands and arms. Examples include: Mining equipment (whole-body vibration)
and Hand-held power tools (hand-arm vibration).
Radiation: The hazard associated with a particular type of radiation
depends on its energy and ability to penetrate the body tissue. Thus, even
brief exposure to high energy and highly penetrating x-rays can cause
severe damage to the tissue. Infrared, ultraviolet and microwaves on the
other hand do not penetrate appreciably below the skin and the damage is
mainly restricted to burns to the skin and eyes. Severe damage to eyes may
result from excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
Types of Radiations: Radiation is the energy that travels through space from
many different natural and human-made sources. Some different types of
radiation include: visible light, ultraviolet rays, microwaves, x-rays and radio
waves. Thus, it is easy to see that we are exposed to radiation every day.
Depending on its energy, radiation is of two main kinds:
Ionizing radiation: The energy associated with it is high and thus
strong enough to damage cells and DNA. Some examples and sources
of ionizing radiation include:
x-rays (from x-ray machines)
alpha, beta and gamma rays (from radioactive materials),
high-energy ultraviolet (from germicidal lamps).
Non-ionizing radiation: It is not as strong as ionizing radiation.
However, prolonged exposure to some types of non-ionizing radiation
can still cause harm. Some examples and sources of non-ionizing
radiation include:
o visible light, microwaves (from telecommunications and
microwave ovens)
o Infrared (from infrared heat lamps)
o radio waves (from broadcasting)
o low-energy ultraviolet (tanning lamps)
Chemical Agents
A potential risk. A large variety of chemical agents are encountered in
workplaces due to the diversity of raw materials and processes used.
Chemical hazards in such environment arise due to the presence of certain
chemical agents whose properties (physical or chemical) and/or toxicity may

pose potential risk to the health and safety of the worker coming in contact
with it or handling it.
Where do chemical hazards come from?
They may arise in operations involving:
o Compressed gases: In the workplace many hazardous chemicals
(chlorine gas) are compressed and thus stored in cylinders under high
pressure. In using such materials, the worker is not only subjected to
the chemical hazard but also the hazards associated with pressure
extreme.
o Flammable and combustible materials: Such materials may burn
readily in the presence of sources of ignition. Many organic compounds
such as gasoline, solvents, fall in this category
o Oxidizing materials: These materials can contribute strongly to fire
hazards, and may possess the ability to oxidize, and thus destroy the
biomolecules in living systems. Some commonly encountered oxidizers
in the workplace include: potassium, permanganate, and hydrogen
peroxide.
o Poisonous & Infectious Materials: Such substances may be dangerous
to life in very small amounts. For example, potassium cyanide, mercury
salts
o Corrosive Materials: Such chemicals cause deterioration of materials
including living tissues on contact. (ex: Sulfuric acid, potassium
hydroxide)
o Dangerously reactive materials: Some chemicals in this category may
undergo rapid or violent reactions under certain conditions. (Ex: alkali
metals react with water producing highly flammable hydrogen gas)
Chemical agents may be present in the air as:
o Fine particles: the problem with fine particles: the particles of
size less than 5 microns (5 x 10 -6m) are potentially the most
hazardous because of their effective entry and retention in the
lungs. The particles are classified as dust, fume and smoke (for
solids) and mist (for liquids)
o Sources of fine particles include: Spray painting (mist),
Welding (fume), incomplete combustion of oil and grease
(smoke), ore grinding (dust)
o Gases and vapors: the problem with gases and vapors: these
may be generated as a result of various operations and can ix
and distribute rapidly throughout the workplace. In view of their
small size, the gases can readily enter the bloodstream through
the lungs.

o Some sources of potentially toxic gases and vapors

include: Solvent degreasing (vapors of solvent used), spray
painting (vapors of solvent used), welding (gaseous
combustion products)
o Both as participles and vapors at the same time
o Adsorbed or absorbed gases and/or vapors on particles
Biological Agents
Biological agents are living organisms, or substances produced by such
organisms, that can cause illness or disease in humans. The adverse health
effects due to biological agents may range from allergic reactions to serious
medical conditions and even death. Food poisoning, rabies, tuberculosis and
hepatitis are some of the infections caused by biological agents.
Overview of bacterial infections (left) and the main types of viral
infections (right).

These include: bacteria, fungi, viruses and other micro-organisms and their
associated toxins
Workplace Exposure
Many micro-organisms pose a potential danger in a variety of workplaces
due to their ability to:
Reproduce rapidly
Survive with minimum resources
Workplace exposure to work-related biological agents such as bacteria,
moulds, and viruses is limited to certain occupations such as health care
workers (i.e., hospital workers and veterinarians), meat handlers (i.e.,

ranchers, farmers, and meat packers), and those who work in sanitation or
sewage operations.
Ergonomic Stresses
Ergonomics can be defined as the science or study of work. It is a
way of designing a work environment to fit people.
Over the recent years it has been fully realized that the traditional method of
assigning people to jobs without accommodating their needs, limitations,
sizes, strengths and weaknesses may lead to certain adverse job safety and
health issues such as mental stress, loss of efficiency and accidents.
It has been established that ergonomics, properly applied, can help:
reduce workplace injuries and illnesses; particularly back injuries and
cumulative trauma disorder (CTD) affecting, joints, muscles, nerves
and tendons that can cause pain and swelling
improve productivity and quality of work
increase job satisfaction
satisfy government regulations
Toxicology
What is toxicology?
Toxicology is the science that involves the study of the properties and
interactions of physical, chemical or biological agents.
Toxicity is the degree of danger of a material to injure a living organism
by other than mechanical means.
Toxic hazards (toxicity) posed by a chemical are influenced by factors:
o Physical properties
o Chemical properties
o Intensity of exposure (exposure dose) (concentration x duration of
exposure)
o Mode of handling
o Routes of entry
o Susceptibility of the worker
Respiratory, digestive & cutaneous
The interaction of physical, chemical or biological agents may produce
adverse responses with our bodies. Such responses may range from minor
irritation to dreaded diseases like cancer. Most common natural routes of
entry of chemical agents into the body include:
o Respiratory tract (by inhalation)
o Digestive Tract (by ingestion)

o Cutaneous skin and eyes (absorption)

In occupational settings, inhalation is the most important route followed by
absorption t through skin and eyes.
Dose and Exposure
Dose
Dose is defined as the amount of toxicant(s) actually delivered to the target
organ. The units used to express dose are mg/kg (mass of toxicant/body
mass).
Exposure
Exposure on the other hand is the total amount of the toxicant(s) present in
the workplace. However, exposure does provide an indication of the dose.
Higher the exposure, greater the probability of larger amounts being
delivered to the target organ and hence higher the dose.
The units used to express exposure are:

mg/m3 and g/m3 (mass of toxicant/volume of air) for particles

ppm (parts per million), ppb (parts per billion) and percent (%) for gases and
vapors.
Threshold Limit Values
In order to provide guidelines for controlling occupational health hazards,
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for various physical and chemical agents have
been developed by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH).
According to ACGIH, one of the ways to specify these values is as Threshold
Limit Value-Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA). It is the time-weighted
average concentration of a substance for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40hour workweek to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day
after day, without adverse effects.
Therefore, the lower the TLV value, the more potentially dangerous (or high
risk) the substance is.
The effects of Toxicants
Classification for the effects of over exposure to toxicants (or commonly
used term contaminants) can be based upon:
o Duration of the effect: Can be classified as Acute or Chronic
o Acute: the observed effect of a toxicant is considered acute if it
appears soon after exposure. The effect generally results from
brief exposure to a high concentration of the contaminant. The
effect is also easy to observe and relate.
o Chronic Effect: if it is observed much later after exposure.
Chronic effects result from low and repeated exposure over a
long period of time; they may have latency periods. Chronic

effects are more difficult to study and are very important to

consider when dealing with hazardous wasted and pollution.
Organs affected and physiological action
o The toxicant may change the normal functioning of one organ or
a set of organs that operate as a system. Ex: hepatotoxins
(carbon tetrachloride) affect the liver whereas immunotoxins
(vinyl chloride) act upon the immune system. A variety of
physiological effects have been observed due to the diversity of
contaminants in the workplace. Based upon the observed
physiological effects, the chemicals are classified as and
described:
Asphyxiants: asphyxia (suffocation due to lack of oxygen)
Irritants: eye, skin, mucous membrane irritation
Anasthetics: depressants
Narcotics: habit forming depressants
Systemics: organ(s) or system*s) damage
Lung scarring agents: lung damage
Carcionogens: cause cancer
Mutagens: changes in DNA
Teratogens: malformations in newborns
Observed physiological effects:
Asphyxiants: such chemicals hinder the body in
maintaining an adequate supply of oxygen. This leads to
suffocation due to lack of oxygen. Ex: carbon monoxide
and cyanides
Irritants: these substances cause eye, skin, and mucous
membrane irritation. Ex: ozone, hydrogen sulfide
Anasthethics: these acts as depressants. EX: chloroform,
alcohols
Narcotics: such chemicals are habit-forming depressants.
EX: morphine. Demerol.
Systemics: These cause organs or systems damage. EX:
benzene, phenol.
Lung scarring agents: such materials can cause lung
damage leading to lung cancer. EX: mineral dust, asbestos
Carcinogenic Effect
Carcinogens: these chemicals cause cancer. EX: ethylene,
dibromide, vinyl chloride.
Carcinogens are identified by their ability to cause cancer
in exposed workers, other human pop, or in test animals.
Many occupational cancers have a long latency period,
meaning that cancer may develop 10-20 years or longer
after exposure to the carcinogen.
Mutagenic Effect:
Mutagens: such substances cause changes in DNA. EX:
benzene, ethylene oxide

Mutagens can cause changes in the genetic material (DNA)

of cells from people or test animals, which may result in
disease or abnormalities in future generations. In WHMIS,
mutagens are classified as very toxic if they are shown to
affect cells of the reproductive system (sperm and egg
cells- the cells from which children develop). Mutagens are
classified as toxic if studies show genetic changes only in
cells (skin or lung cells) that are not part of the
reproductive system
o Teratogenic Effect:
Teratogens: these chemicals cause malformations in
newborns. Ex: organic mercury compounds, anaesthetic
gases such as nitrous oxide.
Teratogens and embryotoxins can cause birth defects,
abnormalities, developmental delays or death in animal
offspring in the absence of significant harmful effect on the
mother. These materials are usually identified using test
animals and may cause similar effects in humans.

Workplace Hazard
Several studies estimated a high social cost due to exposure to hazardous
materials in the workplace. Due to the seriousness of such health & safety
problems, it was agreed to implement an information system with the goal of
reduced incidence of illnesses and injuries caused by the hazardous
materials in the workplace.
The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) is a
Canada-wide system developed over several years through the collective
efforts of Labor, Industry, and Federal, Provincial, and Territorial
Governments. Published in January 1988, it became legislation in October
1988.
The system consists of three key elements:

cautionary labeling of containers of hazardous materials

provision of Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), which provides more
detailed information on the hazardous nature of the material
provision of worker education program
o According to WHMIS, hazardous materials are divided into classes with
a symbol for each class.
o Class A Compressed Gas
Contents under high pressure
Cylinder may explode or burst when heated, dropped or
damaged

o Class B Flammable and Combustible material

May catch fire when exposed to heat, spark, flame
May burst into flames

o Class C Oxidizing material

May cause fire or explosion when in contact with wood,
fuels or other combustible materials

o Class D (1) Division 1: poisonous and infectious material (immediate

and serious toxic effects)
Poisonous substance
A single exposure may be fatal or cause serious or
permanent damage to health

o Class D (2)
effects)

Division 2: poisonous and infectious material (other toxic

Poisonous substance
May cause irritation
Repeated exposure may cause cancer, birth defects, or
other permanent damage.

Class D (3) Division 3: poisonous and infectious material (immediate

and serious toxic effects)

Poisonous substance
A single exposure may be fatal or cause serious or
permanent damage to health

o Class E: Corrosive Material

Can cause burns to eyes, skin, or respiratory system

o Class F: Dangerously Reactive material

May react violently causing explosion, fire or release of
toxic gases, when exposed to light, heat, vibration, or
extreme temperatures.

Container Labels
A standard supplier label for a container of hazardous material:
The following information (enclosed in a distinctive hatched border) must
appear on a standard supplier label place on a container of hazardous
material.
Product identifier: toluene suplhone acid 70%
Hazard symbols on the right
Supplier identification on the bottom

Safety Data Sheet

The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) provides basic information on a
chemical product.
It contains information regarding its:

Properties
Potential hazards
Safe use
Emergency procedures
It is important to note that these are not a complete source of information.
In some cases it might be necessary to consult other relevant sources for
further information and details on a given substance.
(see image)
Implementation
Worker Education
Workers handling hazardous products must be instructed in:

The information on labels and MSDSs as it applies to their work

Safe use, handling, storage and disposal of hazardous materials
Emergency procedures to be used in case of a spill or overexposure
Successful Implementation Requirements
Successful implementation of WHMIS in the workplace requires cooperation
of all parties involved. WHMIS sets the responsibilities of the parties involved:
Suppliers: provide hazard information through labels and MSDS on all
controlled products/containers of controlled products.

 Employers (Supervisors): ensure WHMIS labels, identifiers and

MSDSs for all containers of controlled products. Employers also ensure
availability and accessibility of MSDS information to employees and
provide effective worker training to ensure understanding among
employees of the labels, MSDSs, and precautionary measures for
hazardous materials in their workplace.
Employees: handle controlled products safely and inform supervisors
of damaged/missing labels and missing MSDS information.
Regulators: develop and administer WHMIS legislation.
GHS
The Globally Harmonized System (GHS) for Hazard Classification and
Labelling
Systems similar to WHMIS (for hazard communication) exist in other
countries.
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) agreed to develop a Globally Harmonized System (GHS) for hazard
classification and labelling. It is anticipated that such a system will facilitate
safe use of chemicals and reduce trade barriers.
Some of the anticipated changes are:

Inclusion of consumer, transport and workplace sectors rather than

workplace only.
Inclusion of all chemicals except pharmaceutical and cosmetic products
intended for consumer use.
Hazard classification format in the MSDSs.
Hazard communication format in the labels.
Module 5: Air and Water
The Air we breathe
Air (which all of us must breathe) composes the atmosphere and is a complex mixture of gases
surrounding the Earth. The atmosphere is a layered structure divided into layers according to a
variety of criteria such as gradually changing:
Altitude
Electrical nature
Pressure
Chemical composition and concentration
Temperature
The Atmosphere
According to altitude, the atmosphere is divided into layers:
Troposphere 8-15km
Mesosphere 80 km
Stratosphere 50 km
Ionosphere/Thermosphere 500600 km
The composition of Air:
The air we breathe is a mixture of several gases, fine particles and vapors. Dry air consists of 21% oxygen and
nitrogen plus traces of other substances that are both natural and human-made.

Major components of air: Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (02), Water (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Minor components of air: Carbon monoxide (CO), Ozone (O3), Oxides of sulfur (Sox), Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx)

Air pollutants
Whereas major components are essential for life, the minor components are pollutants, which
under certain conditions may produce adverse environmental and health effects. These air
pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere during combustion and production
processes, changing the composition of atmosphere and causing poor air quality.
The burning of fossil fuels (i.e., petroleum, natural gas and coal) can be used:
to generate energy (electricity, gas and steam)
in transportation (combustion engines)
in industrial processes that use a great deal of energy sources (i.e., pulp and paper mills, ore
smelters, petroleum refineries, power generating stations and incinerators)
These elements are mainly responsible for the presence of minor components. That is, they are
the major sources of human-created air pollution.
Minor Components:
Carbon Monoxide
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels due to lack of oxygen so CO instead of CO2
Sources: combustion of organic matter, forest fires, volcanoes
CO binds to oxygen-carrying site on hemoglobin of red blood cells reducing O2 to body
Health Effects:
o Impaired ability to use oxygen
o Decreased athletic performance
o Cardiac problems
Ground-level Ozone (O3)
Naturally occurring gas in stratosphere protecting from UV radiation from Sun
Produced during photochemical reactions between volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) in presence of sunlight
Health effects
o Damaged biological tissues and cells
o Reduced lung function
o Breathing difficulties
o Itchy, burning and watery eye
Oxides of Sulfur (Sox)
Produced during smelting of mineral ores and combustion of fossil fuels, burning coal,
petroleum refining. Leads to H2SO4
Health effects
o Breathing problems
o Respiratory illness
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxide of nitrogen form in the air because fuel burnt in the air at high temperatures
usually forms NO and then oxidized to NO2
Health effects
o Serious lung damage
o Shortness of breath and chest pains
Assessing Health Risks
Entry into the Body

The air we breath (inhalation) is handled by the lungs, which provide an extremely efficient
method of getting oxygen (required for metabolic processes) into and carbon dioxide (waste
product of metabolic processes) out of the body.
Unfortunately, the lungs also provide an excellent opportunity for minor components (pollutants)
to diffuse into the blood stream via gas exchange in the alveoli.
As breathing is a continuous process, considerable amounts of a pollutant (even if present as a
minor component) can be inhaled and efficiently transported into the body. Once in the body,
they may manifest adverse health effects.
Risk Assessment
In order to assess the health risks due to air pollutants, we require exposure and effects
assessment.
Exposure assessment: estimates concentrations using chemical measurements.
Effects assessment: relies on toxicity testing (estimates of exposure toxicity) and computer
models to extrapolate data from human population, animal, and bacterial toxicity studies.
Quantitative analysis of epidemiological, toxicological and exposure data that are based on the
accurate scientific evidence estimates exposure toxicity and risk.
Risk characterization integrates the exposure and effects components to estimate the
risk
Exposure Measurement
Exposure is measured by determining the pollutant concentration in air. Monitoring methods
include:
Air sampling followed by laboratory analysis of the pollutant(s) using established procedures.
Real time monitoring using direct reading pollutant-specific monitors.
Commonly used concentration units
For gases and vapors:
For particles: milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3), Micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3)
Threshold Limit values
Thus, for pollutants, Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) have been
developed and issued by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) to assist in the control of workplace
health hazards.
According to ACGIH, Threshold Limit Value-Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA), is defined as
the time-weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek,
to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effect
CO: 25 ppm
NO2: 3 ppm
O3: 0.1 ppm
SO2 : 2 ppm
Air Quality:
Air quality problems in many other parts of the world worse than in Canada. This has led to
some global concerns about our environment. It Is important to note that in addition to the minor
components, we are exposed to a large variety of environmental contaminants in industrial
commercial and residential areas.
Indoor air contaminants:

Absestos Fibers: Absestos (a mineral fiber has been used in a variety of building
construction materials for insulating and fireproofing. Deteriorating, damaged, or
disturbed insulation, fireproofing etc become source of asbestos fibers in the indoor air.
Biological contaminants: common bio contaminants include: bacteria, dust mites,
insects, mold, pet dander, rodents, viruses
Combustion by-products : include gases (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, unburned hydrocarbons) and small particles. These are created by incomplete
burning of fuels (wood, gas, coal) in appliances such as wood stoves, gas sotves,
fireplaces.
Formaldehyde: the sources of formaldehyde in indoor air include: pressed wood
products such as hardwood plywood wall paneling, particleboard, fiberboard, furniture
made with these pressed wood products, combustion sources, tobacco smoke, textiles
and glues.
Pesticides: these originate from the products used to kill household pests (insecticides,
disinfectants). In addition, pesticides used on lawns and gardens can drift or tacked
indoors.
Radon gas: It is slowly released from the ground, water, and some building materials
that contain very small amounts of uranium, such as concrete, bricks, tiles. Radon can
enter a house through cracks in the foundation walls and in floor slabs, floor drains
sumps.
Respirable particles: Depending upon the size these can be inhaled all the way into the
lungs. Indoors sources of such particles include: fireplaces, wood stoves, oil heaters,
tobacco smoke.
Volatile Organic Compounds: These compounds originate from a variety of indoor
sources such as air fresheners, aerosol sprays, disinfectants, dry-cleaned clothing,
hobby supplies, paints, solvents etc.

Control Strategies
Over the past two decades, stricter environmental emission control regulations and
pollutant(s) mitigation (reduction) technologies have led to considerable reduction in the
concentration of many pollutants.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) obliges all the three signatories to enforce
environmental laws. There is a move in all the three nations toward tougher and thorough
reporting of releases of pollutants to the environment. In Canada, National Pollutant Release
Inventory (NPRI) is a publicly-accessible database of pollutants released to the Canadian
environment.
Among the global initiatives is the establishment of the International Register of Potentially Toxic
Chemicals (IRPTC). It is a computer based database. One of the objectives of the register is to
identify the potential hazards of using chemicals and to make people aware of them. The
database provides access to information regarding production, distribution, release and disposal
of hazardous chemicals. The database also includes information on environmental and health
effects of such chemicals.
WATER
Water Molecule
Water (H2O) consists of two nonmetals hydrogen and oxygen. The water molecule is
formed by the covalent bonding of two hydrogen atoms to an oxygen atom.
Water is a unique substance that is literally everywhere.

A vital substance to our well-being and very existence, water is intimately linked to our daily life.
Unique properties of water
The polar nature and the capability to form hydrogen bonds are responsible for many of the
unique properties of water. Such properties play an important role in making water essential for
life and in determining its chemical behavior in the environment.
We use water for various purposes, such as: Cooking, drinking, personal hygiene, recreation,
agriculture, transportation, energy generation

Polarity of Water
The polar nature of the water molecule is due to its:
Polar covalent bonds: The electron pair forming the covalent bond (between the oxygen atom
and each of the two hydrogen atoms) is more strongly attracted by the oxygen atom due to its
higher electronegativity (the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons over
another atom in the molecule).
This leads to a partial positive charge on each of the two hydrogen atoms (represented as + )
and a partial negative charge on the central oxygen atom (represented as - ) making the water
molecule behave like a dipole.

Molecular shape: A water molecule has a bent (V-shape) shape (H-O-H bond angle of 104.5).
This, in combination with the polar covalent bonds, leads to a resultant dipole and hence the
polarity of the water molecule.

Hydrogen Bonding

The partial charges present lead to intermolecular attraction between water

molecules. A single water molecule can thus attract four other water
molecules.
These intermolecular attractive forces are called hydrogen bonds. These are
much weaker than the forces holding the atoms in the covalent O-H bond.

Solvent Properties
Water is a powerful solvent due to its high polarity and hydrogen bonding ability.
It is an excellent solvent for ionic (e.g., table salt), polar covalent (e.g., sugar) and non-polar
(e.g., oxygen) compounds. In the case of ionic compounds, the ions are separated from the
solid and caged (solvated) by polar water molecules, thus keeping them in solution.
Polar covalent compounds (i.e., ethanol and glucose) dissolve in water by the formation of
hydrogen bonds.
Water therefore plays an important role in the transportation of nutrients and waste products in
biological processes. Aquatic life and plants survive due to dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Thermal Properties
The presence of hydrogen bonds in water accounts for its exceptionally high boiling point,
specific heat and heat of vaporization. A portion of the heat supplied is used up in breaking the
hydrogen bonds.
Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of 1
g of a substance by 1C.
High specific heat of water regulates and stabilizes the temperatures of geographical regions
and organisms within a narrow range. This in turn allows our planet to support life.
Heat of vaporization is defined as the quantity of heat required for the conversion of 1 g of a
liquid entirely into its vapor at a constant temperature. High heat of vaporization of water helps
in regulating the temperature of our body. It is also responsible for powering the winds and
storms of our planet.
Water density
Density of Solid and Liquid Water

Solid (ice) and liquid form of (water) - hexagonal open structure due to the
presence of hydrogen bonds

Ice has a hexagonal open structure due to the presence of hydrogen bonds. When ice melts,
the open spaces are filled with liquid water, causing the crystal structure to break down.
This leads to a reduction in volume for the same mass and hence an increase in density
(density = mass/volume). The higher density (thus expansion and contraction of volume due to
the freeze-thaw cycle) of liquid water than that of ice accounts for phenomena such as:
Floating of ice on water
Survival of aquatic life during winter
Nutrient turnover in bodies of water
Formation of pebbles, soil and sand
Bursting of frozen water pipes
Surface Properties
The high surface tension and capillarity of water is due to the presence of hydrogen bonds.
Water is the liquid with the highest surface tension. Plant debris rests (rather than sinks) on the
surface of water bodies due to its high surface tension. This provides aquatic life with muchneeded shelter and nutrients. Capillary action (also due to high surface tension) makes water
in soil available to plants.

On Earth, the capillary effect can be seen in fine tubes containing liquid: surface tension pulls
the liquid column up until there is a sufficient mass of liquid for gravity to overcome the
intermolecular forces. As the mass of the liquid column is proportional to the square of the
tube's diameter, a narrow tube will draw a liquid column higher than a wide tube. In space, many
things work differently, but not always (Length: 9:30, YouTube).

MODULE 6: HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS

Soap and Detergents
Soaps and detergents play a very important role in our lives. These chemicals help us in making
our surroundings cleaner (i.e., by removing soil and grease), healthier (i.e., by reducing the
germs), and pleasant.
In order to make it more effective in the process of cleaning, the water must be made to spread
and thus wet surfaces effectively, i.e., its surface tension must be reduced.
This is achieved by using compounds called surfactants.

What are Surfactants?

Soaps and detergents are composed of surfactants.

Surfactants are water-soluble and surface-active agents.

Surfactants are composed of a hydrophilic (water-soluble) head and a hydrophobic (fatsoluble, water-hating) tail. The hydrophilic end is stable when solubilized in water and
the hydrophobic end consists of a long chain hydrocarbon that is more stable when
surrounded by other organic groups.
Classes of Surfactants
There are different classes of surfactants categorized by the charge of the hydrophilic
component of the surfactant molecule after dissociation in water:

Anionic surfactants have a negative charge.

Cationic surfactants have a positive charge.

Non-ionic surfactants have no charge.

Amphoteric surfactants have both positive and negative charges.

All about Soap

Composition and Limitations of Soap
Soaps (anionic surfactants) consist of the long hydrocarbon tails of fatty acids and the polar
heads of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids (found in fats and oils of animals and plants).
Traditionally, soap was made from animal fat and wood ash (composed of potassium hydroxide
and potassium carbonate).

Advantages:

Soaps are manufactured from combinations of natural and renewable resources.

Soaps are biodegradable and thus do not pollute bodies of water.

Disadvantages:

Formation of soap film (or scum) in water containing Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions (hard
water).
The calcium and magnesium ions react with soap molecules to produce calcium and
magnesium salts of fatty acids. These salts are insoluble in water and impair the
surfactant properties of soap because the amount of soap available for cleaning is
reduced. Soap scum is difficult to rinse away and can be visible, i.e., on fabrics,
bathtubs and sinks.

Poor adaptability to diversity of fibers, washing temperatures and water

conditions.

Tendency to clog sewage systems due to their gelling properties.

All about detergent

Composition and Limitations of Detergents
Detergents (containing a variety of engineered anionic or non-ionic surfactants) are made from
petrochemicals.

Advantages:

Detergents are less affected by calcium and magnesium ions in water, thus
acting as better cleaning agents and almost eliminating the film formation.

Detergents perform well under diverse conditions such as adaptability to diversity

of fibers, washing temperatures and water conditions.

Disadvantages:

Detergents are made from non-renewable petroleum-based oils.

Majority of detergents are not biodegradable.

The cleaning Process

In the cleaning process, the polar end of the surfactant molecule interacts with water (a
polar molecule) and the non-polar end is attracted to oil or grease (non-polar molecules)
Step 1: Chemical interaction (with soap or detergent) traps the oily and greasy soil
molecules. In aqueous solutions, surfactants cluster near the surface.

Step 2: The hydrophobic tails are attracted to grease and the hydrophilic heads to the
water, thereby forcing the grease away from the soiled surface
Step 3: The grease is then surrounded by the individual surfactant molecules and
removed from the soiled surface
Step 4: Thermal Interaction (with hot water) helps dissolve oil and grease molecules.
Mechanical interaction (machine agitation or hand rubbing) releases oily and greasy soil
from the fabric.
Classification
Depending upon the function, household soaps and detergents can be classified as
those used for: Personal hygiene, laundry, dishwashing, household cleaning

It is important to note that in view of the functional diversity, these products are usually
formulated by mixing many ingredients. For example, laundry detergents are formulated
from the following groups of chemicals:

Surfactants to bind and suspend grease and dirt in the washing water

Builders to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ from hard water and soil

Bleaching agents to remove stains and kill bacteria

Enzymes to catalyze the degradation and elimination of some stains

Miscellaneous chemicals such as foam stabilizers, fabric brighteners, fragrances,

corrosion inhibitors etc. are added in small quantities.

Environmental Impact
As cleaning products are an integral part of our lives, it is very important to be aware of their
impact on our health as well as the impact on the environment once discharged.
Health risks are very real, particularly in the case of some specialty household cleaners. Drain
openers, oven cleaners and toilet bowl cleaners may contain reactive and/or corrosive
chemicals. It is imperative that adequate safety precautions are taken while using such
products.
The manufacturers are obliged by law to evaluate the environmental safety of the ingredients.
Most of these products are formulated to work with water and end up in wastewater treatment
plants, thus impact on the environment is minimized.
The Safer Detergent Stewardship Initiative (SDSI) program of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) recognizes corporate environmental leaders using safer surfactants
which break down quickly into non-polluting chemicals and thus protect aquatic life.
In an effort to handle these products in an environmentally wise way, we as consumers should
buy them in usable amounts and dispose of them (if required) properly.

Recent Trends
In keeping with consumer demand for more efficient and environmentally friendly
products, the present trend is to develop home and fabric care products that:

Contain surface protectors or modifiers that repel soil and stains more effectively.

Deliver active ingredients in a controlled way.

Are effective in cold water.

Contain natural or naturally derived ingredient(s).

Do not contain chemicals of concern with respect to toxicity.

Generate less carbon dioxide during production (smaller environmental footprint).

PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS

Influencing Factors
Nearly all of us use personal care products for one or more reasons: to make our hair clean and
colorful, skin free of wrinkles or to delight the senses. This is an expanding and dynamic field
primarily because such products must be developed to take care of the changing needs of
society.

Some influencing factors include:

Aging population
Changing attitudes of men
More women in the workplace
Concerns about exposure to ultraviolet radiation
The chemical ingredients in these products are thus changing at a remarkably fast
pace. The availability of biotech products and processes to produce new ingredients is
going to revolutionize the development of personal care products in the future.
In addition to rapidly changing chemical ingredients, more efficient delivery systems are
being introduced. These include a variety of encapsulation systems to deliver the active
ingredients in cosmetics.
Many shampoos, lipsticks, face creams and toothpastes contain these microcapsules.
The active ingredient is delivered when the microcapsules rupture on the applied
surface (e.g., skin) due to rubbing, presence of moisture, change in pH or the presence
of naturally occurring bacteria.
Hair Care products
These products are used for a variety of purposes such as to wash, condition, color or
curl hair.
Shampoos: Cleansing agents containing anionic surfactants to remove oil and
dirt from the hair and scalp. Surfactants produce foam, lifting the oil and dirt from
the hair. In addition, flagrances, thickeners, foam boosters and other agents may
also be added.
Conditioners: Conditioners usually contain cationic surfactants. These help in
rising out any residual shampoo and at the same time provide softer and easy to
manage hair
styling agents: The curling of hair is carried out in three steps:
o Treatment of hair with a reducing agent (an electron donor) that breaks
certain covalent bonds
o Setting hair in the desired shape

o Treating hair with an oxidizing agent (an electron acceptor) such as dilute
solutions of hydrogen peroxide to reform the previously broken covalent
bonds in the new shape.
colorants :
o hair coloring is two-step process involving:
Oxidation of natural hair pigments to colorless products using a
bleaching agent
Application of an organic, synthetic dye to obtain the desired color.
o In addition to the dye (or its precursor) the formulations contain ammonia,
hydrogen peroxide and a surfactant. In order to reduce the damage to hair
during the coloring process and reduce the smell of ammonia, the
chemistry has been modified by replacing ammonia with ammonium
carbonate.
o Major development in the field of hair coloring include the availability of :
A large variety of colors
Improved delivery systems to enhance the adhesion of colors to the
hair
More effective conditioners to neutralize the harsh effects of dye
chemicals

Skin Care products Moisturizers and Sunscreens

Moisturizers: Used to increase the water content of the skin. They perform a number of
functions such as:
Prevent and treat dry skin
Protect the skin and make it appear smooth by encouraging an orderly shedding
process
Improve skin tone and texture
Protect sensitive skin and mask imperfections
Active ingredients:
Humectants: absorb moisture and hold it in the skin. Ex: Glycerin, urea
Emollients: lubricate and smooth the skin. Ex: Lanolin, mineral oil
Miscellaneous: Antioxidants, fragrances, minerals, plant extracts, vitamins
Skin care products (creams, lotions, shampoos and sun care products) containing
plant-derived chemicals are being developed at a very fast rate.
Sunscreens: used to protect the skin against the harmful effects of Ultraviolet
radiation (UV). UV emitted by the sun consists of UV-A and UV-B.
Although stratospheric ozone layer destroys most of his radiation, the UV light that
gets though can cause problems. In addition, the depletion of ozone layer due to a
variety of natural and human made chemicals may increase the amount to UV
radiation reaching us. It is believed that exposure to UV radiation can cause painful
sunburn, damage to skin, lead to skin cancer.
Active Ingredients:

Inorganic: Approved for use are titanium dioxide and zinc oxide. These work
primarily by reflecting and scattering UV light.
Organic: Wide varieties are approved for use. These work primarily by
absorbing UV light and dissipating it as heat.

The effectiveness of a sunscreen in a formulation is rated by its ability to block

the UV-B rays that cause skin burns. It is called Sunburn Protection Factor
(SPF). The higher the SPF, the better is the protection against UV-B rays.
Some misconceptions:
There is a misconception that a user can determine the duration of
effectiveness of a sunscreen by multiplying the SPF by the time it takes for
him or her to suffer a brn without sunscreen. Ex: someone who would
sunburn after 15 minutes (without any sunscreen protection) in the sun
would expect to burn after 150 minutes if protected by a sunscreen with
SPF 10.
Protection Factors: depends on:
Activities
Amount applied and frequency of re-application
Solar intensity
Type of skin
Amount of sunscreen absorbed by the skin
In order to achieve a high SPF, formulations generally contain a combination of
inorganic and organic ingredients.
Safety in the Sun
In an attempt to inform the consumers the level of UV-A protection in sunscreens, the US Food
and Drug Administration (US FDA) is proposing a four star rating system to be displayed near
the SPF rating on the label. According to this system, one star will represent low UV-A protection
and four stars the highest UV-A protection.

Cosmeceuticals:
Whereas pharmaceuticals are defined as products that may affect the structure or any function
of the body, cosmetics are something superficial to cover a deficiency or defect.
The term cosmeceuticals is used to describe cosmetics containing ingredients which may
affect the structure or any function of the body like pharmaceutical ingredients.
During the late 1980s, alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs) became important ingredients in many
cosmetic formulations claiming to reduce signs of aging, sun-damaged skin and wrinkles. These
work by breaking down and lifting off part of the top layer of dead skin cells in order to get rid of
some surface damage and accelerate growth of living cells. The cosmetic industry believed the
ingredients to be more than simple cosmetics and hence called them cosmeceuticals.

Some of these products are only available with a doctor's prescription and supervision. They
include, among others, Botox (for a more youthful look), Vaniqa (to eliminate unwanted facial
hair) and Propecia (for bald men).

Perfumes:
Perfumes are alcoholic solutions of organic compounds with pleasant odors (fragrant
compounds). Today, a large variety of natural and synthetic compounds are available to create
fragrances for perfumes. In creating perfumes, the ingredients are blended based on their
molecular size and volatility.
For this reason, the fragrances in perfumes are generally experienced in three different stages
referred to as top, middle and base notes. The top notes are the most volatile components and
hence experienced immediately after the opening of the package. The middle notes are
experienced next followed by the base notes which last longest.
A recent trend has been to develop more intense and long-lasting alternatives to the known
fragrant compounds. Such low-volume production means less impact on energy, health and the
environment.
Miscellaneous Products
Deodorants
Body odors are reduced or masked by the use of deodorants. Such odors may originate from
the conversion of certain compounds (present in the perspiration) to unpleasant odors by
bacteria. Thus the effective chemical ingredients in such products are antibacterial agents and
perfumes.
Cosmetics
Facial cosmetics such as lipstick and mascara generally contain oils, waxes, pigments and
perfumes. Lipstick manufacturers blend various proportions of oils, waxes and emollients (to
soothe the skin) to formulate the base for their unique brand. Fragrances, pigments,
preservatives, antioxidants and a variety of other ingredients are then added.
In recent years there has been a concern regarding the presence of low levels of lead in
certain cosmetics. A recent testing of a number of brands of lipstick by the US FDA (United
States Food and Drug Administration) has shown the presence of low levels of lead. According
to the US FDA, the levels observed do not pose a safety concern.

MODULE 7: DRUGS AND MEDICATIONS

Overview
Organic chemistry deals with the study of carbon containing compounds and their
reactions. Organic molecules are present in living organisms and in many products
used in our everyday lives such as foods, household cleaning products, personal
care products etc.
As the element carbon is present in the majority of drugs used today, some basic
principles of organic chemistry (the study of carbon compounds) are discussed in
this section.
The Element Carbon
The main characteristics of carbon that lead to the formation of such a large
number of organic compounds (over 10 million known) with dramatically different
physical and chemical properties include the ability to form:
Covalent single, double and triple bonds with some other elements, including
carbon.
Covalent bonds with other carbon atoms to build chains and cyclic structures.
Covalent bonds with elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and halogens.
In the structures shown below, each line (bond) represents a pair of electrons.

Single bond: formed by

the sharing of one pair of
electrons.

Double bond: formed

by the sharing of two
pairs of electrons.

Triple bond: formed by

the sharing of three pairs
of electrons.

Arrangement of Atoms
Among the cyclic structures, the arrangement of carbon atoms in 5- or 6membered rings is quite common. The hexagonal (6-membered) ring with
three single and three double bonds is called a benzene ring.
Various Ways to Represent
Benzene (C6H6) Ring

Other Rings

Functional Groups
Organic compounds are divided into some important families based on their
characteristic functional group. A functional group can be visualized as a small
structural unit or arrangement of atoms in a molecule that is the chemically
functioning part of the molecule.
In the case of drugs, the functional groups are responsible for their action. In
addition, the functional groups may also determine important parameters such as
the rate of uptake and reaction as well as the time of residence of the drug in the
body.
Alcohol
Functional Group : - OH
General Formula : R-OH

Example:
Aldehyde

Amine

Carboxylic Acid

Ester

Ether

Ketone

More Examples

Many substances encountered in our everyday lives are composed of organic

compounds containing one or more of the previously mentioned functional groups.
Infections and diseases
Overview
From the Sumerians (2200 BC) to the present, the discovery and usage of drugs has
gone through a number of phases such as:
Medicinal preparations and concoctions from plants, minerals and animal sources.
Isolation and the use of plant ingredients as medications.
Synthesis and testing of a variety of chemicals as potential cures for ailments.
New areas of research into marine plants and organisms as potential drugs.
Molecular modeling in designing drugs.
Extensive research with the available sophistication in the field of medicine has led
us to engineer molecules that can be used to improve the quality of life by
preventing, moderating or curing illnesses.
Antibiotics
Antibiotic drugs are used to fight (prevention or treatment) bacteria that cause
infectious diseases such as meningitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis and so one

Categories of antibiotics:
Penicillin
Cephalosporin
Tetracycline
The discovery of a large number of chemically modified derivatives of these
antibiotics led to the control of a large variety of bacterial infections. Antibiotics are
isolated from bacterial sources, but can also be human-made. Antibiotics act
directly on bacteria and destroy them or inhibit their growth. Antibiotics will not kill
viruses.
How do antibacterial drugs work?
The actual mechanism of antibacterial drugs is to alter or inhibit one of the following
cellular structures/processes:
Cell wall synthesis: prevents new bacterial cells from forming by preventing
formation of the cell wall.
Cell membrane permeability: kills bacteria cells by causing breakdown of the
outer cell membrane.
Protein synthesis: prevents the bacteria from converting proteins to energy,
causing starvation and ultimate cell death.
Nucleic acid synthesis: keeps bacteria cells from growing by interruption DNA
synthesis
Competitive inhibitor: mimics bacterias growth factors, this preventing
spreading of the bacteria.
Penicillin
Treat infections caused by bacteria
Do not fight infections caused by viruses
Mode of action: affect the development (damaging) of bacterial cell walls.
Cephalosporin
Cephalosporin have the structure similar to that of penicillin
Treat a much broader range of infections compared to penicillin
Mode of action: Affect the development of bacterial cell walls.
Tetracycline
Chemical structure consisting of four rings
Used to treat penicillin-resistant infections
Mode of action: inhibit the synthesis of required bacterial proteins.

Antiviral Drugs
Antiviral drugs are used to treat (cure or control) viral infections such as flu, polio,
herpes and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). A different strategy has
to be used to combat viruses, as these do not respond to antibiotics. Two commonly
used strategies to fight viral infections include:
Prevention through vaccination
When a vaccine (consisting of inactivated virus) is injected, antibodies to fight off a
virus are developed and stored in the body. The stored antibodies become available
to fight future infection.
Use of antiviral drugs
Commonly used antiviral drugs (particularly for the treatment of the AIDS virus) fall
into three classes:

Nucleoside derivatives inhibit the synthesis of viral DNA, thus preventing

the virus from spreading.

Protease inhibitors, on the other hand, interfere with the viral protein
formation, thus preventing their reproduction.

A three-drug cocktail consisting of different nucleoside derivatives and

protease inhibitors has shown considerable promise in the treatment of AIDS.
This triple cocktail treatment is also known as Highly Active Antiretroviral
Therapy (HAART). The success of the therapy is probably due to the cocktail's
ability to disrupt the viral replication at different stages. It is important to
note that the therapy is very expensive and patients must adhere to their
dosing schedule.

Some major problems associated with multiple drug therapy are: Moderate
effectiveness, lack of response in some cases, serious to severe side effects
and drug resistance by the virus. Recent efforts in the fight against AIDS have
been directed towards the development of: Viral entry inhibitors (i.e., the
drugs that will prevent HIV from attaching and consequently entering into the
cell) and Vaccines.

Anticancer Drugs

Cancer involves an uncontrolled vision of some cells of the body due to

mutation of DNA within the healthy cells. These cells invade nearby tissue
and spread throughout the body via the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
Thus the chemical treatment of cancer (chemotherapy) involves drugs
targeting rapidly diving cells to kill the cancerous cells. Some
chemotherapeutic agents include:
Alkylating agents

o Mode of action: due to their high reactivity, alkylating agents

introduce defects in the DNA, thus killing the rapidly growing
cells by preventing cell growth and multiplication
o Alkylating agent drugs also affect the growth of normal cells and
cause mutations.
Antimetabolites
o Metabolite is a general term for the organic compounds that are
synthesized, recycled, or broken down in cells.
o Antimetabolites inhibit DNA synthesis, thus stopping cell
replication.
o Mode of action : compete for binding sites on enzymes and are
incorporated into nucleic acids.
Topoisomerase inhibitors
o Topoisomerase inhibitors damage DNA which causes cell death
o Mode of action: act against the topoisomerase enzymes to
prevent cancer cell growth.
Hormones
o Hormone therapy is used against certain cancers that depend on
hormones for their growth. This therapy is used primarily for the
treatment of breast cancer and that of the sexual organs. As
these tissues requires hormones for their growth, the
chemotherapeutic agent acts by inhibiting the hormone supply
thus stopping the tissue growth.
o Mode of action: stop the production of certain hormones or
change their mode of function.

Antidepressants
A deficiency of certain neurotransmitters (any chemical that carries impulses
between nerve cells), particularly serotonin in the brain, seems to be partly
responsible for causing clinical depression. Neurotransmitters are needed for normal
brain function and mood control, in addition to other functions.
Although the effects of antidepressants are not fully understood, there is substantial
evidence to show that antidepressants help to restore the brains chemical balance.
Commonly used antidepressants include:

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) (e.g. Prozac, Paxil and Zoloft)

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) (e.g. Nardil, Marplan and Parnate)

Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (e.g. Effexor)

Norepinephrine and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors (e.g. Welbutrin)

Tricyclics (e.g. Norpramine, Pamelor and Tofranil)

Whereas SSRIs target the serotonin levels only, tricyclics affect the brain
levels of other neurotransmitters (including serotonin) as well.

Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

Inflammation is the first response of the immune system to infection or irritation characterized by
and heat. An inflammation results from the rapid transport of blood proteins and other substances
site or an area under attack by a foreign organism.

Certain steroids are used as potent anti-inflammatory drugs. These suppress the inflammatory res
thus reducing inflammation.
Over the counter Overview

Whereas all types of drugs discussed earlier require a prescription, a

considerable number of drugs are soler Over the counter (OTC) without a
prescription. According to the non-prescription drug manufacturers
association, in the US alone there are more than six hundred OTC drugs.
OTC Drug Criteria :
The criteria generally used by the regulatory agencies to designate a drug
with OTC status or switch its status from Tx-to-OTC (from a prescription drug
to one sold without a prescription) involves a benefit-risk comparison and
making sure that patients alone can achieve the desired medical result
without endangering their safety.
Although OTC drugs allow patients to participate in their own health care,
experts emphasize that the labels must be followed closely because OTC
drugs are not without risk.
Aspirin : The best known OTC drug

Aspirin, was introduced more than a century ago. It has long been used as
an:
Analgesic (relieving minor pain)
Antipyretic (lowering fever)
Anti-inflammatory (reducing swelling) drug
Recent studies have show nits usefulness in treating heart attack and stroke
Aspirin Effectiveness and Side Effects
It is believed that Aspirins effectiveness as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory
agent and its protective effects against heart attacks and strokes are due to
its ability to reduce the production of prostaglandins (a hormone-like
substance that promotes inflammation, fever and pain) and thromboxane
(responsible for platelet aggregation in the formation of blood clots) in the
body.
Some possible side effects of Aspirin include:
Stomach Irritation
Ringing in the ears
Allergy
Reye Syndrome (brain disorder) in children
Drug Delivery Systems
Active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in a medicine is delivered to the body in
many forms, such as tablets, gelcaps, liquids and so on. Some newer alternate
methods for drug delivery have been developed with three major advantages:
User convenience, Improved drug performance, Better patient compliance
Some of these methods include:

Pulmonary delivery: The system is noninvasive and facilitates the rapid

absorption of the drug on the large surface area of the lungs followed by
rapid desorption into the bloodstream.

Skin absorption: Skin patches are being used to deliver the medication via
skin absorption.

Nanocrystals: This method reduces the drug particle size to nanoscale (<400
nm) making it more soluble in body fluids.

Effects & Trends

Environmental Effects of Pharmaceuticals
Recent research has led scientists to be concerned about the environmental impact
of old and/or expired medications that are discarded. The pharmaceuticals enter the
environment mostly through raw or treated sewage.
Some of the effects observed include:

Feminization of male fish due to estrogenic compounds: The signs of

feminization in male fish have been concluded as a response to
estrogen (in birth control pills) exposure.
Slow development of fish and frogs due to certain antidepressants:
Profound effects on spawning and other behaviors in shellfish can

occur with antidepressants such as Selective Serotonin Reuptake

Inhibitors (SSRIs).
Recent Trends in Pharmaceutical Development
In the field of pharmaceutical development the present trends include:
A shift from blockbuster drugs (drugs that work for a large number of
patients) to personalized medicine: In personalized medicine, therapies are
catered towards genetic profiles of patients and their diseased cells.

Exploring marine organisms in an attempt to obtain new compounds with

therapeutic potential: Several of these compounds are being investigated as
potential anticancer agents, analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Medication and Health

Drugs should not be considered risk-free chemical substances. It is strongly
recommended by health professionals that patients should always bear in mind the
fact that medications have side effects and may have serious interactions with
other medications, dietary supplements, food and beverages consumed.
In order to reduce risks, it is strongly recommended that all individuals:
Read drug labels carefully.
Learn about the warnings of all drugs taken.
Inform health care providers of all prescription and OTC drugs and dietary
supplements taken.
Keep a record of all medications taken.

Module 8: Some Environmental Concerns

Acid Rain
HOW DOES THIS HAPPEN?
When atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in water it forms carbonic acid.
CO2 (g) + H2O ()
H2CO3 (aq)
The acid formed dissociates partially generating small amounts of hydrogen ions.
H2CO3 (aq)
H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
The hydrogen ions formed are responsible for the weakly acidic nature of rain due to CO2

THE PH SCALE

The acidity (a measure of hydrogen ion concentration) of a solution is conveniently described in te

According to this scale, if:
pH < 7: solution is acidic hydrochloric acid, vinegar
pH > 7: solution is basic
pH = 7: solution is neutral

PH LABORATORY
GLP: Good Laboratory Practices

ACIDITY GOES UP, PH GOES DOWN

Based on the concentration of carbonic acid and small amounts of other natural
acids, the estimated pH of rain (as well as fog, dew and snow) under normal
atmospheric conditions should be around 5.3.
Field measurements in many areas, on the other hand, show much lower
pH values (4.1- 4.5)
Higher acidity (lower pH) is due to the reactions of
NOx and SOx present in the atmosphere.
Various reactions of these oxides lead to the formation of acids. The dissociation of
formed acids generates hydrogen ions and hence higher acidity (or lower pH).
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O ()
2 H2SO4 (aq)
H2SO4 (aq)
H+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)
HSO4- (aq)
H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O ()
4 HNO3 (aq)
HNO3 (aq)
H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Material Damage: Marble and limestone (CaCO3) used in many historic and
irreplaceable statues and buildings (Taj Mahal, Parthenon) react with acid in
the rain. The reaction leads the formation of calcium salts. The solubility of
these salts in water is much greater than that of marble in water. The
dissolution of formed calcium salts leads to roughened surfaces, removal of
material and loss of cared details from the buildings and statues.
CaCO3(s) + 2H(aq) Ca 2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Forest Damage: Considerable damage to trees has been reported in various
parts of North America and Europe. Acid rain has been implicated with slower
growth, injury and destruction of forests and has been attributed to be a
contributing factor to the declining health of trees by damaging their leaves,
limiting the nutrients available to them or exposing them to toxic substances
released from soil due to the change in pH.
Acid rain in implicated in depleting the nutrient supply to the trees by:
Attacking the leaves whose protective coating has already been
destroyed due to attack by other atmospheric pollutants such as O3
and NOx.
Mobilizing various metals (Al, Pb, etc.) in the soil that attack the roots.
Inadequate nutrient supply increases the possibility of destruction due to
disease, drought, insects or high winds.
Corrosion of metals: The corrosion process is accelerated in the presence of
acid. Thus, iron structures, bridges, railroads etc. show a faster rate of
corrosion (rusting) in acid rain predominant areas. Studies indicate that even
painted or plated iron corrodes more rapidly in such areas. The reaction
occurs in two steps with hydrogen ions (formed from the dissociation of acid)
being involved in the first step of the reaction. The overall reaction,
conversion of iron to its oxide (rust), can be represented as follow: 4 Fe(s) +
3 O2 (g) 2Fe2O3
Aquatic Life: Aquatic life is quite susceptible to changes in pH. Reduced pH
has led to lakes with no fish or other living beings. Acid rain has been shown
to reduce fish population, kill individual fish and in some cases eliminate fish
species entirely from a body of water.
Adverse effects of acid rain on aquatic life are due to:
Lowering of pH well below the required value of about 6.5 for healthy
aquatic life
Increasing aqueous concentration of metals (Al, Pb, etc.) due to their
higher solubility at lowered pH.
Both low pH and increased aluminum levels are directly toxic to fish. In
addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels cause chronic stress leading

to smaller size and lower body weight. These factors in turn make the fish
less able to compete for food and habitat.
CONTROL STRATEGIES
Reduction of SOx emissions by using emission control technologies:
Over the years, progress has been made in reducing the emissions of sulfur
dioxide. The major strategies under consideration include:
Using coal with low sulfur content
Removing sulfur from the coal before using
Using chemicals to neutralize acidic sulfur dioxide
In view of the substantial cost involved in using any of the above strategies
individually or in combination, the progress in this direction has been rather
slow in North America. In Japan, using the above technologies in particular
the use of scrubbers (for the neutralization of acidic sulfur dioxide) has led to
considerable decrease in sulfur dioxide emissions.
Reduction of NOx emissions by using emission control technologies:
Catalytic converters are now in use in automobiles to reduce the emission of
oxides of nitrogen.
Using cleaner energy sources (such as alcohol and hydrogen) in
transportation:
These cleaner energy sources are being explored. A number of projects all
over the globe are in progress. In some parts of the US there is limited use of
alcohol to replace gasoline in cars. There are considerable numbers of
investigations in progress pertaining to the use of hydrogen as a fuel.
Developing and/or using alternate energy (hydroelectric, nuclear or wind)
sources:
Hydroelectric, nuclear and wind power are being used in many parts of the
world. However, the progress in their development is very slow primarily due
to high initial costs and environmental issues.

Global Warming
HOW DOES THIS HAPPEN?
Global warming refers to an increase in the Earths average temperature. This
warming is the result of increased absorption by the atmosphere of infrared (IR), a
major source of heat, radiated back from Earth's surface. This is due to an increase
in concentration of gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. These gases are often
called greenhouse gases.
The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere due to human
activities include:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)

It enters the atmosphere due

to the burning of fossil fuels
(oil, natural gas, and coal),
waste materials, and as a
result of other chemical
reactions.

Main sources of emission are

the production and transport
of fossil fuels, livestock,
agricultural practices and
organic waste decay.

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Fluorinated gases

It is emitted during
agricultural and industrial
activities as well as during
the combustion of fossil fuels
and waste materials.

These fluorine containing

compounds are emitted from
a variety of industrial
processes and are
sometimes called High
Global Warming Potential
(GWP) gases.

Based on measured concentrations of various greenhouse gases, computer models

have been developed to predict the extent of global warming. It is estimated that
the temperature of the atmosphere may increase anywhere from 1.5 oC to 3.5 oC
during the next fifty years.
Instance End Editable
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS:
Climatic changes: Human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, deforestation,
industrial processes and some agricultural practices release greenhouse gases.
These gases trap energy in the atmosphere causing it to warm.
Changes in sea level due to melting of polar ice caps: The north pole is warming up
faster than the rest of the world. The Arctic sea ice is in a state of ongoing decline
as shown by the data from the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) in the
US.
Possibility of droughts and increased frequency of heat waves due to warming:
Based upon detailed analysis using computer climate models and other relevant
data, it is concluded that in the next few decades increasingly dry conditions may
be encountered across much of the globe.
Changes in ecosystem: As many animals and pants survive within a narrow range of
climatic conditions, some animal species are shifting towards higher elevations.
Many species even face extinction. As ocean temperatures rise, the coral reefs will
continue to decline.
Effects on human health: Global warming may lead to increased temperaturerelated illnesses, air pollution due to higher temperatures and possible spread of
some infectious diseases.
CONTROL STRATEGIES:
Some of the suggested control strategies include:
Reduction in CO2 emissions: The governments all over the globe are working to
reduce their country's carbon dioxide emissions by:

 Promoting that alternate non-fossil sources such as hydroelectric, solar,

nuclear and wind are developed and used
Capturing the carbon dioxide generated by burning fossil fuels
Supporting new fuels and technologies (like electric cars) to reduce carbon
dioxide emissions from transport
Setting 'carbon budgets' to cap overall carbon dioxide emissions.
Encouraging energy conservation: This will lead to lesser energy consumption
and hence lower production and reduced emissions.
Using carbon dioxide sinks: A carbon dioxide sink is any resource (natural or
artificial) that captures and stores atmospheric carbon dioxide. Natural carbon
dioxide sinks include forests, oceans and soil. Thus replanting forests is being
encouraged globally.
Some of the artificial carbon dioxide sinks being studied involve removing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in rocks, injecting it deep into the oceans
or trapping it via chemical reactions.
PRESENT SITUATION
Key events to limit global warming
1988- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
In 1988, United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and World Meteorological
Organization established Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to
focus on:
Assessment of scientific knowledge
Examination of the environmental, economic and social impacts
Formulation of response strategies
2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
A report released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2007
stated that global warming is clearly evident from diverse observations such as:
Increases in average air and ocean temperatures
Widespread melting of snow and ice
Rising global average sea level
The report emphasizes that global warming could cause irreversible damage to
planet. It is concluded and strongly suggested by scientists that global, sweeping,
concerted action is urgently needed to drastically reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. In addition, a report on the global economic impact of global warming
(the Stern Report) suggests that it could shrink the global economy by 20%.
1997 Kyoto Protocol
In order to limit global warming (due to the trapping of heat in the atmosphere by
greenhouse gases), the Kyoto protocol was signed in 1997. The document calls for
industrialized nations to cut their emissions of greenhouse gases.
Today Kyoto Protocol
Kyoto Protocol participation map as of February 2012
Green indicated countries that have ratified the treaty (Annex I & II countries
in dark green)
Brown = No intention to ratify
Red = Countries which have withdrawn from the Protocol
Grey = no position taken or position unknown

Summary
However, the progress in the implementation of diverse measures to control the
emission of greenhouses gases and thereby limit the extent of global warming is
going to be slow. The reason for this is the present situation of the global economy
and hence the reluctance of governments to implement tighter environmental
controls on emissions.

Some environmental Concerns

HOW DOES THIS HAPPEN?
Ozone plays a double role in our environment:
In our immediate atmosphere, it acts as an air pollutant contributing to
photochemical smog
In the stratosphere (in conjunction with oxygen), it filters the solar
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, thus protecting us against its harmful effects
In our immediate atmosphere exposure to ozone may occur in operations
involving:
High-intensity UV light such as mercury vapor lamps, plasma
torches, glass blowing, etc.
High-voltage electrical equipment
Welding
In all the above operations, the interaction of high energy with oxygen in the
surrounding atmosphere leads to the formation of O3:
3 O2 (g) + Energy
2 O3 (g)
OZONE FORMATION
In the stratosphere, oxygen and ozone interact with energy (ultraviolet
radiation) from solar radiation to form a dynamic system involving the
following reactions:
When ultraviolet light strikes oxygen
molecule, individual oxygen atoms are
produced.

O2 + Energy

The combination of atomic oxygen with

oxygen molecule leads to the formation of
ozone.

O2 + O

The interaction of ozone molecule with

ultraviolet light splits it into a molecule of
oxygen and an atom of oxygen.

O3 + Energy

Recombination of ozone molecule with an

oxygen atom leads to the formation of
oxygen molecule.

O3 + O

2O

O3

2 O2

O2 + O

The above processes occur repeatedly and are together called ozone-oxygen
cycle or Chapman cycle. This constitutes the O2/O3 screen that filters out the
ultraviolet component of the solar radiation.
ENVIRONEMENTAL CONCERN Environmental Concern
The environmental concern in the case of ozone is its stratospheric depletion, which
leads to less efficient filtration of harmful solar UV rays. The depletion is caused by
both natural (water vapour, nitric oxide) as well as human-made
(chlorofluorocarbons, halons) sources.
Graphic depicting ozone depletion (Source: eConcordia)
These manufactured chemicals, containing chlorine and/or bromine are called
"ozone-depleting substances" (ODS). The use and popularity of these chemicals is
due to their stability and low toxicity.
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) and halons have been used as:
Foam-blowing agents
Solvents
Fire-extinguishing agents
Refrigerants
However, their stability and long lifetime (up to several centuries) allows them to
reach the stratosphere. The interaction of these molecules with ultraviolet light in
the stratosphere leads to the generation of chlorine and bromine, which in turn
destroy stratospheric ozone.
EFFECTS OF INCREASED INTENSITY OF GROUND-LEVEL UV RADIATION
Stratospheric ozone depletion leading to less efficient filtration of the ultraviolet
radiation from the sun
will increase the intensity of group-level UV radiation. This increased intensity may
have adverse effects
on:
Humans: Such adverse effects include:
o Higher probability of sunburns, skin cancer, premature aging of skin
o More cataracts, eye disease and blindness
o Immunosuppression (wakening of the human immune system)
Agriculture and Forestry
o Physiological and developmental processes of major crop species (such
as barley, rice and wheat) may be affected. The data available on the
effect of more intense ultraviolet radiation on commercially important
trees shows that plant growth is harmed.
Materials
o Increased intensity of ultraviolet radiation may accelerate the
degradation of materials such as fabrics, plastics, rubber and wood
Marine ecosystems
o Increased Intensity of ultraviolet radiation may
Damage marine life by decreasing the plankton. Such a
decrease in plankton could disrupt the food chains leading to a
shift in marine species in global waters.
Lead to decreased reproductive capacity reducing fish yields.
CONTROL STRATEGIES

In North America, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (as propellants in spray cans) was
banned in 1978 in response to the threat of ozone depletion. The global response to
the threat of ozone depletion came with the signing of the Montreal Protocol (in
1987). It set out to reduce and ultimately ban the manufacture and use of CFCs and
other ozone depleting substances.
The international agreement has been effective in reducing risks in the long term;
ultraviolet radiation remains a health hazard. In view of this, we as individuals
should protect ourselves against it.