MINERALOGICALCOMPOSITIONIN RELATION TO THE

PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS *

E. GRIM

Geologist, Illinois State Geological Survey,

Investigations
are in progress in the laboratories of the Illinois State Geological Survey,
Urbana, Illinois, studying the specific relations between the factors of composition,
Ref. 2,
of soil materials and their soil mechanics properties.
The problem is being approached
of the properties of pure clay minerals, of controlled
in two ways : first, by the determination
mixtures of pure clay minerals and non-clay minerals, and of pure clay minerals prepared
with specific adsorbed ions ; and second, by making complete analyses of the composition
and texture of a series of soils known by experience and tests to have unusual properties,
These soils arc, in the main, being
in an effort to locate the case of the unusual character.
obtained through the help of Professor Terzaghi of Harvard University, and Professor Peck
of the University
of Illinois, whose co-operation
is gratefully acknowledged.
This paper presents briefly the methods used in the analysis of the soils, the composition
of nine soils of widely different composition,
and a discussion of the relation between composition and properties
of the individual
soils. The soils considered herein have been
selected from a large number that have been analysed because they illustrate some broad
general relationships
between composition
and properties.
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Only about half of the samples were received sealed in paraffin, so that natural moisture
Particle size distribution
analyses were
content could not be determined
for all samples.
made by the pipette method, using sodium hexametaphosphate
as the dispersing agent.
The mineral composition of the coarser sized fractions obtained in the pipette analysis was
In addition, an effort was made to separate,
determined by the petrographic
microscope.
by repeated sedimentation,
all of the minus 2 micron and minus 1 micron fractions without
The composition of these fine fractions was determined by
the use of any dispersing agents.
Base-exchange capacity, PH, exchangeX-ray diffraction and differential thermal methods.
able bases, and soluble salts were determined for each soil by the conventional
methods used
Ammonium
acetate was the leaching agent used in the
by soil scientists in agriculture.
determination
of the exchangeable
bases and soluble salts.
Particle size distribution
curves for all but one of rhe soils are shown in Figs. 1 to 8
in the form of cumulative curves, and by frequency distribution
curves constructed
by the
graphic differentiation
method described by Krumbein, Ref. 7. It will be found that some
This was done in order to eliminate
of the frequency curves have been slightly smoothed.
minor irregularities
which are not significant and which are probably outside of the limit of
The frequency curves show the relative abundance of various
error of the particle size data.
For example, the percentage of material between
size grades by the area under the curve.
0.005 and 0.002 mm. in any sample is obtained by dividing that portion of the area under
the curve which is bounded by vertical lines constructed at the 0.005 and O-002 mm. divisions
of the horizontal axis by the total area under the entire curve.
In any sample the percentage
of material in the minus 0.5 micron fraction is obtained by dividing the area within the
rectangle, in the range 0.5 to 0.12 micron, by the entire area beneath the curves.
The particle size distribution
of each of the component minerals of those samples that
could be satisfactorily
dispersed is shown also in the form of frequency distribution
curves.
*Published

with the permission of the Chief, Illinois State Geological Survey.

RALPH

140

E. GRIM

The relative abundance of the component minerals in any given particle size can be obtained
from the relative areas under the frequency distribution
curves designated for the particular
minerals.
Liquid Limit determinations
were obtained for all the samples for which an adequate
quantity of sample was available.
RESULTS OF ANALYSES
The results

of the analyses

are given in Figs.

1 to 8, and in Table

I.

DISCUSSION
Soils 1 and 2, Cairo, Egypt (Figs. 1 and 2). Professor Terzaghi* contributes the following
notes regarding these soils; : Soils 1 and 2 are from a test boring in the central part of Cairo,
Egypt, east of the east bank of the River Nile, and are typical for Cairo clays.
Total thickness of both clay deposits combined is about 30 ft. The surface of the clay stratum is
covered with a thin layer of artificial fill. The clay rests on a very thick stratum of fine
sand which becomes coarser with depth.
The brown clay constitutes
the top and the dark
one the bottom layer. The Liquid Limit of the brown (upper) clay varies between 60 and
80 per cent and the natural water content between 25 and 40. The Liquid Limit of the
dark (lower) clay varies between 40 and 50, and the natural water content between 30 and
50. The upper clay is stiff or very stiff and the lower one soft to medium.
The npper clay
swells intensely whereas the swelling of the lower one is inconsequential.
The dominant composition factor in soils 1 and 2 is the presence of montmorillonite
as
the clay mineral component
which would account for the Liquid Limit values, the high
natural water contents, and the swelling characteristics.
The montmorillonite
clay mineral
is unique in that water enters between the individual unit cell layers, Ref. 3, thereby causing
the lattice to expand and the mineral to swell ; this is accompanied by great water adsorbing
and holding capacity. Further, the concept of the orientation
of the adsorbed water molecules, Ref. 2, as applied to soil properties, and the consequent rigidity of the water in the
first few molecular layers accounts for the solid character of these soils at relatively high
water contents.
Montmorillonite
has high base-exchange
capacity and, as a consequence,
soils 1 and 2
have relatively
high base-exchange
capacity.
The clay-water
relationship
of montmorillonite depends greatly on the character of the exchangeable
base carried by the mineral,
and variations in exchangeable
base composition explain the difference in .the properties of
these two soils. Thus when sodium is the exchangeable base, water can enter readily between
the unit cell layers so that thick adsorbed water layers develop.
If calcium or magnesium
is the exchangeable
base, considerably
thinner adsorbed water layers develop.
Sodium
montmorillonite
clays tend to swell very much, whereas calcium or magnesium
montmorillonite clays tend to swell very little.
Soil 1, which swells, carries sodium as the predominant
probably
has no
exchangeable
base ; whereas soil 2, which does not swell appreciably,
significant exchangeable
sodium.
The sodium clay would be expected also to have a higher
Liquid Limit than the calcium clay.
Of considerable importance is the point that not all of the base-exchange
capacity need
be satisfied with sodium in order to produce the clay-water relationship
characteristic
of this
Generally,
when only a relatively small percentage of the exchange
capacity is
cation.
composed of sodium, pronounced
swelling and water-adsorbing
properties are characteristic
of montmorillonite
clay.
The foregoing characteristics
of sodium versus calcium (and magnesium) montmorillonite
clays apply only when the clay is exposed. to an excess of water.
In the presence of limited
amounts of moisture, that is, moisture adequate to form adsorbed water layers only a few
*Personal

communication.

COMPOSITION

FIG. 1.

IN RELATION

BROWN CLAY, CAIRO

TO PROPERTIES

FIG. 2.

OF CERTAIN

SOILS

141

DARK CLAY, CAXRO

molecular layers thick (yielding adsorbed water values up to about 60 per cent), calcium
montmorillonite
comes to equilibrium
at higher moisture
content
than sodium montmorillonite,
Ref. 8. Thus calcium montmorillonite
has been used successfully commercially
as a desiccant, whereas sodium montmorillonite
is unsatisfactory
for this purpose.
Therefore, the higher natural moisture content of soil 2, which swells very little and has the lower
Liquid Limit, is in accord with the presence of calcium or possibly magnesium
as the
exchangeable
ion.
It follows from the high base-exchange
capacity of montmorillonite
and the different
properties that result from difference in the exchangeable
bases, that any change in the
base-exchange composition of such a soil as 1 and 2 would cause a decided change in properties.
A change in groundwater
movement or a change in the character of the salts dissolved in
the groundwater
would cause the soil to change its properties.
For example, placing
concrete structures in such a soil might well provide a supply of Cu++ to the water moving
through the soil, thus causing a base-exchange
reaction.
Another characteristic
worth noting for montmorillonite
is that the mineraIs readily
adsorb water again after drying unless all of the adsorbed water has been removed.
The
adsorbed water may be lost at temperatures
somewhat below lOOc., but drying at such low
temperatures
is relatively slow. Therefore, samples of such soils as 1 and 2 which had been
dried thoroughly
would probably not regain their properties,
even approximately,
after
wetting again.
There seems to be nothing in the particle size distribution
or other determined properties
of these soils that would exert an important
influence on their properties,
Soil 3, Alexandria, Egypt (Fig. 3). According to Professor Terzaghi4 this soil comes
from a boring from the southern boundaries of Alexandria.
The stratum of soft clay has
a thickness of about 40 ft. and rests on a thick sand stratum.
The water content of this
clay is commonly about 100, the Liquid Limit is also close to 100, and the clay is very compressible.
As a consequence,
catastrophic
settlements
have occurred.
The high compressibility of this clay appears to be due to a high organic content.
As in soils 1 and 2, the properties of this soil are to a great extent a consequence of the
presence of montmorillonite
and also of the presence of sodium in large quantities,
both as
an exchangeable
base and as a readily soluble salt.
In addition, this soil contains a high
percentage of very fine clay (68 per cent less than 1 micron And 59 per cent less than O-5
micron) which would further add to its plastic properties.
The soil has a high organic content (sample was too small for quantitative
determination)
which could well be responsible for much of its compressibility.
The clay minerals, montmorillonite
and halloysite,
have the property of adsorbing certain organic molecules and
then of forming stiff gel-like masses in the presence of other organic compounds,
Ref. 6.
It is likely that the presence of
Such masses would be expected to have little strength.
*Personal communication.

142

RALPH

E. GRIM

such masses in montmorillonite and halloysite soils of relatively high organic content are
an important factor in determining the properties of such soils.
The particle size distributio? of the quartz, which is the dominant non-clay mineral
component, shows a concentration in the fine silt range at about 5 to 6 microns. Such a
concentration of a silt size could add to the peculiar properties that have been noted for
this &il.
Soil 4, Helouan, Egypt (Fig. 4). According to Professor Terzaghi* this sample was
taken from a shallow sewer trench in Helouan about 50 km. south of Cairo at the foot of the
east slope of the mountains which separate the Nile Valley from Suez. The clay was very
stiff. As a result of the failure of a water conduit beneath the floor of a nearby factory
building, the floor rose more than a foot.
The presence of montmorillonite as the clay mineral component and the abundance
of Na+ would adequately account for the high swelling of the soil.
The particle size distribution of this soil, with about 75 per cent finer than 2 microns
and about 55 per cent in the 2 to 1 micron size grade, is undoubtedly very significant in
determining the properties of the material.
The analytical data show that at least a considerable part of this coarse clay is montmorillonite.
The author has studied soils of somewhat similar composition and found that almost any particle size distribution can be obtained
by varying the dispersing procedure, for example, the amount of stirring in a mechanical
mixer, and the dispersing agent. The reason is that the 2 to 1 micron particles are aggregates
or book-like particles of clay minerals which come apart to varying degrees, depending on
the working of the material.
The breakdown of the aggregates or book-like masses is
particularly easy when montmorillonite is present because it forms planes of weakness.
Unfortunately, only a small amount of Helouan soil was available for testing and specific
dispersion data could not be obtained.
In general, soils with the foregoing composition yield particle size distribution data of
little significance.
Further, it might be difficult to evaluate test data for such soils because
their properties would undoubtedly be very sensitive to any working or disturbing, or to
any environmental change such as fluctuation in moisture content, ion content of groundwater, etc., which would either split the coarse clay particles or vary the ease with which
they separate.
Soil 5, I Kurzawka soiZ, Poland (Fig. 5). A small dried sample of this soil was received
from Ir. A. Poggny of Krakow, Poland. It is not possible to correlate this sample with the
Kurzawka samples recently described by PogPny, Ref. 9, and it is not known how
typical the sample is of the general characteristics of the Kurzawka.
Because the sample
received was small and was dry it was impossible to determine its particular properties.
90

@a

#a

6
:+a

.O

:
zlo
t
IO

u)
80

10
0

80
lOID,IO (0 3.,A:

FIG. 3.

SOFT CLAY, NEAR

01

ALEXANDRIA

*Personal communication.

*[Link],o m I I * P 0.8
lCO**

FIG. 4.

CLAY AT HELOUAN, EGYPT

COMPOSITION

IN RELATION

TO PROPERTIES

OF CERTAIN

SOILS

143

However, the sample does have a noteworthy composition which illustrates some generalities
in the relation between clay mineral composition and properties, and for that reason it is
considered herein.
The material is composed of halloysite and allophane and consequently
has low baseexchange
capacity,
Ref. 3, and should not swell.
A microscopic
examination
of the
individual size grade fractions,
obtained on making the particle size analyses shown in
Fig. 5, indicate that each grade is composed of aggregates of silt-sized non-clay minerals
The particle size analysis, therefore, does not show
bonded together by the clay minerals.
the size grade distribution of the individual component minerals.
Halloysite and allophane,
unlike some other clay minerals such as the montmorillonites,
are not broken up readily
The aggregates in this Kurzawka soil, therefore,
when they are worked or agitated in water.
are likely to be resistant to working, and the particle size distribution might well represent
the material as it actually exists in natural condition.
The halloysite clay minerals have certain unique properties which would be carried
over to soils containing them.
There are two forms of halloysite,
a higher hydrate form
with 4H,O in its composition,
and a lower hydrate form with ZH,O.
A transition which
is not ordinarily reversible from the higher to lower form takes place rapidly at temperatures
of about 60~. and slowly at lower temperatures.
Halloysite materials, as found in their
natural condition, are frequently in a transition state between the 4H,O and 2H,O form.
Material in the transition state frequently has very high plastic properties, Ref. 4, whereas
It follows, from
material in either the low or high hydrate form is relatively non-plastic.
the foregoing consideration of halloysite properties, that any drying of a soil containing this
Great care would be needed to
clay mineral would cause a great change in properties.
preserve the moisture content in samples selected for testing, and one could not generally
Of greater significance is the fact
expect to use the same sample for repeated check tests.
that working an halloysite soil during construction
might be expected to permit some
drying, with consequent great change in properties.
In general, drying of any soil causes
some change in properties, but in halloysite soils there is apt to be a different kind of phenomenon.
For example, a slight loss of water from a soil composed of halloysite in highly hydrated
form would tend to develop a plastic from an unplastic soil.
Halloysite materials also have the property of developing I air-set strength, Ref. 5.
If the compressive strength of a test specimen formed from a material containing intermediate halloysite is determined immediately after forming and again some hours or days
after forming (with the sample retained under conditions in which no moisture is lost), it
will be found that the material has gained in strength without a correlative loss of water.
The explanation for this air-set strength appears to be that the water present in such a
soil mass gradually and slowly develops an orientation net on the surfaces of the halloysite,
along with which there is an increase in strength.
Halloysite (like montmorillonite,
but unlike most of the other clay minerals) adsorbs
certain organic compounds, and therefore halloysite soils that have an appreciable organic
content may contain organic halloysite gels of considerable
instability.
Soil 6, Cucaracha clay, Gaillard cut, Panama Canal, Panama.
Several samples of this
clay were received from Col. James H. Stratton,
U.S. Army Engineers.
The particle size analysis of this material is not significant and consequently
no size
distribution
curve is presented.
The material as received is a solid rock containing
an
The particle size analysis obtained
enormous number of slickensided fracture surfaces.
is the result of the procedure used in preparing the sample for analysis, i.e., slaking time,
dispersing agent used, crushing of sample, and has, therefore, no inherent meaning so far
as properties of the clay are concerned.
The dominant clay mineral component is montmorillonite
with also a considerable
amount of halloysite.
The high base-exchange
capacity reflects the montmorillonite,
and
the ion determinations
(Table I) show that calcium is the dominant exchangeable
base.

RALPH

144

E. GRIM

80
w

.O

IO

10
r
:I I0
40

70
60
5,,
%
.O

x)
20

30

80

10

lo
0

ICROIIS
co0,020 10 5 1 2

YlCROnS

PIG. 5.

05

KURZAWKA SOIL, POLAND

FIG. 6.
NESPELM SILT,
COLUMBIA RIVER,
UPSTREAM OF COULEE DAM

Because calcium, rather than sodium, is the dominant base, the montmorillonite
would not
be of the high swelling variety.
Clay materials containing montmorillonite
tend to break down readily in water to very
small particle sizes.
The Cucaracha clay is unique in being a montmorillonite
material
It also has a much lower Liquid Limit and natural moisture
which does not so break down.
content than is usual for montmorillonite
clays, Ref. 2. There are three reasons for this
unique character
and undoubtedly
they are all significant.
First, as noted above, the
montmorillonite
carries calcium as the exchangeable
base ; and calcium montmorillonite
Second, the presence of
clays, unlike those carrying Nu+, are not so readily dispersible.
The study of a considerable
number of
halloysite would retard dispersion of particles.
soils has shown that those containing halloysite generally are difficult or impossible to disperse into their constituent
minerals or into any significant reproducible particle size distribution.
Third, the Cucaracha clay has been subject to high earth pressures, as evidenced
This pressure
by the slickenside surfaces and the presence of faults* in the geologic section.
would tend to force the individual montmorillonite units close together, and in many instances
probably completely collapse the structure,
forcing all the water out from betwee? the
As noted above, when this happens water goes back into the structure with great
layers.
difficulty, and such material does not have the usual properties of montmorillonite.
The two factors that are probably dominant in controlling the characteristics
of the
Cucaracha clay are first, the slickensided surfaces that provide a great number of planes
of weakness along which water could penetrate,
giving the material then little strength,
In the case of collapsed montmorillonite
some
and second, the collapsed montmorillonite.
water would no doubt enter very slowly between the unit layers in any masses of clay where
water was available in considerable abundance with a consequent change in properties of
the clay.
The slickensided fracture surfaces influence properties not only because they
provide planes of weakness, but also because they provide means of access of water to the
montmorillonite.
Soil 7, Nespelm Silt, Bank of Reservoir, upstream from Coulee Dam, Columbia River,
Washington, U.S.A. (Fig. 6). The particle size distribution,
with the high concentration
in the very fine silt range, is undoubtedly
the factor determining the properties of this
Possibly the relatively high concentration of mica in the very fine silt is significant
material.
also.
The clay mineral illite should cause no unusual properties.
Engineers
have long known that such silts have properties,
particularly
extreme
instability when water saturated, that make them difficult or even dangerous to use. The
*Personal

communication,

J. H. Stratton.

COMPOSITION

IN RELATION

TO PROPERTIES

OF CERTAIN

SOILS

145

explanation probably lies in the character of the bond between the silt particles. At low
moisture contents the bond is probably a thin molecular film of water which has rigidity
and bonding strength because of the orientation of the water molecules. Additional water
would thicken the water layer, with a consequent loss in rigidity and bond between particles.
The cause of the orientation of the water molecules probably in part resides in the internal
structure of the silt particles, and therefore would be expected to decrease with increasing
distance from the surface of the silt particles. It would probably operate through distances
of only a few molecular layers of water. It seems likely that the cations present in the silt
would also influence the orientation of the water molecules. By analogy with the adsorbed
water of clays, certain ions such as Ca ++ would probably cause a thicker film of highly rigid
water than other ions such as Na+. If this is true, a change in the character of the ion
present would affect the stability of the soil without necessarily any change in the water
content. For example, the placing of a mass of concrete in such a soil thereby flooding it
with calcium ions might well change its stability without any change in its water content.
Soil 8, Nespelm Silt, Kettle Falls Area, west bank of Columbia River, Coulee Dam area,
Washington, U.S.A. (Fig. 7). This sample, like soil 7 from the same area, is also characterized
by a size grade distribution showing a concentration in the fine silt size. The sample, however, contains considerably more clay (54.4 per cent as compared to 11.3 per cent of minus
one micron material for soil 7) and the clay contains some montmorillonite. An increase
in abundance of illite clay accompanied by a relative decrease in the concentration of siltsized material, would be expected to increase the stability of the material, perhaps by providing a clay bond which would be stronger than a water bond between the silt particles.
However, the presence of montmorillonite, even in small amounts, along with the illite would
reduce the stability derived from the increased clay content.
The higher Liquid Limits and higher base-exchange capacity of this silt as compared
to sample 7 are, of course, a consequence of the increased clay content and the presence of
montmorillonite.
Soil 9, London clay, Chingford Reservoir Puddle Clay, London (Fig. 8). This sample
was kindly sent by Prof. A. W. Skempton of Imperial College, University of London. The
clay mineral component of this London clay sample is about 70 per cent illite, 20 per cent
kaolinite, and 10 per cent montmorillonite.
In general, the illite and kaolinite should not
uield a material with difficult properties. As much as 10 per cent montmorillonite in a
soil would have distinct influence on properties and would account for the high shrinkage.
Ref. 10, and generally high plastic properties. A fairly high content of clay-sized material
(46.1 per cent, minus 1 micron) would favour also high plastic properties. A relatively small
amount of montmorillonite tends to influence soil properties to a relatively large degree
because it provides planes of weakness throughout the material.
The sample studied was acid with a pH of 6. The determinations of the easily soluble
salts indicate too few cations to satisfy the exchange capacity after assignment of enough
cations to satisfy the SO,--, thereby indicating that the exchange positions on the clay are
occupied chiefly by H+ as well as Ca++. As Ca++ and H+ are the exchangeable ions in this
sample, it should show insignificant swelling.
The clay has a moderate base-exchange capacity. The presence of some montmorillonite makes it higher than would be the case for either illite or kaolinite alone. There is
no great likelihood of a base-exchange reaction causing a change in properties of such a
clay because Ca++ and particularly H+ are relatively more resistant to exchange than many
other common ions (e.g., Na+).
In clays of this kind frequently the pH increases from the surface downward, with
upper clays being acid and lower clays being alkaline. In the weathering process downward,
seeping waters tend to remove alkalies and alkaline earths progressively from the surface
downward. There should, of course, be a correlative change in properties of the clay and
in sensitivity to base-exchange reactions.
K

146

RALPH

E. GRIM

TABLE

.z

zi
c1
._

I_

clay,

13rown

Cairo,

Egyp

Dark clay,
Cairo, Egyp

t.

t.

I
_i_
3

7.6

56.5

j
._

I_
--, I-

Alexandria,

68.0

20.0

I 8.4

-,I

Kurzawka
soil, Poland

8.8

7.2

53.9

Cucaracha
c:lay 19.9
Caillard cut,
Panama Canal.8
Panama.
:
I
I 11.3

1
1
I

[Link] silt,
Coulec Dam,
Washington,
1:.[Link].

I<+

I Largely

Ii+
Sa +
Ca++
Mg++

/ Largely mont,1 morillonite,

COMPOSITION

9.1

G8.4

~
(

3.1

I
8-l

54 ..5

communication

~ 0.36 I<+

I
I

46.1

* Icrsonal

I Largely montj morillonite,

17.9

! 6.0 1 24.7

from

FKTORS

Large11
halloysite
allophane.

1.7 Kaf
/ 21.88 Ca++
~ 0
hIg++

I1.S.A.

I<+
Na+
Ca++
Mg++

1.34
57.22
54.5
16.7

Nespelm silt,
Coulee Dam,
Washington,

0.6
2.30
38.4
17.85

60-80*

/_
406so*

30-50

Swelling
inconsequential.

Iloo*

lOO**/

High
compressibility.

-I-

Egypt.

Largely
montI morillonite,
poorly crystal1 lized.

mont228.0
Na+
morillonite,
14.27 Ca++ 1 poorly crystal26.73 Mg++ i lized.

_.

Helouan,

Ii+
Na+
Ca++
Mg++

5.0

7.9

Egypt.

3.5
28.5
26.0
29.0

Prof.

Swells
greatly

and

C!

0.78
3.21
G3.95
1567

Ii+
Ta+
Ca++
Ng++

0.24
1.42
18.35
28.5

I\+
xa+
Cl++
Jig++

Illite

0,43
1.25
17.13
4.14

I<+
i\a+
Ca++
Rig++

Illite with small

59

0.5
1.3
22.4
0.3
9.7

1<+
Na+
Gaff
hIg++
so,

lllite with small

: 73
I

1 type dominant,
/ also some
~ halloysite.

37

16

: 45

29

I<. Terzaghi

OF PARTICULAR

SIGNIFICANCE

IN CONTROLLING

SOIL

PROPERTIES
The analyses of these soils and of others that have somewhat unusual properties permit
a listing of certain factors of composition that are apt to give a soil unusual properties.
It must be emphasized that the study of additional soils will undoubtedly add additional
factors, and also that there will be some soils in which these factors do not produce particularly
Ilad soil properties because other factors tend to neutralize them.
It is noteworthy that

COMPOSITION IN RELATION

FIG. 7.

TO PROPERTIES

OF CERTAIN

SOILS

147

NESPELM SILT.
FIG. 8. LONDON CUY,
CHINGFORD RESERVOIR

COLUMBIA RIVER,

KETTLE FALLS AREA

these factors of composition are such as to make it difficult to predict, on the basis of laboratory
tests, the behaviour of a soil in the ground under load and throughout a future interval of
time. Also they cause a soil to have properties that are quite likely to change as a consequence of changes in soil environment, such as changes in groundwater circulation or changes
due to construction. The factors are as follows :
(a) Clay mineral composition containing montmorillonite minerals.
(b) Clay mineral composition containing halloysite minerals.
(c) High base-exchange capacity.
(d) Sodium as an important exchangeable base.
(e) High soluble salt content.
(f) Concentration of component particles in fine silt size grade.
REFERENCES
(1) GLOSSOP, R.
The London Clay, Part l-Field
and Laboratory Technique.
Verre et Silicates
Industriels VIII, pp. 60-75 (1948).
(2) GRIM, R. E. Some Fundamental Factors Influencing the Properties of Soil Materials.
Proceedings International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. III, Rotterdam,
1948.
(3) GRIM, R. E. Modern Concepts of Soil Materials.
Journ. of Geology, 50, pp. 225-275 (1942) ;
Ill. Geol. Survey Rept. of Inv. 80 (1942).
(4) GRIM, R. E., and CUTHBBRT, F. L. The Bonding Action of Clays, Part I-Clays
in Green Moulding
Sands.
Ill. Geol. Survey Rept. of Inv. 102 (1945).
(5) GRIM, R. E., and CUTHBERT, F. L. The Bonding Action of Clays, Part %-Clays in Dry Molding
Sands.
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