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HSC Physics Topic 2

MOTORS & GENERATORS

What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES & MOTORS
2. GENERATORS & POWER PRODUCTION
3. TRANSFORMERS & THEIR USES
4. MORE ON MOTORS
...all in the context of societys use of electricity

but first, an introduction...

What Happens Next...

What Has Gone Before...

In this topic you will learn how and why Electric Motors
work.

In the Preliminary Course you studied a topic about

electricity, including:

Electric Charges & Fields,

Current , Voltage & Ohms Law,
Electric Circuits, Power & Energy,
Magnetic Effects of Electricity.

People often dont

realize how much we
depend on the humble
electric motor.

It would be very wise

To revise
In particular, it will be very useful to remind yourself about:
Electric Currents Produce Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Field lines
Conventional
Current
Flow

You will learn about how we generate the electricity

society needs,

I
wire

Right Hand

...and how to determine

the direction and polarity
of the magnetic field,
AND...

ELECTROMAGNETS
Photo: Griszka

Iron core
Solenoid coil

...and how it is distributed and

transformed to meet our
needs.

Electricity
source
switch
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

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Photo: Andy King

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and
important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the
whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.

Factors Affecting
the Magnitude of
the Force

Torque on a Coil

= F.d

Torque

DC Electric
Motors

F = BILsin

F = k.I1.I2
L
d

The
Motor Effect
Forces Between
Wires Carrying
Current

Electromagnetic
Induction

Magnetic
Flux
&
Flux
Density
Lenzs Law
& its
Effects

Generators

Transformers

Features
&
Advantages

Factors
Affecting
Induction

Generators
&
Power Production

MOTORS
&
GENERATORS

AC Induction
Motors

Faradays Discovery

Electric Meters
&
Loudspeakers

Force on a
Current-C
Carrying Conductor
in a Magnetic Field

Electromagnetic Forces
&
DC Motors

Back EMF

AC v DC
Generators

Eddy Currents
EM Braking
Induction
Cooking

Impacts on
Society &
Environment

Purpose
&
Features

Aspects of
Power Distribution
A Little
History

Step-U
Up
&
Step-D
Down

Energy
Transformations
in
Homes & Industry

Some Practical
Considerations
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

= nBIAcos

keep it simple science

Vp = np
Vs ns

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1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES & MOTORS

The Force Between Two Conductors
Carrying a Current

Mathematically,

It was discovered in 1820 that a wire carrying an electric

current produces a magnetic field. Almost immediately,
Andre-Marie Ampere investigated the way that TWO wires,
both carrying current, would exert a force on each other.

F = Force in newtons (N) ) F/L refers to the force

L = Length in metres (m) ) per unit of length

Distance
d
d
Between
wires

Force
between
Wires

F = k.I1.I2
L
d

k = the magnetic force constant = 2.00 x10-7

I1
Both wires carrying
a current
I2

I1 & I2 = the currents in the wires, in amps (A)

d = the separation distance, in metres (m)
Example Problem:
Two long, straight, parallel wires are carrying 5.60A and
12.3A in the same direction. The wires are 2.50cm apart.

If the wires carry current in the SAME direction, the force

ATTRACTS the wires.
If the currents flow in OPPOSITE directions, the force
REPELS the wires.
The explanation for the forces is quite simple...

a) Calculate the force per metre between them.

b) If the parallel section of the wires runs for 4.75m, find
the total force acting in this section.

If you look at the wires end-on, and use the Right-Hand

Grip Rule to visualize their magnetic fields:

Solution:
F = k.I1.I2 = 2.00x10-7 x 5.60 x 12.3 / 0.025
a)
L

Currents in the Same Direction...

WIRES
end-on

Where they intersect, Magnetic Fields

have opposite polarity.
Opposite poles ATTRACT

= 5.51 x 10-4 N/m, attraction.

i.e. Each 1 metre of parallel wires has a force of

0.000551N acting between the wires.
Note that the force is attracting the wires because the
currents are in the same direction. If the currents
flowed in the opposite directions, the same force would
be repelling the wires.

Conventional
Current
into the page

...Attract

F = 5.51 x 10-4 newtons per metre

L
So,
F = 5.51x10-4 x 4.75
= 2.62 x 10-3N attraction.
b)

Currents in Opposite Directions...

Where they intersect, Magnetic Fields

have same polarity.
Like poles REPEL

TRY THE WORKSHEET at the end of the section

Youll notice that the force is very small in the example
given. In fact, this type of force is very weak and in
general electrical wiring is totally insignificant.

Conventional
Current
out of page

However, the point is that it shows that electrical currents

create magnetic fields and forces, and that electrical
currents can interact with magnetic fields and with other
currents.

...Repel

This is the basis of ELECTRIC MOTORS,

GENERATORS and TRANSFORMERS... read on.

Ampere found that the size of the force depends upon a

number of factors:
the amount of current in the wires
the distance between the wires (separation)
the length over which the wires run parallel

In fact, the technical definition of the ampere unit

is based upon measurement of the force between
2 parallel wires carrying current.

For his contribution, we name the unit of current after

Ampere.
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

keep it simple science

You are not required to know the gruesome details.

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The Motor Effect

Since the force is directly proportional to each of these

factors, it follows that any increase in the
magnetic field strength
or
current
or
length of wire within the field

Although the force between 2 wires each carrying a current

is rather weak, the effect can be much more powerful if
more than one wire is involved, and if the magnetic fields
involved are a lot stronger.

will increase the force, in proportion.

If, for example, a wire is carrying a current through a

reasonably powerful magnetic field, the wire will
experience a significant, noticeable force. This is called
The Motor Effect.

What about the angle?

You know that
Sin0o = 0
and
Sin90o= 1
Therefore, the maximum force on the wire occurs when the
wire and the field lines are at right angles. If the wire is
parallel to the field lines, = 0o and the force is zero.

Magnetic
Field
lines

FORCE
acting on wire

Direction of the Force

In the diagram at left, notice that the magnetic field lines,
and the current direction, and the resulting force are all at
right angles to each other.

I
S

Conventional
Current in wire

The simplest way to determine the direction of the force is

THE RIGHT-HAND PALM RULE
Direction of
Conventional Current

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of the Force

The Strength of the Magnetic Field (B)
The Current ( I ) carried in the wire
The Length (L) of wire within the magnetic field
The Sine ratio of the angle (Sin) between the wire and
the magnetic field lines

B
Direction of
Magnetic Field
lines

F = B.I.L.Sin
F = Force, in newtons (N)
B = Magnetic Field strength, in tesla (T)
I = Current, in amps (A)
L = Length of wire within the field, in metres (m)
= Angle between wire and field. See below

wire

Measurement of Magnetic Field:

The strength of a magnetic field can be thought of
as the density of the magnetic force lines passing
through an area of space. The symbol used is B.
The unit of measurement is the tesla (T), named
after an engineer/inventor who made great
contributions to the practical development of electricity
generation.

Direction of Force.
In this case, the force is up
out of the page.

What force (including direction) acts on the wire?

Solution:

F = B.I.L.Sin

= 18.6 x 7.50 x 0.450 x Sin90o

= 62.8N.
The Right-Hand Palm Rule shows that the force is
directed down the page.

You will learn more about the man Tesla, and the tesla
unit later in this topic.
keep it simple science

Example Problem:
B=18.6T
A wire carrying 7.50A of
current is within a magnetic I = 7.50A
field 0.450m wide, with a
strength of 18.6T. The field
L=0.450m
is directed into the page as
shown.

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

TRY THE WORKSHEET at the end of the section

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What Causes the Motor Effect?

The Concept of Torque

As you can probably figure out for yourself, the force on

the wire is due to the external magnetic field interacting
with the field produced by the current in the wire.

Before we go any further, it is necessary for you to learn about

the way that one or more forces can cause things to rotate.
One particularly important situation is shown in the
following diagram:

Wire seen end-on.

Current into page

Magnetic Field
due to current

FORCE = F

External
Magnetic
Field

Note that the 2 forces are

equal in size (but act in
opposite directions)

Pivot point
d
d = Perpendicular distance between Forces

Metal Bar, able to rotate

around centre

Force on wire due to

interaction of
magnetic fields

FORCE = F

Applying forces in this way will cause things to rotate. The

size of this turning effect is usually measured by a
quantity called Torque.

Verify the direction of the force using the RH Palm Rule.

Torque is a measure of the turning moment of a

force, or more commonly a pair of forces, causing
rotation as shown above. Mathematically,

Practical Investigation of the Motor Effect

You will have done some experimental work in class to
see the Motor Effect in action.

= F.d
= Torque, measured in newton-metres (N.m)

There are many possible ways to do this, but a simple

example is shown below.

Note that the Greek letter tau is used for Torque

F = Force, in newtons (N)
d = perpendicular distance between forces, in metres(m)
Note: the syllabus requires you know the definition of
torque, but not to solve problems with this particular
equation.

Force
pushes
coil

Torque and Motors

No current...
Coil hangs vertically

Motors and engines are usually used to turn wheels and

axles to drive vehicles, or rotate machinery, tools, etc. The
key word is rotate.

Current
on

The external magnetic field is provided by a horseshoe magnet (U-shaped). This produces a magnetic field
passing around the bottom wires of the rectangular coil.

Because they rotate things, it is appropriate to measure the

effect of any engine or motor by its Torque.
You might recall from a previous (Preliminary) topic that

Current passes through the rectangular coil of wire. Only

the bottom, horizontal strands of wire are properly
within the external field.

Work done = Force x distance = Energy

by a force

The wire is free to swing and deflects, as shown, when

current flows.

Since Torque is also equal to Force x distance, it means that

when you consider the torque provided by a motor, you are
dealing with the energy being converted by the motor.

Reversing either the current direction, or the polarity of

the magnetic field, will reverse the force on the coil and
the way it deflects.

In the case of an electric motor, the energy conversion is:

ELECTRICITY

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

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KINETIC ENERGY

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Torque on a Loop of Wire Carrying Current

in a Magnetic Field

Example Problem:
A rectangular coil (just like in the diagram at the left)
made up of 50 loops of wire, is carrying a current of
5.65A through a magnetic field of 20.0T strength.
The dimensions of the coil are 4.50cm x 8.25cm.

Previously, you learned how a straight wire carrying current

through magnetic field experiences a force. What if the
wire forms a loop?
This side, NO FORCE
because current flows
parallel to field

This side of loop

experiences a force
UP out of page

= nBIACos
Solution:
= 50 x 20.0 x 5.65 x (0.0450x0.0825)x Cos60
= 10.5 N.m.

Loop
on t can rota
his a
xis te

LENG

TH O
F CO
IL

What is the torque on the coil at the instant when it lies

at 60o to the field lines?

WIDTH OF COIL W

Flow of
Conventional
Current

Magnetic
Field

Notice that the dimensions of the coil were given in cm,

but must be converted to metres; S.I. units must be used!

TRY THE WORKSHEET, at the end of this section

This side of loop

experiences a force
DOWN into page

Structure of a Simple DC Motor

Basically, an electric motor is nothing more than a coil of
wire, built onto an axle so that it can rotate within a
magnetic field.

If this loop of wire is able to rotate, the forces on each side will
provide a Torque and cause it to rotate about its central axis.
The force on each side is

When current is switched on in the coil, the magnetic

forces create a torque which rotates the coil.

F = B.I.L (assume =90o)

ROTOR
Coils

Remember that Torque = Force x distance between forces

so the Torque on the loop is = B.I.L.W

Power
leads

However, the factor (LxW) = the AREA of the loop, so

Rotation
axle

= B.I.A
This is the torque provided by just one wire in the loop. If
the loop is a coil made up of n strands of wire, then
= n.B.I.A
Finally, it can be shown that as the coil rotates, there are
positions where the forces on the wires do NOT cause
rotation, so the torque varies with the angle between the
plane of the coil, and the field.

STATOR.
Coil for stator
electromagnet

= nBIACos

Close-u
up
of back of motor
showing
Commutator
&
Brushes

= Torque on the coil, in newton-metres (N.m)

n = number of loops of wire in the coil
B = strength of the magnetic field, in tesla (T)
I = current flowing in wires, in amps (A)
A = Area of coil, in square metres (m2)
= angle between plane of coil and mag.field
Note that

In small, simple motors (such as in a childs toy car) the

magnetic field is provided by a permanent magnet. In more
powerful motors, the field is provided by an electromagnet,
as in the demonstration motor above.

0o

Cos = 1
Cos 90o = 0
so maximum Torque occurs when the plane of the coil
lies flat in the field (=0o). When the coil is upright
in the field (=90o), the Torque is zero.
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

keep it simple science

The tricky bit is to supply electric current to a rotating coil,

and to maintain a steady, continuous torque... read on...
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Other Applications of the Motor Effect

Main Features of a Simple DC Motor

Refer to the photo on the previous page.

The Galvanometer
All electrical meters, ammeters and voltmeters, are based on
a device called a galvanometer, named in honour of Luigi
Galvani, one of the pioneers of Electrical Science.

The Rotor is the part that rotates. It is a coil of wire (or

often several coils) mounted on an axle to allow rotation.
The Stator is the part that remains stationary. It may be
a permanent magnet, or an electromagnet. Its purpose is to
provide the magnetic field.

The galvanometer works because of the Motor Effect; the

more current that flows through its coil, the greater the
torque on the coil, and the greater the deflection of the
meter needle, working against a small spring . The needle
then points to a scale of measurements, which can be
calibrated to read either current or voltage.

Often, the magnetic poles are shaped in such a way to

create a Radial Magnetic Field... one in which the lines of
force are directed like the spokes of a bicycle wheel... radii
of a circle. This means the plane of the coil is always flat
in the field ( = 0o) throughout its rotation. Since Cos0o=1,
the result is maximum torque at (nearly) all positions.

Measuring scale

Radial
Magnetic
Field

Needle moves
when coil rotates

Rotor

Stator

Provides
Magnetic Field

small spring

Small
Permanent
Magnet
provides radial
field for constant
torque

Rotating
Coil(s)

Coil (seen end-on)

experiences torque
when current flows

The Moving-Coil Loudspeaker

was explained in a Preliminary topic. Electrical current
(modulated with a signal from radio, microphone, etc)
creates a fluctuating magnetic field around a coil. This field
interacts with a nearby magnet, and the coil vibrates rapidly
back-and-forth. The attached speaker cone vibrates too,
and sends compression waves (sound) into the air.

Brushes

Allow electricity to flow

into rotating coil
Source of DC
current

Conventional
Current flow

Commutator

Cone
vibrates

Reverses current
direction every halfrotation

The Brushes are fine, flexible metal wires, or (more

commonly) a spring-loaded stick of graphite. The brushes
maintain electrical contact onto the rotating metal ring.

keep it simple science

Circular,
permanent
magnet

Sound waves
Current fluctuates
according to signal
from radio, TV or
music system.

The Commutator is a metal cylinder, split into 2 pieces. As

it rotates, the direction of current in the coil is reversed every
half-rotation. This way, the torque is always in the same
rotational direction, even though the coil has turned over.
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

Electromagnet vibrates
as its fluctuating field
interacts with
other magnet.

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A simple DC motor has just 4 main parts:

The Rotor, made up of a ae)..........................................
mounted on an axle to allow it to
af)......................................
The ag)........................................ which provides the
magnetic field, from either a ah)....................................
magnet, or an ai)................................................................

The
Brushes,
which
maintain
aj)..................................... contact between the
electricity supply and the rotating coil.
The ak)......................................................, which causes
the current to al)..................................... every half-turn.

Worksheet 1
Part A
Fill in the blanks. Check your answers at the back
Two parallel wires, both carrying a).................................
will exert a b)................................... on each other. The
reason is because each wire will produce a
c).......................... ............................. around itself, and
these 2 fields interact with each other. If the wires
carry current in the same direction, the force will
d)........................................ the wires. If the current
flow e)......................................, the force will
f)..................................... the wires. The magnitude of
the force per unit of g)........................... is proportional
to h)....................................................................... in the
wires, and i).......................................... proportional to
the distance between them.

The Motor Effect is also involved in the operation of

a am)..................................................., and a moving-coil
loudspeaker. In an electric meter, the needle moves
along a calibrated scale because of the
an)............................ on a coil inside a
ao)....................................... (shape) magnetic field. In a
loudspeaker, the sound is produced by
ap)............................ of a speaker cone. In turn, this is
made to vibrate by a coils magnetic field
aq).......................................... with a permanent magnet.

If a wire is carrying current through a

j).................................. field, it will experience a
k)................................. The magnitude of the force
depends upon 4 factors:
The strength of the Magnetic field, measured in
l)..............
The m)...................................... flowing in the wire
The n)..................................... of the wire that is
within the o)....................................., and
The p)........................................ between wire & field.
This force on a wire is the basis of electric motors
and is called the q)................................... Effect. The
directions of current, field & force are all at
r)......................................... to each other, and can be
determined by the s)..............................................
...................................... Rule.

Part B Practice Problems

Force Between Parallel Wires Carrying Current

1.
Calculate the force per unit of length between 2
long, parallel wires carrying 15.3A and 12.7A and
separated by 1.00cm. State the direction of the
force, given that the currents are in opposite
directions.
2.
Two long, parallel wires are carrying equal
currents. The wires are 10.0cm apart. The force
between them is found to be 8.25x10-5 N per
metre of length, attracting each other.
Find the magitude, and relative direction, of the
currents in the wires.

Torque is a measure of the t).....................................

effect of a pair of forces which cause something to
u).......................................... around a pivot point or
axle. A loop or coil of wire, carrying current within a
v)............................................................., will experience
a torque, because the force acting on the opposite
sides of the coil will be w).................................................
The size of the torque depends on 5 factors:
The x)............................................ which make the coil
The strength of the y)...............................................
The z).......................................... flowing in the coil
The aa)................................... of the coil, and
The angle between the ab)....................... of the coil,
and the field. Maximum torque occurs when the angle
is ac).......................... Zero torque occurs at an angle
of ad)............... degrees.
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

keep it simple science

Answers at back

3.
Two wires run parallel for a length of 1.48m. The
total force acting between them over this length
is 6.44x10-4N when they are carrying currents of
8.90A and 14.5A.
How far apart are they?
4.
Two power cables, both carrying 30.0A of
current in the same direction, are separated by a
distance of 8.00cm. The cables run parallel over
a distance of 25.0m.
What is the total force (including relative
direction) acting between them?
Worksheet continues, next page...
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Part B Practice Problems (continued)

Torque on a Coil in a Field

Force on a Wire Carrying Current Through a

Field

9.
Calculate the amount of torque on a coil of 200
turns of wire carrying
B=8.38T
1.50A in a field of
strength 5.25T. The
area of the coil is
1.20x10-3m2. Assume
that the field is radial,
so that the torque is
I = 2.50A
always at a maximum
(i.e. = 0o)

5.
A wire is carrying 4.50A
of current through a
B=11.0T
11.0T field, directed as I = 4.50A
shown. The length of
wire in the field is
L=1.25m
1.25m.
Find the magnitude and
direction of the force on the wire.
6.
Find the magnitude &
direction of the force I = 5.95A
which would act on
the wire shown. The length
of wire within the field
is 0.385m.

B = 22.7T
60o

11.
The torque achieved by a small electric motor is
found to be 3.86Nm, when a current of 3.20A
flows through the rotor coil which has an area
of 0.00262m2. The stator provides a radial field
of 4.60T. (assume = 0o)
How many turns of wire in the coil?

B = 105T

F = 27.2N

L=2.44m

7.
The vertical wire runs for
2.44m through a 105T
field directed out of the
page. The force on the
wire is 27.2N left.
Find the magnitude and
direction of the current in
the wire.

10.
The coil shown is 20cm square and composed
of 35 turns of wire.
a) Find the torque on the coil when it lies flat
in the field (i.e. = 0o).
b) Will the coil rotate clockwise or anticlockwise as viewed from the lower end?

12.

8.
A wire is carrying 8.00A of current over a
length of 0.287m through a magnetic field of
7.50T. A force of 3.72N acts on the wire.
Find the angle between the wire and the field
lines.

The rectangular coil shown is 8.00cm x 5.00cm

and is rotating anti-clockwise due to the torque
on it. The magnetic field of 22.3T gives
maximum torque of 12.3Nm at the position
shown. The coil consists of just 12 turns of
wire.
a) What is the current?
b) Determine the direction of conventional
current flow (clockwise or anti-clockwise around
the coil diagram?)

Remember that for full marks

in calculations, you need to show
FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION,
APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS

FULLY WORKED SOLUTIONS

IN THE ANSWERS SECTION
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

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2. GENERATORS & POWER PRODUCTION

Magnetic Flux & Flux Density

Electromagnetic Induction
If electrical currents produce magnetic fields, and interact
to produce forces and movement, shouldnt the opposite
occur too? So went the argument among scientists about
150 years ago. Many experiments were carried out before
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) proved the idea correct.

To explain his discovery of induction, Faraday introduced

the concept that a magnetic field is made up of a series of
lines of force. He showed that if a conductor moves so
that it cuts through these field lines, then a current is
induced to flow in the conductor.

Faraday discovered that if there is relative movement

between a magnetic field and a conductor, then a current
will be induced in the conductor. This is called
Electromagnetic Induction, and is the basis of the
electrical generator and all of societys large-scale power
production.

He invented the idea of magnetic flux as a measure of

how many field lines are cut by the moving conductor.
From this concept arises the idea of
Magnetic Flux Density
Same areas
Field P

Field Q

A Simple Demonstration of Induction

You may have done a simple experiment to see, firsthand, electromagnetic induction.

Galvanometer
detects any
current flow

Coil

Magnetic lines of
force pass
through this
area

More field lines

through the same area
= more intense field

The Magnetic Flux Density is what we have been calling

Magnetic Field Strength.

Magnet
moved near,
or in & out
of coil

Magnetic Field Strength = Magnetic Flux Density

It is a measure of the intensity of a magnetic field, in
terms of the number of force-field lines per unit of area.

When the magnet is moved near, or into the coil, the

galvanometer needle registers a flow of current.

Symbol used in equations = B

Unit of measurement = tesla (T)

It doesnt matter whether the magnet moves, or the coil

moves... as long as there is relative movement.

Faraday discovered that when there is relative motion

between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage
(or EMF = ElectroMotive Force) is created.

You may have investigated the factors which can effect

the nature of the induced current...

Size of
the EMF

Using a stronger magnet produces more current.

The closer the magnet is to the coil, the more current.
The faster the movement, the more current.

Faraday developed the mathematical equations relating the

induced voltage to rate of change of flux. The syllabus
does NOT require you to know these, but you DO need to
know the definitions above.

Reversing the direction of movement reverses the

current flow. Reversing the polarity of the magnet also
reverses the current flow.
In practice, Induction usually produces AC electricity...
Alternating Current which flows back-and-forth.

keep it simple science

is proportional to

Rate of change of the

FLUX
through the conductor

The voltage created then causes current to flow through

the circuit according to Ohms Law.

also...

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

Electromagnetic Induction is, of course, the basis of

the electric generator. Read on...
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What Makes the Generator Turn?

Generators

To get electricity from a generator you must make the coil

(or the magnetic field) rotate. How?

The main components of an electric generator are basically

the same as an electric motor. In a motor, electric current
in a coil inside a magnetic field, causes the coil to rotate.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY

In this simple, school demonstration generator, you simply

wind the handle.

KINETIC
ENERGY

Field Magnet

In a generator, rotating a coil inside a magnetic field

induces a current to flow in the coil.
KINETIC
ENERGY
Field Magnets

Connections
to electric
circuit

ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
External
electric
circuit
with light bulb

Rotating Coil

Rotating Coil
Slip-rrings &
Brushes

In this Hydroelectric power station, (below) these

generators are being turned by the movement of water
falling through huge turbines.

Slip-rings on axle transfer

current to the electric circuit
via brushes.

A simple motor can be a generator, and a simple generator

can act as a motor...
Comparison:

Simple Motor & Generator

Structure
Very similar. Both consist of one or more coils of wire
which can rotate inside a magnetic field. The field can be
provided by either permanent magnets, or electromagnets.
Both require brushes to maintain electrical contact with
the rotating coil to pass current into the coil (motor) or
carry induced current out of the coil (generator).

The power of the wind makes these generators spin.

Function
Opposites.
Motors use electricity to produce movement in the coil.
Generators use movement of the coil to produce electricity

Photo: Carlos Zaragoza

Practicalities
In reality, motors and generators are built very differently
for practical reasons.
For example, in power stations the generators are built to
have the coils of wire stationary while the magnets do the
rotating. This makes it simpler and more efficient to
transfer the electricity to the power grid, without having
massive currents sparking through the brushes.
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AC and DC Generators: Differences

Advantages & Disadvantages

In a simple generator as described previously, the induced

current will reverse direction every 1/2 revolution of the coil.

The fact that our mains electricity supply is Alternating

Current (AC) tells you that there must be advantages to
generating electricity as AC, rather than DC.

Half a
revolution
later, each side
of the coil cuts
the field in the
opposite
direction...

Induced current direction

One major advantage of AC has nothing to do with the

generators, but relates to transmission of power and the
ease of altering the voltage in a transformer. This will be
studied a little later. For now, simply note that there ARE
major reasons to do with distribution and usage, which
make AC preferable to DC.

In terms of the generators themselves, any advantages &

disadvantages relate to their structure:

... so the current

reverses direction.
Axle
rotating clockwise

Disadvantage of a DC Generator
No matter how well it is made, the commutator is the
weakness of a DC generator. Because it is a split-ring
structure, the brushes must spark and wear out as the
commutator revolves. This is inefficient in terms of
transferring electricity to the external circuit, and causes
maintenance problems as the brushes wear out and need to
be replaced.

This is alternating
current (AC)

Voltage
0

A graph of the EMF generated this way would look like

this:

Advantage of an AC Generator
Instead of a commutator, the AC generator has continuous
slip-rings so there is much less sparking and less wear on
the brushes.

time
One complete
rotation of
coil

Additionally, as already mentioned, an AC generator can be

built with the massive, heavy coils stationary and the
magnets doing the revolving on the inside. This simplifies
the engineering and maintenance and eliminates entirely the
use of slip-rings and brushes to carry the generated
electricity. (However, smaller amounts of electricity still
need to pass through brushes and slip-rings to supply the
rotating electromagnets.)

It is also possible to make a generator which will produce

direct current (DC) which flows in the same direction.
The current in the coil
reverses every 1/2
revolution, but the
commutator
reverses it
again to the
external
circuit.

Rotor

Rotating
Coil(s)

Energy Losses in Power Lines

Our modern electricity system consists of a relatively small
number of large power stations, with the electricity needing
to be distributed in power lines over hundreds of kilometers.

Although the wires (usually aluminium) are made to be of low

resistance, over long distances there could be major energy
losses due simply to the resistance causing heating in the wires.

Brushes
External electric circuit

Commutator

However, the energy loss due to resistance heating is much

greater at higher currents. So to minimise energy losses,
electricity is carried at very high voltage and very low
current. Typically, long-distance power is distributed at
250,000 volts or more, but only tiny currents, like 0.01 amp.

The electricity produced flows only in one direction, (DC)

but fluctuates according to the position of
DC from a
the coil within the field.
battery

Voltage
0

DC from a generator

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

The fact that AC can be readily stepped-up to high

voltage for transmission, then stepped-down for
consumer use is a major advantage of AC electricity. The
step-up & step-down is done by transformers.

time

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More on Power Lines

A Little History... Edison v Westinghouse

Power lines are not usually covered with a sheath of

insulation. Thats why it is deadly to touch them with a
ladder, or similar.

In the early days of electricity generation and usage the

famous inventor, Thomas Edison, was pioneering
electricity supply. He favoured the use of DC electricity and
had set up hundreds of DC power stations around the New
York area. His advantage was that he had invented the light
bulb, and now stood to make a fortune selling both the
bulbs and the electricity to run them.

To prevent the
electricity being
conducted to the
ground, the power lines
are supported on their
poles or towers by nonconducting insulators.

His main competitor was the Westinghouse company,

which wanted to set up an AC electricity system.
In 1884, Nikola Tesla arrived in America from Serbia. He
was an engineer and inventor and had developed new,
improved versions of AC generators, motors and
transformers. He got a job with the Edison company, but
soon left and went to work for Westinghouse. Tesla sold his
inventions to Westinghouse, who built the first large-scale
AC power station at Niagara Falls.

The insulators are

usually ceramic or glass
and often disc-shaped
to create a longer path
for a spark to jump.
Power lines and supporting structures need to be
protected from lightning strikes. Metal towers are well
earthed in that they can safely carry a lightning strike
into the ground. Wooden poles may be equipped with a
lightning rod... a thick metal cable running from the top
down into the ground.

Long distance transmission of AC electricity soon proved

more economical that the multiple power stations and
short-range Edison DC system. Also, Teslas new electric
motor, which ran only on AC, proved very economical and
reliable for factories, elevators and a host of new consumer
machines like vacuum cleaners and washing machines.

To protect the wires themselves, an extra wire called a

shield conductor may be strung above the power cables.
It is not supported by insulators, but electrically
connected to the metal towers. Lightning will strike the
shield conductor instead of the power lines, and be
safely conducted to ground through the metal tower.

The modern electrical world became established, and it was

AC electricity that became the standard.
Nikola Teslas contribution has been recognised by the
naming of the unit of magnetic field strength (magnetic
flux density) after him.

Effects of the Development of AC Generators

on Society and the Environment
The syllabus asks you to assess these effects. This means
to measure or weigh-up the positives and the negatives, to
both society and to the environment.
It can be argued that the effects on human society are nearly
all positive, while environmental effects are all negative.
Effects on the Environment
Effects on Society
The development of AC generators has led to the wide- Although much progress has been made toward controlling
pollution, the generation of electricity is linked to a number
spread availability of low-cost energy. This has:of enormous environmental problems: resulted in many improvements in life-style, with labour
-saving devices such as washers, etc, and the comforts of Much of our electricity is still generated by coal-burning
air-conditioning and the convenience of refrigerators and power stations. The burning of coal is a major contributor
to the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming.
freezers, etc.
promoted the development of electrical and electronic Nuclear Power stations are greenhouse-friendly, but
inventions, leading to modern communications systems carry risks of disasters such as the 1986 nuclear accident at
and computer networks for finance, business and Chernobyl.
entertainment, to name just a few areas.
Even development of hydro-electricity involves massive
Like it or hate it, the fact is that the modern technological disruption to ecosystems, when rivers are dammed and
world, and the life-style most people enjoy, with good valleys flooded to provide for power stations.
health and many comforts, is a direct result of electricity.
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More About Electromagnetic Induction...

Lenzs Law

Lenzs Law has a number of practical consequences...

Consider a conducting wire being pushed across a magnetic

field. Because the wire is cutting the field lines, there will be
an induced EMF, and (if theres a circuit available) current
will flow..

Back EMF in a Motor

BUT, when a current flows the Motor Effect will occur and
create a force on the wire. Which way will it push the wire?

However, as the coil rotates through the magnetic field,

induction also occurs, creating an induced EMF. Lenzs
Law guarantees that the induced EMF will act against the
supplied EMF.

As dealt with earlier, an electric motor rotates due to the

torque on the coil due to the applied current interacting
with the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field up
out of page.
Direction of
Force caused
by current in
field

Current Flow
due to
external EMF

Wire moving this

way

Current flow due

to induced EMF

F
I

Direction of induced
current

Heinrich Lenz figured it all out 150 years ago. The induced
current will create a magnetic field (and Motor Effect
force) which will oppose the motion that produced it in the
first place.

Source of EMF

Lenzs Law
The direction of an induced EMF (and current)
is such that it produces a magnetic field
opposing the change that produced the EMF

Conventional
Current flow

The final net-E

EMF
driving current
through the motor
is the difference
between the EMF
supplied, and the
Back-E
EMF.

Eddy Currents
Even when there is no designed electrical circuit present,
whenever there is relative motion between a conductor and
a magnetic field, an EMF is induced and currents will flow.
In a flat sheet or tubes of metal the induced currents often
flow in circles... these are called Eddy Currents

Lenzs Law arises as a consequence of the principle that

energy cannot be created from nothing... the Law of
Conservation of Energy.
Look at the diagram above. If the induced current flowed
the other way, then the motor effect force would act to the
right. This would accelerate the motion of the wire. Since
it would move faster, it would cut more field lines (greater
flux change Faraday would say) and thereby induce a
greater EMF and greater current. This would produce
more force and accelerate the wire even more... and so on.
This would mean energy being created from nothing!

Lenzs Law guarantees that the eddy currents will create

magnetic fields to oppose the motion that produced them.
Example: Get a small, but powerful super-magnet and
drop it through a plastic tube. Then drop it through a
copper, or aluminium tube.

In the diagram above, the induced current must flow as

shown, so that its own magnetic field opposes the motion
of the wire, and so Conservation of Energy is not violated.

PLASTIC TUBE.
Magnet falls
through at
normal rate

This is why:

COPPER TUBE

when you push a magnet into a coil, you may feel an

opposing force... the current induced in the coil is creating
a magnetic field which repels the one youre pushing.

Magnet falls very

slowly.
Induced EddyCurrents create
fields that repel
the falling
magnet.

When you wind the handle of a generator, the force

required is much greater than expected... Lenzs Law
opposes you!
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Electromagnetic Braking
This braking effect can be very useful.
In some amusement rides, the passenger seat or car is
equipped with small, powerful magnets. At the end of the
ride, there are sheets of copper which the magnets move
past. (Or, vice-versa... the magnets are in the track and
copper plate is onboard the car.)

Induction Cooking
An Induction Stove has a flat ceramic top with no
visible heating elements.

Either way, eddy currents are induced in the copper sheets.

These currents produce magnetic fields. These fields
interact with the magnets to produce a force opposing the
motion. This smoothly slows the ride to a stop.

Under the top are electromagnet coils. When switched

on, these produce oscillating magnetic fields. If a steel
saucepan is on top, eddy currents are induced in the
pan, which gets hot due to the resistance of the metal
to the eddy currents. This heat cooks the food in the
pan.

The beauty of this system is that:

it requires no power input to operate.
it involves no contact surfaces or moving parts that can
wear out.
it is fail-safe, so that in an emergency it will still work
and safely stop the moving ride.

The advantages of such a cooker are that:

heat is produced directly in the saucepan, rather than
a heating element. This is much more efficient in
energy terms, and thereby cheaper to operate.
the flat ceramic top is easy to clean.

Some trains use electromagnets (can be turned on/off as

needed) to induce eddy currents in the rails below the train.
As always, Lenzs Law ensures that the induced currents
create fields to oppose the motion, and acts as brakes.
Rollercoaster Terminal
Photo by Stacy Braswell

Poles of large
magnets used for
electro-m
magnetic
braking of
rollercoaster cars

Rails for cars to run on

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Worksheet 2
Fill in the blanks

Another major advantage of AC generation is to do with

energy losses in transmission lines. Energy loss due to
ag)....................................... heating is higher at higher
ah).................................... levels. Therefore, to minimize
energy loss, it is best to transmit electricity at ai).....................
voltage and very aj)................................... current. Since AC
electricity is easily stepped up or down by a
ak)............................................., it is far better when power
needs to be carried over long distances.

Check your answers at the back

Electromagnetic Induction was discovered by Michael

a)......................................... It is the basis of the electrical
b)...................................... and all large-scale electricity
production.
A simple experiment to investigate induction can be done
with a coil, a galvanometer and a c)........................................
Any d)................................. movement between e)...................
and ................................. will induce a flow of
f).................................... in the coil. The magnitude of the
induced current can be increased by:
using a g)........................................... magnet
moving the magnet h)......................................... to the coil
making the motion i)............................................
If the direction of movement is reversed, then the current
j)...................................... Reversing the polarity of the
magnet k)......................................... the current.

Transmission power lines use al)..................................... made

from glass or am)......................................., to prevent
electricity running to earth through support poles and
towers. They are protected from the effects of
an).......................................... strikes by extra wires called
ao)............................................................... strung above the
power cables and connected to the supporting towers. This
allows lightning to be conducted harmlessly to the
ap)..................................
In the early days of commercial electricity production, the
aq)........................................... company favoured the use of
ar)................. electricity. Hundreds of local as)........................
stations were built, since DC cannot be distributed over
long distances without massive loss of at)..............................
Nikola au)..............................., a Serbian immigrant, invented
improved versions of AC av).....................................,
................................ and transformers. These were used by
the Westinghouse company to build the first large power
station producing AC at aw)............................. Falls. Teslas
new AC motor was very successful too, and this
contributed to the acceptance of AC as the standard.

The strength of a magnetic field is technically known as

Magnetic l)........................................................... This is a
measure of the number of m)..................................................
lines passing through a given n)........................... Faraday
discovered that, in electromagnetic induction, the size of
the o)................................... induced is proportional to the
rate of change of p)............................ through the
conductor.
In a simple generator, a coil is made to q).............................
inside a magnetic field, which can be provided by either
r).................................... magnets, or by s)..................................
Current is t)....................................... in the coil and this is
passed into the external circuit by u).....................................
in contact with rotating v).............................................
which are mounted on the axle. Overall, the structure is
very similar to an electric w)................................, but the
energy transformation is exactly the opposite.

The effect of large-scale electricity generation:

On society the impacts are mostly ax)...................................,
including many ay).............................-saving devices, and
leading to the development of modern az)..............................
systems for ba)......................................., ....................................
and .....................................................
On the environment the impacts are mainly
bb)......................................... For example, a lot of electricity
generation involves burning of bc)......................... which is
a major contributor to the bd)..................................................
and be)..........................................................

As the coil rotates, every half-revolution it cuts the

magnetic field in the opposite direction, so the
x).................................................................. is reversed. The
result is that it generates y).........................................................
electricity. It is possible to generate DC by mounting a
z)............................................... on the rotating axle to
aa)................................ the current again each half-turn.
However, DC generators have the disadvantage that the
commutator causes a lot of ab).................................., and the
brushes wear out quickly. AC generators have the
advantage that the ac)...................-rings do not spark as
much and do not wear out brushes as fast. In practice, AC
generators are often built with the ad)...................................
stationary, and the ae)......................................... rotating. This
doesnt need any slip-rings to connect the coils to the
af)................................................... at all.
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Lenzs Law states that the induced bf).....................................

is such that its magnetic field bg)..................................... the
change that produced it in the first place. This arises as a
consequence of the Law of bh)................................................
It is because of this effect that electric motors are limited
by bi)................................................ The effect can be
useful, such as in electromagnetic bj).................................. of
amusement rides and trains, or in bk).....................................
cooking. These effects involve the induction of
bl).................................. currents in a conductor.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
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3. TRANSFORMERS & THEIR USES

Step-Up, Step Down

Purpose and Basic Nature of Transformers

Transformers work by inducing a new EMF and current in

the secondary coil. Whether the secondary voltage is
higher or lower than the primary voltage, is simply a matter
of the ratio between the number of turns of wire in each
coil.

It has already been mentioned that the great advantage of

using AC electricity is that it can be stepped-up to very
high voltages for efficient distribution, then steppeddown again for convenient and safe usage by consumers.
It is this stepping-up & down of the voltages that is the
purpose and function of a transformer.

Faraday discovered that the size of the induced EMF is

proportional to the number of turns of wire in the coil. In
a transformer, if the number of turns in the secondary coil
is greater than in the primary, then the induced EMF is
higher too... the transformer steps-up the voltage.

Practical Investigation
There are many possible investigations you may have
done in class to see the basic operation of a transformer.
One simple example is shown.

Schematic Diagram of STEP-U

UP Transformer

Light bulb
connected to
coil of wire =
Secondary Coil

Secondary
Circuit
(AC output at
higher voltage)

Primary
Circuit
(AC input
supply)

Primary Coil
(less turns)
AC power

Soft iron core

(Enhances
magnetic field)

Primary Coil
with steel core.
(electromagnet)

Secondary
Coil
(more turns)

In a step-down transformer, the opposite is true... the

secondary coil has less turns than the primary, and the
induced EMF is lower.
Schematic Diagram of STEP-D
DOWN Transformer
Bulb lights up due to
induced current in
secondary coil

Explanation
The AC supply to the primary coil (an electromagnet)
produces a fluctuating magnetic field. The field lines keep
building, collapsing and reversing direction.

Primary Coil
(more turns)

This moving field constitutes a magnetic flux through

the wires of the secondary coil, and so EMF is induced.
This causes current to flow, which lights the bulb.

keep it simple science

Secondary
Coil
(less turns)

Current in Primary and Secondary Circuits

If you use a step-up transformer to get a higher voltage,
does this mean you just got something for nothing?

Note:
This will NOT work with DC electricity from a battery.
The key to the induction in the secondary coil is the
fluctuating field caused by the AC supply.
(You WILL get induction with DC from a school
power pack because it fluctuates quite a lot)
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

Secondary
Circuit
(AC output at
lower voltage)

Primary
Circuit
(AC input
supply)

No, of couse not! If the voltage goes up, the current goes
down in the same proportion.
(Assuming perfect transformation of energy)
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The Transformer Equation

Conservation of Energy in a Transformer

There is a simple relationship between the voltages and

the number of turns of wire in the coils of a transformer.

You will recall from a Preliminary topic that

Electrical Power = Voltage x Current
P = V.I

Vp = np
Vs
ns

and that Power is the the amount of Energy being

transformed per second.

Vp = Voltage in the primary coil.

Vs = Voltage in the secondary coil.

In a step-up transformer, the voltage increases, and the

current decreases by the same factor, so that:

np = No. of turns of wire in the primary coil.

ns = No. of turns of wire in the seconary coil.
(Assumes 100% efficiency in energy transfer)

Primary coil Power = Secondary coil Power

VpIp = VsIs

Primary
Example Problem:
750 turns
Secondy
5,000
A transformer has 750
240V
turns
turns of wire in the
primary, and 5,000 turns
in the secondary coil.
Input voltage is 240V AC.
a) Find the output voltage.
b) Is this a step-up or step-down transformer?

Solution: a)

Energy per second = Energy per second

in Primary coil
in Secondary coil
Therefore, the Law of Conservation of Energy is obeyed.
(Note: you are NOT required to solve problems using this
relationship, but should be able to describe the situation)
Energy Losses in Transformers
The description above assumes that a transformer works
with 100% efficiency. This is often assumed for solving
simple problems, but you need to be aware that, in the real
world, nothing is perfect.

Vp = np
Vs
ns
240 / Vs = 750 / 5,000
Vs = 240 x 5,000 / 750
= 1,600 V.

Real transformers are not perfect, and always lose some

energy in the process of altering the voltage. The main loss
of energy is by resistance heating, not only in the coils, but
due to Eddy Currents induced in the iron core.

b) Step-up transformer, since it has more turns in the

secondary coil, and the output voltage is higher than
input.
TRY THE WORKSHEET, at the end of section

Once the transformer starts to heat up, the situation gets

worse, because (as covered in Preliminary topic) resistance
in a metal increases with temperature.
A number of methods are used to minimize the energy
losses:
The iron core is not one large piece of iron, but is made
of thin sheets of iron, laminated together, but insulated
from each other. This way the eddy currents induced in the
core are smaller, and cannot circulate very far.

Heat
Radiators

The coil wires are thicker on the higher current side of the
transformer (depending whether step-up or step-down).
Thicker wires have less resistance, so this minimizes
resistance heating in the coils.
Transformers are designed to radiate heat away so they
stay as cool as possible, to reduce resistance. Large
transformers may have cooling oil circulating through a
heat exchanger, rather like the radiator system of a car
engine.
In the photo on the left, the transformers are equipped
with small metal radiators to quickly lose heat to the air.

Photo: James Black

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From Power Station to Home...

the Role of Transformers

Transformers inside the Home

Even after all this transforming going on before the
electricity gets into your home, its still not finished.

Even though there is some loss of energy in a transformer,

it is still worth it. The advantage is the way AC can be
stepped-up to very high voltages and efficiently distributed
over long distances from large, economical power stations.

Many appliances inside your home need a transformer

because they need more, or less, voltage than the 240V
supply.

The typical chain of transformations is:

For example:

Step-u
up

High Voltage
distribution
250,000 V
or more

Power Station
Generators
produce
20,000V AC

Neighbourhood
Transformer

TV picture-tubes
need 1,500V to
operate.
Much of the weight
of a TV set is the
step-up transformer
inside.

Photo: Peter Hamza

Step-d
down

District Area
distribution
132,000 V

Many electronic devices need only low voltages, such as

12V or less. Smaller gadgets often have the necessary
transformer in a box combined with the electric plug.
Typical
domestic
TransformerRectifier unit

A lot of smaller devices

not only run on low
voltage, but often need
DC instead of AC.

Step-d
down

Their transformers are also

rectifiers to produce
direct current.

Town or Suburb
distribution
11,000V

Photo: Ken Kiser

Step-d
down

Step-d
down

Neighbourhood
distribution
2,000V

Home Supply
240V

Impacts of the Development of Transformers on Society

The syllabus requires you to be able to discuss the impact of transformers on society.
Development of transformers was, of course, an integral part of the development of
our modern electrical supply system, based on large power stations and long-distance
transmission of high voltage AC.
The history and social impacts have already been outlined... see page 13.

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The electricity generated at a power station is

usually stepped ac)................ to at least
ad)........................ volts for long-distance
transmission. It will then be steppedae)..................... in 4 or 5 separate transformers at
district, suburb and af).......................................
levels, before entering your home at
ag)....................... volts.

Worksheet 3
Part A
Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back
The purpose and function of a transformer is to
a)...................................................................................
This allows electricity to be stepped-up to
b)......................... voltages for efficient, longdistance c)....................................., and then
d)........................................ again for convenient
safe use by consumers.

Even inside the home there may be many

transformers working. For example, a
ah).................................... requires about 1,500V
and has a step-ai)................. transformer to do
this. Small electronic equipment often runs on
aj).................. voltage ak)............................. current.
These devices often have a transformer al).............................................. unit combined
with their electricity plug.

The basic structure of a transformer is simple: it

consists of e).................. coils, called the
f).................................... and ......................................
The coils are arranged one inside the other, with
a core of g)......................................... in the centre.
If h).................... electricity flows in the
i)..................................... coil, it creates a
j)................................. magnetic field. This, in turn,
k)....................................... an EMF in the
secondary coil, at a l)................................... voltage.

COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES

A step-up transformer has more turns of wire

in its m)....................................... coil, and its
output voltage is n).................................... than the
input. A step-down transformer has more
turns in its o).................................. coil and its
output voltage is p)...............................................

Part B Practice Problems Transformers

1.
A transformer has 2,000 turns in its primary and
200 turns in its secondary coil. Input is 240V AC.
a) Find its output voltage.
b) Is this a step-up or step down transformer?

In a perfect transformer, the input and output

q)................... will be equal, because of the Law of
r)................................. of ....................................
This means that if voltage is stepped up, then
s)........................................ will be lower.

2.
At an electricity sub-station the voltage is
stepped-down from 66,000V to 11,000V. The
massive transformer has 52,000 turns of wire in
its primary coil. How many turns in the
secondary coil, to the nearest thousand.

In reality, there are t)..................................................

in any transformer, mainly due to
u)....................................................
This is partly due to resistance in the coils, but
mainly
because
of
resistance
to
v)............................. currents induced in the iron
core. Once some heat is produced, the resistance
w).................................... at higher temperatures.
To minimize these energy losses:

transformers
are
designed
to
x)................................. heat.

thicker
wires
in
coils
reduce
y)..................................

the
iron
core
is
made
from
z)................................................. sheets of iron,
aa).......................................... together to minimize
the ab)......................... currents.
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

keep it simple science

3.
The 240V plug-in recharger for a mobile
phone contains a transformer with 50 turns in its
secondary coil. Its output is 6.0V DC.
a) How many turns in the primary coil?
b) Apart from being a transformer, what else must
this unit do?
c) Explain why this other function must be
done after the step-down transformer function is
achieved.

Remember that for full marks

in calculations, you need to show
FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION,
APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS

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4. MORE ON MOTORS
Features of the Induction Motor

The Induction Motor Principle

No external current needs to be fed into the rotor, so

there is no need for any slip-rings or commutator. This
simplifies the motor, reduces maintenance, and makes it
less likely that anything can wear out or need replacing.

Back in the early days of commercial electricity, when

Edisons DC system was fighting it out with
Westinghouses AC system, one of the factors that finally
led to a victory for AC was Teslas Induction Motor.

Therefore, the motor is reliable and low-maintenance.

Practical Investigation
You may have carried out an experiment similar to this:
Copper or aluminium disk
suspended on a thread

Magnet

The motor works only on AC, and rotates at a constant

speed according to the frequency of the AC supply.

Disk begins
to rotate,
chasing
the magnet

This can be a limitation, and means that gears or pulleys are

needed to run machinery either faster or slower than the
motor speed.
Apparently the simplicity and reliability advantages far
outweigh the limitations, because it is estimated that about
95% of the millions of electric motors in the world are AC
Induction types!

Magnet rotated underneath metal disk.

(e.g. by attaching to a drill)

Electrical Energy Conversions

The final point to be made in this topic is the same as one
of the first points made in the related Preliminary topic...

Explanation
The moving magnet induces Eddy Currents in the metal
disk. These in turn create their own magnetic fields.
These magnetic fields interact with each other so that the
disk experiences a torque, and begins to rotate, chasing
the rotating magnet.

Electricity is so useful
because it is so easily converted
into so many other energy forms,
quickly, efficiently & cleanly

The Induction Motor works on this same principle:

The Stator is a series of coils, fed with AC current in such
a way that the magnetic fields rotate by a rippling on-andoff in sequence around the outside.

Examples: In the home, electricity is converted into:

Heat, by stoves, toasters, kettles, etc.
Light, by light bulbs and fluoro tubes.
Sound, by hi-fi speakers.
Microwaves, in a microwave oven.
Radio waves, by a cordless, or mobile phone.
Infra-red waves, by a radiant heater, or TV remote.
Kinetic & mechanical energy, by a blender or drill.

The Rotor is mounted on an axle for rotation. It contains

a laminated iron core to intensify magnetic fields. The main
part, however, is a copper frame known as the squirrel
cage because it resembles an exercise wheel for a caged
pet.
Eddy
Currents
can
circulate in
the
squirrel
cage

In industry, electricity is converted into:

Radio waves, for radio & TV transmissions.
Kinetic & mechanical energy, in industrial machinery,
conveyors and elevators.
X-rays, for medical imaging.
Light, in laser beams for communication.

The moving magnetic fields produced by the stator coils

induce Eddy Currents in the squirrel cage. These can
circulate freely in the copper cage, and produce their own
magnetic fields.

... and so many more examples.

The squirrel cage fields interact with the rotating stator

fields such that the rotor experiences torque, and rotates to
chase the stator fields.
HSC Physics Topic 2
Copyright 2005-2007

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.

MOTORS
&
GENERATORS

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

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Practice Questions

5. The diagram shows a rectangular coil PQRS carrying a

current in a magnetic field.

These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to

challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the
topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the
K.I.S.S. principle level.

When you have confidently mastered this level, it is

strongly recommended you work on questions from past
exam papers.

Part A
Multiple Choice
1. The diagram shows 2 wires carrying the same current,
but in opposite directions. The point X is mid-way
between the wires.

C.
(into page)

(out of page)

D.

2. Two long parallel wires are carrying currents I1 ans I2 in

the same direction. The wires are d metres apart. The
wires exert a force per unit of length on each other.
If both currents were doubled and the distance between
the wires halved, by what factor would the force per unit
length change?
A. increase, by a factor of 8.
B. increase, by a factor of 2.
C. remain the same.
wire Q
D. decrease, by a factor of 4.
wire P
The diagram is used for
questions 3 and 4.

=30o

It shows 2 wires P & Q both

carrying the same current
through the same magnetic
field. The length of each
wire within the field is the same.

6. A torque is produced when:

A. a force causes circular motion.
B. a force acts on a pivot point, causing acceleration.
C. a pair of separated forces act in opposite directions.
D. a pair of forces act in the same direction.
7. Electric motors often have a curved stator structure to
give a radial magnetic field. The benefit of this field is
that it:
A. gives a more constant torque as the coil rotates.
B. reverses the current each half-revolution.
C. intensifies the field in the centre of the coil for increased
torque.
D. reverses the field so the coil will turn the other way.

Which of the following

would also cause the
needle to move left?

4. Compared to the force acting on P, the force on wire Q

would be:
A. exactly the same.
B. about 87% as strong.
C. exactly half as strong.
D. zero.
keep it simple science

8. In an experiment, Sam
noted that when the N
pole of the magnet was
pushed into the coil, the
galvanometer needle
moved left.

3. The force experienced by wire P would be directed:

A. to the right
B. to the left
C. out of the page
D. into the page

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

Which line of information (A,B,C or D) correctly identifies

the direction of magnetic force acting on side PQ and on
side QR?
Force on PQ
Force on QR
A.
out of page
into page
B.
nil
out of page
C.
into page
up page
D.
into page
nil

Which vector shows the direction of the magnetic field at

point X?

B.

Magnetic
Field

Flow of
Conventional
Current

A.

R
Loop
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keep it simple science

A. pulling N pole out.

B. pulling S pole out.
C. reverse the wire leads, then push N pole in.
D. push N pole in at other end of coil.

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9. The magnetic field strength (B) is more correctly

known as:
A. Magnetic Flux
B. Magnetic Flux Density
C. the rate of change of Magnetic Flux
D. Electromagnetic Force, or EMF

17. In an AC induction motor:

A. magnetic fields in the squirrel cage rotor chase the
rotating stator fields.
B. the rotor fields in the squirrel cage are created by current
fed to the coils via a commutator.
C. the stator consists of curved magnets to provide a
radial field to give constant torque to the squirrel cage.
D. the squirrel cage is made of soft iron pieces, laminated
together, to minimize the eddy currents.

10. In a simple generator with a rotating coil, the function

of slip-rings and brushes is to:
A. ensure a constant torque on the coil.
B. pass current from the external circuit into the coil.
C. pass induced current from coil to the external circuit.
D. provide the external magnetic field.

Longer Response Questions

Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to give you
an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate.

11. Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons that

we use AC electricity in preference to DC?
A. AC generators do not need commutators.
B. AC can be readily changed from one voltage level to
another.
C. AC induction motors are efficient and reliable.
D. AC is more readily converted into heat, light, etc.

18. ( 4 marks)
Two parallel wires are carrying 12.0A and 7.50A of current
in opposite directions. The parallel section of the wires is
1.85m long, and the wires are 1.00cm apart.
Calculate the total force (including direction) which will act
between these wires.
19. (4 marks)
A wire is carrying 9.00A of current in a direction due
north. 0.750m of the wire is within a vertical magnetic field,
which causes a force of 3.25N to push the wire due east.
Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.

12. A wire strung above the power lines and connected to

the towers without any insulation, is probably:
A. to carry the highest voltage electricity.
B. a communication wire for electricity workers.
C. to protect the wires from lightning strikes.
D. a safety cable for maintenance workers.

20. (8 marks)

14. As you push a North pole of a magnet into a coil a

current will be induced in the coil. This induced current
will create its own magnetic field. You would expect the
North pole of this induced field to be located:
A. at the opposite end of the coil from where you are.
B. at the near end of the coil.
C. in the middle of the coil, pointing upwards
D. in the middle of the coil, pointing downwards.

Flow of
Conventional
Current

B= 8.00T

S
I= 5.75A
Coil is 5.00cm square

21. (5 marks)
a) In a simple DC motor, describe the role of:
i) the commutator
ii) the stator
b) Explain what is meant by a radial magnetic field, and
describe the advantage it gives in a rotating-coil motor.

16. Which statement is correct for a perfect transformer

with 100% efficiency?
A. The voltages in each coil are equal.
B. The product of (voltage x current) is equal in each coil.
C. The currents in each coil are equal.
D. A heat exchanger is needed to cool the transformer.
keep it simple science

Magnetic
Field

The rectangular coil PQRS is made of a single strand of

wire. It is carrying current through a field as shown.
a) Find the force acting on side RS, including direction.
b) What force acts on side QR?
Explain your answer.
c) Find the torque on the coil at the moment when the
plane of the coil is inclined at an angle of 10o to the field
lines.

15. A transformer has 100 turns in its primary coil and 400
in the secondary coil. Its output voltage is 1,000V.
Which statement is true?
A. This is a step-up transformer, and input voltage=4,000V
B. Input was 250V, and this is a step-down transformer.
C. It is a step-down transformer, with input = 4,000V.
D. Input = 250V, and this is a step-up transformer.

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

R
Loop
on t can rota
his a
xis te

13. During the early development of electricity supply

systems:
A. Westinghouse favoured AC, Edison favoured DC.
B. Tesla sold his inventions to the Edison company.
C. Both Westinghouse and Edison favoured AC supplies.
D. The Edison company built the first AC power station.

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22. (8 marks)
The diagram shows the
simplified structure of a
galvanometer, the basis of
all electrical meters.

27. (4 marks)
Assess the effects of the development of AC generators
on society and the environment.

(a)
(b)

28. (3 marks)
B

(c)

For each of the parts

labelled (a), (b), (c) & (d)
identify what that part is,
and explain briefly its
purpose.

(d)

23. (4 marks)
During your studies you will have carried out a first-hand
investigation into induction, using equipment similar to
that shown in this
photo.
What is the effect on
the induced current of:
a) using a stronger
magnet?
b) placing the magnet
inside the coil and
leaving it stationary?
c) moving the magnet
at a point further from
the coil?
d) reversing which pole of the magnet is inserted into the
coil?

A conducting wire is being acted upon by a force as

shown, so that it is moving through a magnetic field.
A current is induced in the wire.
The induced current will result in another force acting on
the wire.
a) In which direction the other force will act?
b) Deduce the direction of the current flow in the wire.
c) State the scientific principle involved.
29. (4 marks)
Outline the process of electromagnetic braking, giving
an example of where it might be used, naming the scientific
principle responsible, and explaining how braking forces
are produced.
30. (4 marks)
A small step-down transformer-rectifier unit has an output
of 8.00V from 240V mains input. Its secondary coil
contains 60 turns of wire.
a) How many turns in the primary coil?
b) What is the purpose of the unit being a rectifier?

24. (3 marks)
a) Give a definition of magnetic flux density and state
the unit of measurement.
b) Complete this statement: Michael Faraday found that
the size of the induced EMF is proportional to........

31. (6 marks)
a) Describe the basic structure and operation of an AC
induction motor.
b) Assess the features of the AC Induction Motor.

25. (4 marks)
Compare and contrast a simple moving-coil motor and a
simple moving-coil electric generator.
26. (3 marks)
Justify societys choice of AC electricity supply over DC.

Remember that for full marks

in calculations, you need to show
FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION,
APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS

HSC Physics Topic 2

Copyright 2005-2007

keep it simple science

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