ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Id like to express my greatest gratitude to the
people who have helped and supported me
throughout my project. I am grateful to Mrs. Susan
John for her wonderful support for doing this
project, from the initial advice and the
encouragement to this day. This project is the
combined effort of our group, so I would like to
thank my group members for helping me
throughout this project.
I furthermore thank my principal Mr. Ravi Thomas
for providing me this project, my parents, for their
undivided support and interest which inspired me
and encouraged me to go my own way, without
which I wouldnt be able to complete this project. At
last but not the least, Id like to thank my friends
who motivated me and finally to God, who made all
things possible
INTRODUCTION
Potentiometer is a device that can be used to do
many things like finding the internal resistance of
a cell or to compare e.m.fs of two cells. Here in
this project we have found out the variation of
internal resistance with many factors.
Potentiometer is a very useful device in the field of
physics. Its applications are of great help in many
experiments. Through this project we could learn a
lot about such uses of potentiometer.
Potentiometer is a device used to measure the
internal resistance of a cell or to compare e.m.f of
two cells and potential difference across a resistor.
PRINCIPLE:It works on the principle that when a constant
current flows through a wire of uniform thickness
and material , potential difference between its two
points is directly proportional to the length of the
wire between the two points .
R = pl / A
V = [ Ip / A ] l
But Ip / A is a constant
i.e. V L
Or
V=kl
where k is constant of proportionality. It is called
the potential gradient along the potentiometer
wire and measured in Vm-1.
3
WHEATSTONES BRIDGE PRINCIPLE
Four resistors P, Q, R and S are connected so as to
form a quadrilateral (bridge) with a Galvanometer
in the middle. If the resistors are connected such
that the ratio of P and Q equals ratio of R and S,
then no current passes through the galvanometer.
This condition is known as Balanced Condition of
the Wheatstones Bridge.
At Balanced Condition, P/Q = R/S .
CONSTRUCTION:A potentiometer consists a long wire of uniform
cross sectional area , usually 4 to 10 m long , of
material having high resistivity and low
temperature coefficient such as constantan or
manganin. These wires are stretched parallel to
each other on a broad wooden board by the side
at a metre scale. A battery of constant e.m.f. is
connected to the two ends. A jockey with a
sensitive Galvanometer is made to slide on the
wire.
WORKING:A fully charged Battery eliminator having a
constant and high e.m.f. is connected between
terminals P and Q through an ammeter and
Rheostat . This provides an adjustable potential
gradient along the potentiometer wire. Positive
terminal of the battery is connected to terminal P.
Positive terminals of other cell or cells are also
connected to same terminal P.
Advantages of potentiometer:5
Easy to use
Low cost
High amplitude output
Easily available
Applications of a potentiometer: Linear displacement measure
Rotary encoders
Volume control
Comparison of e.m.f.s of two cells
With the help of a voltmeter we can measure only
the terminal potential difference of a cell, but using a
potentiometer we can determine the value of e.m.f.
of a given cell. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery is
constant and more than that of given cell. When a
key is inserted, a constant current I flows through the
potentiometer wire and a potential gradient is set
up.
The positive terminals of the cells E1 and E2 are
connected to the zero end terminal of the
potentiometer, whereas the negative terminals are
connected through a two way key to a galvanometer.
A resistance box and a jockey. When the cell E1 is in
circuit, on sliding the jockey gently along the
potentiometer wire a point J, say l1 distance from the
6
zero end, is obtained where the galvanometer shows
zero deflection. In such case the negative terminal of
the cell E1 and the point J on the wire are at same
potential. Hence, fall of potential along the length l 1
of the potentiometer wire is equal to the e.m.f. of the
cell E1 as no current is drawn from the cell. As the fall
of the potential along a wire of uniform area of cross
section is proportional to its length;
E 1 l1
E1 = k l 1
..(1)
Where k is the potential gradient along the
potentiometer wire.
Similarly, a point at a distance l2 from zero end of the
wire can be obtained with the cell E2 , where the
galvanometer shows zero deflection, so that again
E2=k l2
..(2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
E1/E2 = l1/l2
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
7
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to
flow of ions through it is called internal resistance of the
cell. It is represented by the symbol r. Its unit is ohm.
Internal Resistance depends on:
1.Electrodes area inside the electrolyte.
2.Distance between the electrodes.
3.Electrolyte nature and concentration.
4.Temperature.
5.Passage of time taken for using the cell.
To determine the internal resistance , the circuit
arrangement used is shown above. By adjusting the
rheostat and closing key K1 , if length l1 is the length of
the potentiometer wire to the point where a balance
point is obtained in an open circuit i.e., K2 is open , then
E = k l1
Where k is the potential gradient along the
potentiometer wire.
If the balance point is obtained at l2, then the potential
difference between the terminals of the cell is
V = k l2
The internal resistance of the cell is given by
r = R (E- V / V)
8
i.e. r = R ( l1 - l2 / l2 )
OBJECTIVE:To study the various factors on which the internal
resistance of a cell depends.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:A potentiometer , a battery eliminator, two one way
keys , a rheostat of low resistance ,a galvanometer,
a high resistance box , a fractional resistance box ,
an ammeter , a voltmeter , a cell ( Leclanche cell ), a
jockey , a set square , connection wires and piece of
sand paper.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
THEORY:The internal resistance of a cell is given by
r = R ( l 1 - l2 / l2 )
where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without
shunt and with shunt respectively and R is the
shunt resistance in parallel with the given cell.
PROCEDURE:1. Arrange the circuit as shown in the scheme of
connections as in figure.
10
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand
paper and make tight connections according to the
circuit diagram.
3. Tight the plugs of the resistance box.
4. Check the e.m.f of the battery and cell and see
that the e.m.f of the battery is more than that of
the given cell, otherwise null or balanced point will
not be obtained.
5. Take the maximum current from the battery,
making rheostat resistance small.
6. To test the connections of the connections:- Insert
the plug in the key k1 and note the ammeter
reading. Take out 2000 ohm resistance plug from
the resistance box. Place the jockey first at the end
P of the wire and then on the end Q. If the
galvanometer shows deflection in opposite
directions in two cases, the connection are correct.
7. Without inserting the plug in the key k2 adjust the
rheostat so that the null point is obtained on the
fourth wire of potentiometer
8. Insert the 2000 ohm plug back in its position in
resistance box and by slightly adjusting the jockey
near the previously obtained position of null point,
obtain the null point position accurately, using a
set square.
11
9. Measure the balancing length l1 between this
point and the end P of the wire.
10. Take out the 2000 ohms plug from the resistance
box. Introduce the plugs in the key k1 as well as in
key k2. Take out a small resistance(1-5ohm) from
the resistance box connected in parallel with the
cell
11. Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and
obtain null point.
12. Insert 2000 ohms plug back in its position and if
necessary make further adjustment for sharp null
point.
13. Measure the balancing point l2 from end P.
14. Remove the plugs at k1 and k2. Wait for sometime
and for the same value of current (as shown by the
ammeter), repeat the steps 7 to 13.
15. Repeat the observations for different values of R
repeating each observation twice.
16. Record your observations as given below
OBSERVATION:1.
Sr.
No.
Effect of separation between electrodes
Distance
between
the
Resistanc
e ()
Balancing Balancing
length
length
when Key when Key
12
r=R(
l1 - l 2 /
electrode
s (cm)
1
36
39
Open
(cm)
638
Closed
(cm)
93
10
634
163
638
89.5
l2 ) ()
29.3
28.8
30.5
42
10
639
158
644.5
88
10
637
152
30.3
31.6
31.9
2. Effect of area of contact
Sr. No.
Height
Balanci Balanci
of
ng
ng
electro
Resista length length
de in
nce
when
when
the
()
Key
Key
electrol
Open
Closed
yte
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
3
641.5
118.5
10
640.7
172
13
r=R(
l1 - l 2 /
l2 ) ()
22.06
27.25
3.
628
161
14.5
10
637
252
15.27
640
276
10
641
338
6.59
8.96
Effect of concentration
Sr.
No.
Concentra
tion of
Resista
the
nce
the
()
electrolyt
es (M)
0.5 M
10
Balancing
length
when Key
Open (cm)
Balancin
g length
when
Key
Closed
(cm)
649
409
r=R
( l1 l2 / l 2 )
()
5.86
2
0.6 M
10
635
410
5.48
1M
10
623
463
3.4
14
CONCLUSIONS:On decreasing the electrode distance keeping the
concentration of the electrolyte and height of the
electrolyte constant, internal resistance of the
cell decreases. Internal Resistance is directly
proportional to separation between the
electrodes.
On decreasing the concentration of electrolyte
keeping the electrode distance and height of
electrolyte constant, internal resistance of the
cell increases. Internal Resistance is inversely
proportional to concentration.
15
On decreasing the electrolyte in contact with the
electrode or by decreasing the area of contact
keeping the concentration and dist between the
electrodes constant, the internal resistance of all
cell increases. Internal Resistance is inversely
proportional to the area of contact.
PRECAUTIONS:1) The auxiliary battery B used for producing
potential gradient along the potentiometer wire
should be fully charged to have a constant e.m.f.
Its e.m.f. should be greater than the e.m.f. of each
cell which is to be compared.
2) Positive terminals of all the cells must be
connected to the terminal P where that of auxiliary
battery is connected.
3) Terminal P should be taken as zero of the scale
for measuring the balancing length.
16
4) A sensitive galvanometer should be used to find
the null point. It should be protected with a
resistance box (R.B), put in series while finding
approximate position of null point. Resistance in
box should be made zero when exact position of
the null point is to be located.
5) The approximate position of null point must be
brought in the middle of the last wire, by putting
jockey (J) there and adjusting wire current by the
rheostat.
6) Current should be passed through the wire only
when taking observations, to avoid unnecessary
heating of wire, which causes change of resistance
changing the potential gradiant, (k=I)
7) In case, null point is not obtained on the
potentiometer wire i.e. one side deflection is
obtained when jockey is kept at the two ends of
the wires used, following checks must be made.
(i) Connections must be correct, neat, tight and
continuous
(no connecting wire is broken). For
correct connections, positive terminal of the battery
and cells be connected at one point.
(ii) Measure the e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery. The
must be full and stable to ensure that the battery is
17
fully charged. The e.m.f. of battery must be more
than e.m.f. of either cell used.
(iii) Make rheostat resistance in circuit zero so that
maximum current passes through the potentiometer
wires.
8) For one set of observation the ammeter reading
should be constant.
9) Current should be passed for short time only,
while finding the null point.
10 ) Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial
null point lies on last wire of the potentiometer.
11) Cell should not be disturbed during
experiment.
12) Jockey should not be rubbed against the
potentiometer wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR:1)
The auxiliary battery may not be fully
charged.
18
2) The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform
cross section and material density throughout
its length.
3) End resistances may not be zero.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts
http://collegeofsanmateo.edu/
wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer
Comprehensive Practical Physics (class-12)
19
REMARKS
20
