Chfgh
3
Environmental
Policy:
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Decision Making and Problem
Solving
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Part 1: Foundations of
Environmental Science
PowerPoint Slides prepared by
Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright
2008
Pearson
Education,
Inc.,Inc.,
publishing
as Benjamin
Copyright
2008
Pearson
Education,
publishing
as PearsonCummings
Benjamin Cummings
Why are environmental laws unpopular?
Environmental laws are challenged, derided, and ignored
Environmental policy involves government regulations
Businesses and individuals view laws as overly
restrictive and unresponsive to human needs
Most environmental problems are long-term processes
Human behavior is geared toward short-term needs
News media have short attention spans
Politicians act out of their own short-term interest
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Framework of U.S. policy
Results from actions of the three branches of government
Legislative branch = creates statutory law
Executive branch = enacts or vetoes legislation
- Issues executive orders
Judicial branch = interprets laws
Administrative agencies = the fourth branch
- Established by the president or Congress
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Early U.S. environmental policy
Involved management of
public lands, 1780s to the late
1800s
Promoted settlement
Extraction of natural
resources
Increased prosperity
Relieved crowding in Eastern
cities
Displaced millions of Native
Americans
People believed that land was
infinite and inexhaustible
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The second wave of U.S. policy
Addressed impacts caused by the first wave
Public perception and government policy shifted
Mitigated environmental problems associated
with westward expansion
Yellowstone National Park, the worlds first
national park, opened in 1872
Other protected areas were created
National wildlife refuges, parks, and forests
Reflected a new understanding that the Wests
resources were exhaustible and required legal
protection
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The third wave of U.S. environmental policy
Mid-to late-20th century
Better off economically
But dirtier air, dirtier water, and
more waste and toxic chemicals
Increased awareness of environmental
problems shifted public priorities and
policy
1962: Silent Spring (by Rachel
Carson) described the negative
ecological and health effects of
pesticides and industrial chemicals
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Modern U.S. environmental policy
The Cuyahoga River was
polluted with oil and
industrial waste
It caught fire in the 1950s
and 1960s
Today, public enthusiasm for
environmental protection
remains strong
The majority of Americans
favor environmental
protection
In April, millions of people
celebrate Earth Day
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA)
1970 began the modern era of environmental policy
Created the Council on Environmental Quality
- Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for
any federal action that might impact the environment
NEPA forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental
impacts of a project
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The EPA shifts environmental policy
Nixon created the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
Conducts and evaluates research
Monitors environmental quality
Sets and enforces standards for pollution levels
Assists states in meeting standards and goals
Educates the public
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Significant environmental laws
The public demanded a cleaner environment and supported
tougher environmental legislation
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The social context for policy can change
Three factors converged to allow major advances in
environmental policy in the 1960s and 1970s
Wide evidence of environmental problems
People could visualize policies to deal with problems
The political climate was ripe, with a supportive public
and leaders who were willing to act
In recent years, the political climate has changed
People felt burdened by environmental regulations
Attempts have been made to roll back or weaken
environmental laws
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Future environmental policies
Will depend on having the American environmental
movement reinvent its approach
It needs to appeal to peoples core values
Start showing why these problems are actually human
issues and affect our quality life
Future policies need to articulate a positive, inspiring
vision for the future
Currently, the United States has retreated from its
leadership
Other nations have increased their attention to
environmental issues
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Six steps to making environmental policy
Requires curiosity, observation, awareness
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Step 2
Involves scientific research and
Risk assessment = judging risks a problem poses
to health or the environment
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Step 3
Risk management = developing strategies to
minimize risk
Involves social or political action
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Step 4
Organizations are more effective than individuals
But a motivated, informed individual can also
succeed
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Step 5
Lobbying = spending time and money to influence a politician
Environmental advocates are not the most influential
lobbyists
Political Action Committees (PACs) = raise money for political
campaigns
The revolving door = the movement of people between the
private sector and government
Intimate knowledge of an issue or conflict of interest?
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Step 6
Prepare a bill, or draft law, containing solutions
Following a laws enactment
Administrative agencies implement regulations
Policymakers evaluate the policys successes or failures
The judicial branch interprets the law
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Science plays a role, but can be politicized
Effective policy decisions are informed by
scientific research
Sometimes policymakers ignore science
They let political ideology determine policy
Scientists at government agencies have had
their work suppressed or discredited
- Their jobs were threatened
When taxpayer-funded research is suppressed or distorted
for political ends, everyone loses
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Approaches to environmental policy
Command-and-control approach: environmental
policy sets rules or limits and threatens
punishment for violators
Heavy-handed
Alternative approaches involve using economic
incentives to encourage desired outcomes and
use market dynamics to meet goals
Most current environmental laws
- Have resulted in safe, healthy, comfortable
lives
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
What is the optimal amount of pollution? (If there is
such a thing?)
If pollution exceeds the
optimum amount of
pollution
the harm done exceeds
the cost to reduce it.
If pollution is small it
may cost too much to
control the small
amount.
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Clean Water Act
The Clean Water Act is a 1977 amendment to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972
Set the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants in the US
The law gave EPA the authority to set water quality standards for industry and for all
contaminants in surface waters
Attain water quality levels that make these waterways safe to fish and/or
swim in
Restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of
the nation's water
The CWA makes it unlawful for any person to discharge any pollutant from a point
source into navigable waters unless a permit (NPDES) is obtained
The amounts and types of pollutants than can be discharged or allowed to run in to
waters from watersheds are regulated
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Environmental Science ENSC 2800 - Pollution in the Bay-Delta
Drawbacks of command-and-control
Government actions may be well-intentioned but not
informed
Interest groupspeople seeking private gainunduly
influence politicians
Citizens may view policies as restrictions on freedom
Costly and less efficient in achieving goals
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Widespread economic policy tools
Tax breaks = encourage desirable
industries or activities
Subsidy = a government giveaway
of cash or resources to encourage a
particular activity
Have been used to support
unsustainable activities
In 2003, $58 billion of taxpayers money was spent on 68
environmentally harmful subsidies such as building logging roads
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Another economic policy tool
Green taxes = taxes on environmentally harmful
activities
Polluter pays principle = the price of a good or service
includes all costs, including environmental degradation
Gives companies financial incentives to reduce
pollution
But, costs are passed on to consumers
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Market permitting and incentives
Permit trading = government-created market in
permits
Businesses buy, sell, trade these permits
Emissions trading system = government-issued
permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and
companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with
other polluters
Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its
pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties
- Pollution is reduced overall, but does increase
around polluting plants
Companies have an economic incentive to reduce
emissions
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Approaches to Environmental Policy
Tax it
Subsidize it
Provide a tax break
Regulate it
Cap and trade
Tradable environmental permits
Ban it
Phase it out
Fines
Prohibit trade
Inspections
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Conclusion
Environmental policy is a problem-solving tool
Uses science, ethics and economics
Conventional command-and-control approach
Uses legislation and regulations
Most common approach
Market-based incentives
Can be more complicated but can be less
expensive
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
