MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
MATERIAL REMOVAL
Abrasive
Single - point
Multipoint
Turning
Boring
Shaping
Planing
Drealing
Reaming
Spot-facing
Milling
Broaching
Rapid prototyping
Non -mechanical Removal
Mechanical Removal
Cutting
MATERIAL DEPOSITION
Grinding
Honing
Superfinishing
Lapping
Water-jet
Electrochemical
Wire EDM
Electrical discarge
Laser profiling
Stereolythography
Laminated object manufacturing
Fused deposition modeling
Selective laser sintering
3D printing
Model Maker manufacturing system
Stratoconception manufacturing system
MATERIAL REDISTRIBUTION
Solidification
Casting
Molding
Bulk deformation
Powder forming
Forging
Extrusion
Sheet metal
Bending
Piercing
Streching
Deep drawing
Shearing
Spinning
Punching
Mechanical Material Removal
Shaving
Blade
a) No cleareance
b) Cleareance
The blade skides along the
pencil without cutting
The blade bites into
the pencil and cuts
Cleareance
Angle
()
Fig.1
The principle in machining is based on this example. A sharp tool
is drawn across the workpiece, removing chips of material as it
progresses.
Cutting tool
Fig.2
Fig.3
From the cutting point, the lower surface of the tool shapes upwards by an angle called the
relief (clearance) angle, usually denoted by a .
Its purpose is to avoid the rubbing of the tool on the cut surface. The relief angle vary slightly, depending
upon the cutting operation and the material being cut, between 5 and 7.
The face is angled away from the vertical by the rake angle, usually denoted by y . The rake angle controls
the chip formation and the mechanics of the cutting action of the tool. Some tools may have neutral rake
and negative rake (Fig 4).
a) Positive rake
b) Neutral (zero) rake
c) Negative rake
Fig. 4
The rake angle vary from -5 to +25 and depends on cutting operation, tool
material, and workpiece material.
The most used materials for the tools are: high speed steels (HSS), cemented
carbides, coated carbides, ceramics and diamond.
The failure of the cutting tool ca occur in one of two ways: sudden and catastrophic
when the tool breaks or by a gradual process with wear on the tool faces increasing
and making the tool ineffective after a period of time.
Tool life means the
time between two
regrounds. The
relationship between
tool life and cutting
speed was established
by Taylor in 1907:
Crater
wear
vTm = C (1)
where: T -tool life in minutes
v -cutting speed [m/min]
C,m - constants depending on the cutting conditions
Flank
wear
Fig. 5
The tool movement across the
workpiece removes a surface
layer of thickness d, the depth of
the cut (fig 6).
Chip formation
Shear
zone
C h ip
Tool
Discontinuous
chips are obtained
W o rk
Continuous chips are
produced when material is
ductile and does not break up
into individual plates or
granules (fig 8).
when the material is
brittle and is sheared
away from the body of
T h is s u r f a c e o f
Because of deformation, the chip the workpiece (fig 7)
th e c h ip is b u r n is h e d
s m o o th
thickness c is grater than d, and
a g a in s t th e to o l f a c e
the c/d ratio indicates the degree
T h is s u r f a c e o f
of difficulty of the cutting
th e c h ip is to r n
Tool
a n d ja g g e d
process. Two types of chips
C h ip s
exists: discontinuous and
continuous chips.
W o rk
Fig. 6
S h e a r p la n e
Tool
Fig. 8
D e p th
of cut
S h e a r p la n e
Fig. 7
P o in t o f c o n ta c t
o f c h ip
One of the most economical means of increasing cutting efficiency is
the use of a cutting fluid. Emulsified oils are used, designed to fulfil the
following functions: cooling of the tool and workpiece, lubrication of
chip/tool interface, flushing away the chips, prevention of corrosion.
Work parameters
The main work parameters
are: depth of cut, feed,
speed and cutting forces
The work surface, the surface on the
workpiece to removed by machining
The machined surface, the desired surface
produced by the action of the cutting tool.
The transient surface, the surface formed
by the cutting edge and removed during
the following revolution of the workpice.
Fig. 9
Depth of cut "d" [mm] is the distance between
the work surface and the machined
surface.
Feed "f' [mm/rev] is the distance moved by the
tool during each revolution of the
workpiece.
Some typical feed rates are presented in Table 1
Fig. 10
Material
Turning(m/min)
Drilling(m/min)
Milling(m/min)
Roughing
Finishing
Steels
0.4-0.8
0.1-0.4
0.2-0.5
0.1-0.2
Stainless steels
0.4-0.8
0.1-0.4
0.1-0.3
0.1-0.18
Cast iron
0.4-0.8
0.1-0.4
0.1-0.3
0.08-0.25
Copper alloys
0.4-0.8
0.1-0.4
0.2-0.5
0.1-0.25
Aluminium
0.4-0.8
0.1-0.4
0.3-0.8
0.15-0.25
Depth of cut(mm)
2.5-5.0
0.4-2.5
Depends on drill diameter
above feeds based
on 6.0-25.0 dia
0.5-1.5
Table 1
Speed "v" [m/min] is generated by the primary motion which is the rotation
of the workpiece. The cutting speed at the corner is given by:
where: D - the diameter of the mechined surface [mm]
n - the rotational speed of the workpice [rev/min]
(2)
In table 2 are shown typical speeds
Table 2
The shaded area in Figure 10 represents the cross-sectional area
of the chip and is calculated by multiplying the feed by the
depth of cut:
(3)
The metal-removal rate Z is the product of the mean cutting
speed and the cross-sectional area of the material begin removed
A. Thus:
(4)
If the depth of cut is more than 2.5 mm (roughing) the diameter
D can be replace by an average between the diameter of the
machined surface Dm and the diameter of the workpiece Dw. In
this case the relationship (4) becomes:
(5)
For a given work material machined under given conditions, the specific
power required to remove a unit volume of material, ps, can be
measured (Table 3).
If the value of ps is known,
the power P required to
perform any machining
operation can be obtained
from:
P = PsZ[W]
(6)
This power can be used to
estimate the cutting force:
F=P/
(7)
Finally, if the overall
efficiency of the machinetool motor and drive
systems is denoted by tj
(usually 7=0.6-0.8), the
electrical power Pe
consumed by the machined
tool is given by:
Pe= P/[W]
(8)
