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Techniques of The Contemporary Composer

Describes techniques for 20th century composers.

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William McFadden
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1K views123 pages

Techniques of The Contemporary Composer

Describes techniques for 20th century composers.

Uploaded by

William McFadden
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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TECHNIQUES of the CONTEMPORARY COMPOSER DAVID COPE 2 B. CONTENTS Introduction xt BASICS 1 Approaches to Composition 1 Skills and Tools 4 The Profession 7 Rudiments of Orchestration and Form 8 ‘THE TONAL LEGACY 2 Basic Key Concepts. 12 Chromaticism 15 Expansions and Planing 17 Polytonality 19 NEW ROLES OF MELODY 26 Seales 26 Motives 28 Basic Melodic Concepts 29 Extended Melodic Lines 32 Accompaniments 34 HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT, AND HIERARCHY 38 ‘The Overtone Series 38 Texture 39 Consonance and Dissonance 39 Interval Strengths 40 Roots 41 Progression Strengths and Chromaticism 42. INTERVAL EXPLORATION 46 Basic Concepts. 46 Fifth and Fourth Chords Second and Seventh Chords. 50 Interval Combinations 55 18, 19. 20. CONTENTS MEDIA FORMS: 206 Multimedia 206 Mixed Media 209 Intermedia 212 Vireual Reality 214 MINIMALISM 216 Silence as Minimalism 216 Concept Music 217 Brevity Works 218) Continuivies 218 Phase and Pattern Music 219 EXPERIMENTAL MUSIC 222 Situation and Circumstance Music 222 Soundscapes 223, Biomusic 224 Antimusic 22 DECATEGORIZATION 230 Fclecticism 231 Quotation 22 Sectionalization 233 Overlays 234 Integration 236 Bibliography 239 Indes 247 INTRODUCTION If there is one characteristic ofthe arts that remains constant, itis change. Although, ‘Western Classical music, co the inexperienced listener, may seem predictable and reli- ably consistent, i is not. Over the course of centuries, harmonic vocabularies that ‘originated in medieval organum with open parallel fourths and fifths have proceeded through triads and seventh and ninth chords to the dissonant, clusterlike chords of the twentieth century. Melodic vocabularies have likewise developed from stepwise 4istonic chants through triadic leaping to extreme chromaticism and pointlism Rhythm, timbre, and texture have followed similar paths from simple to complex, though less quickly. “Those who refuse to accept change, or who canonize common-practice music of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries to the detriment of contemporary music, Jack the vision necessary to understand the inevitable nature of change. Though ‘many a masterpiece was produced during Western music's tonal centuries, biliance ‘of craft and musicianship are evident in thousands of works written before and afer those years. “Techniques ofthe Contemporary Composer covers many of the changes that have taken place recently and even suggests afew that may yet occur. Central to the book are three basic concepts 1, There is no right way to compose music, no righ style, only different ones. Each individual must decide on his or her own mode of expression. 2. There is no progress in art. While it may at frst seem plausible that, for ‘example, a late Romantic symphony is superior to a simple tenth-century 3, careful consideration may prove the contrary. A comparison of ogress in the arts to, for instance, progress inthe sciences is inappropriate. 3. However musi is defined (and it macters little in the final analysis), i pos sesses elements that make craftand consistency fundamental to its quality. ‘Techniques of the Contemporary Composer is designed to cover the techniques, esources, and technologies of composition of the twentieth and early ewenty-ftst ‘centuries while placing an emphasis on the music of more recent years. Most music ‘omposition books deal almost exclusively with traditional techniques, inclusive of Principal music of the early to middle ewentieth century. Those that do include ontraditional techniques usually cover only 2 few contemporary idioms. The pre book, however, includes as many areas of contemporary composition as possible sii INTRODUCTION in an inclusive single volume and in as objective a manner as posible. Ie assumes that knowledge ofas many procedures as posible produces cue freedom of expression. By studying and carefully evaluating the ideas presented here, readers may lead them- selves to developing their own individual syle. Techniques of the Contemporary Composer encompasses twenty-one chapters, or8a- nized to coincide roughly with two semesters or three academic quarters of composi tion, with time left fr review. This can be expanded to a two~ oF three-year format, with one chapeer assigned every two or three weeks instead of one per week. The book also provides both teacher and student with examples, bibliographic references (keyed by parenthetical pointets in the text), and composing suggestions. The bibliography includes a beef list of relevant books and scores for further study and analysis, ‘The beginning chapters provide a transition from common-practice study and gently bridge the gap from learned bias to the exploration of new ideas. The order of the chapters themselves is logical but does not always reflect historical chronology Nor does the chapter order reflect any particular progression toward better, more complex, or more definivive techniques. While subsequent chapters do build to some extent on the techniques of previous chapters, this organication should not ead to assumptions that later chapters have more substantial worth. If any progression ‘occurs here, it one from tradition towad innovation, with the last chapter sum. ring up ts predecessors. Chapters ae aso grouped around sinilar ideas. Chapters 6 and 7, for example, have much in common. Chapters 11 and 12 have likewise sim lar subject matter, as do chapters 15, 16, 17, and 18. Each chapter presents only an ineroduction wo its subject sad should no be considered exhaustive The musical examples are primarily my own and were composed not a represen- tations of my personal style but as demonstrations of the points under discussion, ‘As a composition teacher using this book asa classroom tex, [ require all compos- ing assignments to be performed, atleast inthe classroom. This requirement extends 28 well co most of che examples in each chapter as well as to many of the works listed inthe bibliography: Many ofthe book's examples also exist in standard MIDI file for ‘mat and are available an downloadable from my Internet site: hep/ars.ues.ed faculeylcoperhome. Students are encouraged to work on larger projects that may ot ‘may not interact with the classroom assignments chus obtaining practical and usable techaiques, resources, and technologies from a variety of new styles in adltion c completing large works more demanding in form and content. 1 wish to thank my wifey Mary Jane, and the many students I have had over my thiry years of teaching music composition. In many says, these individuals have taught me as much as I them. Certainly, che order of chapters and the manner of pre sentation are due as much to their suggestions, direct and inditect, over the years as to my own ideas. I hope that some of these exchanges of influence have proved 38 tusefl co chem in their endeavors as composers zad educators as they have to me: | also wish to thank Jil Lectka for her insights, advice, and help and David Roen for copying most ofthe musical examples. Somerset Maugham once noted that there are three rules for writing @ novel, but tunforcunately, no one knows what they are. While this may be te for writing music —_ INTRODUCTION xiii ‘as well, itis important to point out that potential novelists and composers alike have fgecess to a great many resources that ean enable them to discover those rules for themselves. The present book isnot, therefore, about rules, but about resources. Ie is ‘with these concepts in mind that I hope to aid readers in discovering the techniques ‘of the contemporary composer. David Cope CHAPTER | BASICS THIS CHAPTER IDENTIFIES a few good composition habits lists ideas for preparing scores, and presents suggestions for developing performance and publi ‘cation opportunities. I also covers the basic rudiments of orchestration and musical form. While such practical matters are often neglected in books on music composi- ton, they represent important strategies for enduring as a composer and not just dab- ng in the craft (Rochberg 1984). to Composition I overviews are stressed throughout much of this book. Such usually consist of visual graphics, narratives, or outlines from which tech- and materials can be derived (Stravinsky 1947). Overviews help composers the problems often encountered in compositions rhat are nor prestmucrured: a of fdeas from various composing sessions spaced over days, weeks, and even Overviews, while malleable co the very last note of a resulting composition, frameworks for composing more consistent music in larger forms Figure 11 shows a series of overviews of a work for chamber orchestra titled om. Figure I.la demonstrates how the work might appear on a three-by-five- index cand. The horizontal lines here describe texture and dynamics and, along th the vertical and angled bars, define the three main sections of the form. Figure b presents a more detailed version of the work with a few rhythmic ideas sketched appropriate locations. This overview also shows more details about the types of ls in each section. Figure I.Ic gives more definition to the main ideas, with ‘ome of the more important musical ideas written out in traditional notation, ‘overviews on the wall above the primary composing workplace can help __t® Femind composers oftheir current context in a work. 7 Beginning a composition from an overview can be as effective as beginning a com- Petition from a melody, motive, or harmonic structure. Sketching a work (even in hic terms) in its complete form before @ note of chord has been written, expand- ‘ ourward through latger and larger sketches, often helps composers visualize hear works in larger forms. Some composers actualy begin with the double bar © end before composing their compositions (Stravinsky 1947). "This helps them e Intultion suggests—thus more naturally—and not just where the music's ‘currently happens to stop. = 28 |INC Sa ae FiGURE Ll. Three overviews of a wotk for chamber orchestra Using a temporary title often helps when creating overviews. Composers often neglect the significance of a title to an audience and to themselves. Indeed, Hector Berlie’s Symphonie fantastique would sound very differently were the title changed 0 Symphony No. 1. It is difficult even to speak about a work, much less conceptualize it, without its having a tte ‘Sketching provides composers wich a way co hone their skills and develop r=W materials for new works. Example 1.1 shows a series of sketches by Beethoven for his String Quartet in A Minor Op. 132. Nore how important new elements surface in each skerch as well as how apparently unsuccessful ideas disappear. Beethoven revised so heavily that often his initial ideas are unrecognizable in his final drats (although that is nor the case here). Revising materials ean be as important a part of the craft of musical composition as inspiration and should be regularly exercised. ‘One should avoid including new ideas just because these ideas seem good. Often such ideas can be completely foreign to a work and disrupt its continuity. Keeping sketchbook can be useful for such inspirations. Sketching new ideas, concepts, of CHAPTER — one Asics > ee BXOME LI. A series of setches by Beethoven for his Sting Quartet in A Minor Op. 132. reo ina separate pad an ‘iat low cbb,, Be pean “hee saving them for later works, especially when inspiration ideas from interrupting otherwise consistent music. = reautesthat a composer be ava ofall of works music com- rather than just the music visible on the current page. Using just one of staff paper helps ensure that finding important events previous to oF follow. {Current point of composition will be relatively easy. Likewise, using numbered rather chan bound manuscript allows composers to see a whole work just 4 CHAPTER ONE as with overviews. All to often, using bound and double-sided music paper conflces with a composer's need to compare relationships between temporally distant but fr. mally similar materials ‘Compositions thar thoroughly explore afew ideas succeed more often than those that expound many different ideas but develop them less. While there are no hard and fast rules concerning the core number of materials a work can convineingly sus tain, one good way to restrict the number involves developing a single idea excl sively until che music absolutely requires new material. Treating the new material in like manner, while juguling repetitions and further variations of the initial ideas, helps to ensure that works are integeated and developmental as well as expository Mose successful composers work daly (Dorian 1947), Just as performers need to practice theit art and craft, so must composers. This practice may take the form of composing a work in progress, sketching, reworking @ passage, or even study another work for its solutions to certain problems. The hours of the day or nigh: spent composing will vary, depending on the composer. Many find a set hour or time period most effective, while others choose diferent times. The planned-ahead time for composing can prove disastrous, though this again varies from composer to com: poser. In general, an established workplace provides most composers with the secu- rity of knowing the location of each tool and avoids the complications of day-to-day unpredictability Pencils have two ends, and composers should “write softy and carry a big eraser.” Erasing music can be a creative act, and many composers of successful music have admitted ending a day of composing with fewer measures than when they began. ‘Composers often time in-progress compositions over and over again with a metronome (Stevens 1964). This process can suggest changes that may constitute the difference between mediocrity and success. Moreover, such timings can contribute 0 really hearing works rather than just imagining to hear them. Unfortunately, com posers often produce augenmusik—works that look good on the page but are not con vincing in performance. Evaluating music in terms of real versus perceived time is extremely important. Composers hearing a passage for the fiftieth time rarely retain the perspective of an audience hearing it for the first or second time. Composers often get so involved in the extraordinarily personal act of creation that they lose objectiv- ity, Understanding this problem can help composers step away from overworked pas sages fora time. Overfamiliarity may otherwise prompt one co discard good musi when a careful and objective reexamination might prove its worth Skills and Tools, ‘The ability to read and notate music quickly and correctly is an extremely importan® skill chat composers must acquire (Read 1969). Example 1.2 shows a musical example with a numberof notational mistakes. These mistakes contradice many basic principles For example, stem direction is determined by a note’s proximity to the staf’s centeF line: notes above have downward stems, noces below upward stems. "Uplers” (triplets quintuplets etc.) should have the same rhythmic value as the normal duration that the CS 1.2. Music notation example with numerous mistakes replaces (c.g,, measure 3 here should be quarter notes). Noteheads of chords seconds must be placed on the correct sides of the stem. Chords and rests be properly aligned vertically. The designations for octave dsplacements—Sva (tava), \Sma (quindicesina), and so on—should never be used in clefs where clef can place the music on or near the staff (e4, bass ele should graduate to fore using oxava notation). Principles such as these, as well as those regarding Rent usc of sharp and ats, multiple vies on single sa, proper beaming ‘meter in use, and soon, are extremely important for composers intent the ent ofmustal composition. ‘rogram offer composers opportunities to enter theit music via ASCIT rAampler keyboards, hear their music via MIDI (Musical Instrument 6 CHAPTER ON - Digital Interface, see chap. 16) output, and print their music and parts with nea engraved quality: Figure 1.2 shows a typical MIDI setup, from input on a computer to output via speakers or printer. The sampler, inthis particular configuration, plays hack the music entered in the notation sequencer at the computer. The printer shown here outputs the score and parts in standard music notation The availability of computer programs should not, however, dissuade composers, from learning the art and craft of standatd music notation. Not only does such knowledge make composing possible when the computer is not available, it als ‘makes composers better editors of their music—something all composers must be at ‘one time or another. Choosing the appropriate computer software depends on a number of factors (Yavelow 1992). Fitting a program to your computer means not only making sure that the computer type and program match correctly, but that the amount of RAM, hard disk space, MIDI compatibility, printer type, and so on, all correlate properly. Iris also important to choose a computer notation program that prints parts, pro- duces collected bars of rest, and offers some control over paging and so on. While ‘computor OO TEBM synhestzersampior ampiinor {o_o} FIGURE 1.2. One eypical MIDI setup for composing asics 3s that allow for user control of such details often pose steep learn- oer allow composers to produce scores with the least number of they alo curves, se ual problems during rehearsals and performance. The Profession es (including those sel-produced using computer progeams) have sig- Ragnave larger works a all, but rather distribute composer-created copies. Composers Spo fonger have the luxury of scribbling their music and waiting for caligaphers to sevopyor engrave the results. Such methods are far too costly. “Getting your music published requires patience. Ten publishers can see a work and reject it, and the eleventh accept it with glowing compliments. Send publishers cas- sette tapes or recordings along with copies of scores. Many music publishers cannot ead music or hear it in their heads and generally refuse works by unknown or ‘unproved composers. Serious music rately requires unpublished copyright and, when published, is usu ally copyrighted by the publisher. Composers or publishers, however, may copyright works Complete information abt copyright is available from the US. Copyright Offic, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Copyrighting costs money and requires ‘copies of the work to be deposited at the Library of Congress. International copyright Isbest left ro publishers, since its vagaries and complexities escape all bu the legally Knowledgeable and experienced. Note that plagiarists rarely steal entire works; they Just steal many of their general ideas, which fall only vaguely under copyright pro- tection. Such thefts are therefore dificule to litigate. (Commissions can be important even if they involve only a promised performance. ‘Commissions enable composers to compose within constrains as well as work with, Performers, from whom a great deal can be leaened. Composers car also learn from, the inspiration and friction such proximity creates. Conductor-compesers, for examn- Ble, can develop a real understanding about orchestration, literature, and composi- tion technique by performing their own music and new works by other composes. sions should be handled with great care, however, as misunderstandings and ‘esthetic differences can cause more trouble than the commission is worth. Morks that take advantage of the abilities of uniquely skilled performers entail Getain risks. If such an individual performs a great deal, your work may gain wide ‘SPosure, bur ifthe performer has few opportunities, your work may have limited ce potential. On the other hand, one should avoid simplifying works just ‘Bebra peormancs Indeed, unaliattechnigues canbe acquit by create Performers. Much can also be leamed by attempting to perform special techniques Yourselé Tos nab composers t0 confront the dificulties directly and ascertain if can learn such techniques easily rants and prizes are important for winners but unimportant for loses. [losing 4s palatable, then enter them and forget chem. Winning awards and grants 8 CHAPTER ONE except a posible loss of sel-esteem. Salle Recordings are, for the unknown of young composer, mainly a matter of accep ‘il tance bya ecording company and subsidization forthe recording itself Most record- all {ng companies use grants to fund recording projects or expect the composer or pet- former to pay the costs directly Composers should send tapes to various companies wwithout being discouraged by rejections. Once a work is accepted, funding ean often be acquired from grants. Commissions can help as well, for many performers and groups will commission a work, lke it, and record it, removing the burden of fund- ing from the compose. ‘Composers should also review the various performance rights organizations, such as the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music, Incorporated (BMI). Such organizations play an extremely impor- tant role in most profesional composers lives by collecting and distributing royalties earned from performances as wel as keeping members aware ofthe various perfor- mmances of their works (Cope 1993). 4 ii eu sol ce beings, Lain val nd teas il | 3 j Rudiments of Orchestration and Form Listening to all types of music represents one of the most important ways to learn about orchestration and form. Not only does such listening help to educate in ways rno book can, but it also broadens the musical perspective of composers so that they are less apt subconsciously to plagiarize the etyles, ideas, or contexts of other cam posers’ music, Such plagiarism can be almost unavoidable when young composers know but a few pieces of music. $ “atin ge Listening with scores informs composers in ways no other study can. It improves score and sight reading skills, as well as illustrating how individual instruments sound in various registers and how various ensembles of instruments sound together. Example 1.3 lists many standard instruments in typical orchestral order with their usual clefs and transpositions (Adler 1982; Kennan and Grantham 1983). In gener al, scores of lesser numbers of these instruments follow this same basic order. Hence, any collection of woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings (from high instruments 10 low instruments) should appear, top to bottom, in this configuration Listening to music with scores also can help composers hear and better under stand musical form and structure. Table 1.1 (p. 10) lists a number of standard classi cal music forms, which have many variations and subclassifications (Berry 1986) 2: horn (op PB trumpet (op Mp Peer cp beeps pF che PFO (es tale ther an“ ale ton ine hae tan eh trainj nt nsone rcs ok odanel Stephene ‘ap nfs kn in a rkneno BV4 ee OF). ‘eles elo tno writen p Pa) tarsta apni — econ torn ohne “Trngponton itn): Bb asi map 156 ‘Although numetous other forms are just as viable as these, composers can do worse than begin with simple, ried-and-true forms and then slowly develop their own vari- > ations and innov: “Table L.1 also shows the difference between forms that are homophonic (har- ; ip ronal ted) and those that are contrapuntal presesing wo of mre melodic 4 ifus ideas simultaneously). Contrapuntal forms typically require sty beyond standard i hhatmonic theory. As such, while beginning composes should be aware oftheir baste i dlfinivions, contrapuntal forms should initially rake a back seat tothe simpler single Exwirit 13. Standard ranges and order of orchestral instruments with their typical cles ‘and multimovernent homophonic forms. 4nd wanspostons i. 10 CHAPTER ONE ! BASICS u ‘Multimovement forms ‘Composing music in various extant and older styles (e.g, a Classical-period sonata Naw Constaverion ——nstaunentamiow Nowes ae Moca o 2 Romi rr nis er Chopin) canbe vr steal ee eat [act SE for only does such imitation better acquaint composers with the emulated style, i also hones many skills composers need to develop (Stravins [erator secre opera [exehivocalins | no setvcostumes is bonee mr osersnsed 10 develop Stavisky 1947) [ean ‘raves cravocalins wsualy sacred Composing Suggestions | mass | eatboie mass choirkoloists sacred * Create a graphic overview ofa single movernent for available instruments. a ar dares fam | oxchonpaddence Compote short work tase on the esis, making sure to dian a tiaireneea [ee never te momar thei quality, I a eee er ‘+ Sketch music for at least ten minutes a day for one week. Vary your loca- 0 FSF } orchestra/solod tion and the availability of tools, such as computer, manuscript paper, pen- diverimento | fee Sal orchetca «ils, piano, and so on. Take note of the locations, times, and situations that —, fe as produce the most successful results. quarter Guin. 8) | ASHE Stings or winds ~ * Clee eles en musi, Sort them into vais groups tha tend | a : aoa 10 work especially well together. Create an overview of a work from one of | se se ett “icin the groups and evaluate whar links these ideas together, | ve — et + Find ac least ewenty mistakes in Example 1.2 and group ther according to | “ ; ‘general notation principles, Write outa correct sew version of this example. themefvariations | as name implies | any + Compose a short work in a style with which you ate familia. Ask an asso- Ciate to cecique your new work objectively from the vantage points of style | Single-movement forms and musical effectiveness | Nowe Covstmvenon _Instmunavranion _ Nores ovate Tene dev [cose for opaalevs_] tone poem fceievelopment | orchestr 2p song frm AB (aay {ng or Ind move. | | Spon form ABA any song or Sed move i sonata allegro | ABle/AB any Ist move | ABAXA...BA | any 4th move. L explepisodes/sttetto | keyboard ‘contrapuntal imitati voices/keyboard | contrapuntal fice Keyboand free keyboard 7 devclopmemal | any [ABA eyboaed elude a Teyboard TaBLe LL. A simple chare of standard classical musi lors. CHAPTER 2 THE TONAL LEGACY THE COMMON-PRACTICE period of music history (roughly 1600 to 1900) produced an enormously rich and complex musical language. Its basic force— tonality-—still pervades much of today's popular and commercial music. This chap- ter attempts to capsulize some ofthe important theory ofthe common-practice peri- cod and to provide a transition tothe techniques of the contemporary composer Basic Key Concepts While a full delineation of tonal vocabulary and techniques could take hundreds of pages, three basic concepts lead to their better understanding: 1. Key defines the vocabulary of tonality’s pitch material (Aldwell and Schach- ter 1978). Melodies, reduced to source material, can be expressed as scales of ordered intervals. Example 2.1 shows a musical passage and the scale that ‘can be projected from its pitches. Tonality defines these pitches a diatonic ‘andl those foreign to the scale as chromatic. 2. Consonance (relaxation) and dissonance (tension) permeate tonal relation- ships (Schoenberg 1969). The lower pitches ofthe overtone seies (a nat Ural acoustic phenomenon discussed in more detail in chapter 4) provide a rationale for vertical consonance. This infinite series (its fist eight pitches are shown in Ex. 2.2) gives prominence in its lower, more audible, spectrum to three primary intervals: octaves, fifths, and thirds. These create triads— three-note chords builtin thirds. Pitches outside of chords built in thicds and their inversions are called nonharmonic and typically resolve to chord members. 3. Hierarchical relationships pervade most tonal music (Berry 1976; Schenker 1933). Two primary scale degrees or chords provide folcrum and weight. “The tonic scale degree or chord is the home base of a key. It acts as a cen tet around which the other notes revolve. The dominant scale degree oF chord acts asa satellite 10 the tonic. It requires resolution to the tonic note for chord for completeness. Example 23 shows the primary chords of tonic fd dominant, with examples of second, les significant chords Example 24 shows a fragment of a work with the three tonal principles at work key, consonance, and hierarchy. The interplay of these and other, less important tonal principles have provided a common language for composers and listeners fot hundreds of years. TONAL LEGACY 21, The opening of W. A. Mozar’s Piano Sonata, K. 279, movement 1, and the ofits scale. E12, The overtone series through eight partials and a member triad. voo# www ow SECONDARY 23, The primary tonic and dominant chords, with other, secondary chords Fame came ao shows another important characteris of common- voice leading, Tonal part-writing rules, based on a paradigm of four: Slade the aveidance of (0) pl ihe ad octaves between any — ea iden fifths and octaves beeen the outer vies. Pitches ive chords (common tones) generally remain in the ice Dosis At eascevo vier should move in cntary oe common motion between chords. Spacing should be kept to 4 maximum of a sixth ‘adjacent upper voices, whereas the bass may move freely. Part writing also (D doubling the root if possible, except in diminished chords, where dou- ‘third is preferable; (2) doubling one ofthe primary notes of the key (tonic, ‘or dominant) ifnot the root; and (3) doubling the fifth of the chord if Appropriate solution presents itself. Nonharmonic tones (passing tones, fones, suspensions, appoggiaturas, etc.) each have patticular contextual functions also. follow various progression protocols in 4 CHAPTER TWO Classical musi, some of which are shown in table 2.1. Some of these protocols rep- resent classical traditions, and some indicate a particular composers style ‘Example 2.4, an excerpt for voices, demonstrates the kind of smooth motion just scribed. Instrumental music, however, does not requie chese same constrains, At the same time, tonal voice leading usually forms the backbone of instrumental faccompaniments, hidden though it may be, Example 2.5 shows an instrumental ‘xcerp with the backdrop of voce leading presented to show the prevalent motion. Nate that the basic concepts expressed here represent generalizations rather than hard and fast rules. Ic would be dificult, for example, to find a Bach chorale—often ned as modes for such behavior—that adheres exactly to each of the rules expressed inthis chapter (Bach 1941). The exceptions often prove the rule, howeves, and more often than not, good musical reasons, rather than negligence, explain the deviations Peer ee Exaupie 24. ‘The beginning of}-S. Bach, choral, "An Wasserflassen Babylon,” showing the three tonal principles at work. Allegro Sfp — = emus? Voce kadng nan eacere fam WA. Most, Pao Sana in CM 545, ExaMne 25 = THE TONAL LEGACY 15 Cuon Fouowen sy 1 any a a) ‘a aw V wi ¥ ai ai) vie ay ‘Tawue 2.1. Tonal harmonic progression protocols in classical musk ‘Chromaticism ‘Chromaticism in diatonic music usually takes one of three forms: 1. Tonal music often modulates, or changes key, sinee the use of single key den becomes monotonous. Modulation usualy kes place witha chord

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