UNIVERSITATEA AL. I.

CUZA IAI
FACULTATEA DE ISTORIE
nvmnt la distan

LIMBA ENGLEZ
Autor i Titular: Lect.univ.dr. Olesia MIHAI

ANUL II
SEMESTRUL II
2012-2013

Unit 1 ______________________________________________________________3
A. Topic: ROBIN HOOD AND HIS HISTORICAL CONTEXT _________________ 3
B. Grammar Review: QUESTIONS ________________________________________ 8
C. Vocabulary: CRIME AND THE LAW ___________________________________ 11
D. Exam Focus _________________________________________________________ 12

Unit 2 _____________________________________________________________14
A. Topic: BLACK DEATH - POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CHANGES __________ 14
B. Grammar Review: TAG QUESTIONS___________________________________ 22
C. Vocabulary: CRIME AND THE LAW II_________________________________ 23
D. Exam Focus _________________________________________________________ 25

Unit 3 _____________________________________________________________27
A. Topic: ELIZABETH I ________________________________________________ 27
B. Grammar Review: MODALS __________________________________________ 37
C. Vocabulary: TOWNS AND BUILDINGS ________________________________ 43
D. Exam Focus _________________________________________________________ 45

Bibliography ______________________________________________________45

ISSN 1221-9363

Unit 1
A. Topic: ROBIN HOOD AND HIS HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Pre-questions:

What is the historical fact behind the legend of Robin Hood?

Did this potent outlaw folk hero really harass Guy of Gisborne and live in
Sherwood Forest, or was he a mythical creation designed to express
disatisfaction with unfair laws?

Read the following article adapted from BBC History:

Introduction to the hero
'Those who put themselves outside the law had become popular heroes'
The Robin Hood legends form part of a corpus of outlaw stories which date from
around the reign of King John. Two other key outlaws, Fulk fitzWarin and
Eustace the Monk, were historical figures whose lives can be clearly identified at
this time, but Robin Hood himself is much more problematical.
What is striking about these stories is that they reveal that, in an age when the
Rule of Law was respected as the foundation of good government, those who put
themselves outside the law had become popular heroes. This is in complete
contrast to public perceptions of the outlaw at the beginning of King Henry II's
reign, and shows that the existing order had come to be regarded as tyrannical.
Tyranny was the abuse of law.
If the existing order was founded on the arbitrary will of evil men who could twist
the law to their own ends, then it was the role of the outlaw to seek redress and
justice by other means. In a violent age, these means were invariably violent.
Robin Hood and his contemporaries were cunning, merciless and often brutal.

Forest legend

In all these tales, the forest figures prominently. The forest in the Middle Ages
included very extensive areas of cultivated land as well as wood and waste land.
They were the private preserve of the king and his officers, and were protected by
a harsh series of forest laws, against which there could be no appeal - not even to
the ecclesiastical courts.
'The origins of the Robin Hood legend are very obscure.'
Forest law was extremely unpopular, among all sections of society, but it achieved
its purpose of retaining vast areas of semi-wild landscape over which the king and
his court could hunt. Yet the very wildness of the land made it a perfect place for
fugitives to hide out, and this is why areas such as Sherwood Forest and Barnsdale
feature so prominently in outlaw legend.
The origins of the Robin Hood legend are very obscure. The first literary
reference to Robin Hood comes from a passing reference in Piers Plowman, written
some time around 1377, and the main body of tales date from the fifteenth
century. These are found in the tales of Robin Hood and the Monk (c.1450); The
Lyttle Geste of Robyn Hode (written down c.1492-1510, but probably composed
c.1400); and the 17th century Percy Folio, which contains three 15th century
stories: Robin Hoode his Death, Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne and Robin Hood and the
Curtal Friar.
Within these literary references, there is nothing to suggest that Robin Hood
should date to the time of King John: in fact the only king mentioned is 'Edward
our comely king', which probably refers to a visit to Nottingham of King Edward

II in 1324. Yet a court roll from Berkshire indicates that the legend of Robin
Hood dates much earlier than this.
The real Robin?

'There are numerous cases in the C13th & C14th of outlaws deliberately taking
on the pseudonyms of Robin Hood and Little John...'
This William son of Robert and William Robehod were certainly one and the
same, and some clerk during transcription had changed the name. It follows that
the man who changed the name knew of the legend and equated the name of
Robin Hood with outlawry.
This is merely the earliest of several such references to Robehods or Robynhods,
most of them outlaws, after the mid-13th century, and it provides a useful terminus
ante quem for the existence of the legend. Robin Hood must have existed before
1261 for his name to have been misused in such a way.
We should not be surprised at such misuse. There are numerous cases in the 13th
& 14th centuries of outlaws deliberately taking on the pseudonyms of Robin
Hood and Little John, and it seems likely that the original Friar Tuck who got
accreted to the legend was one Robert Stafford who was active in Sussex between
1417 and 1429. Yet this in itself indicates just how difficult it is to tie Robin Hood
down, since each misuse of the legend adds details of its own.
Bloody background
Another historical outlaw of John's time suffered similar identity problems even
during his lifetime, but he dealt with them in no uncertain fashion. Fulk fitzWarin
was furious when he discovered that a northern robber, Piers de Bruville, was
using Fulk's name to cover his banditry.
5

'One day, whilst playing chess, John broke the chessboard over Fulk's head.'
He ambushed Piers and his men in a house they were raiding and forced Piers to
tie his men to their seats and behead every one of them with his own hands.
When the ugly task was finished, Fulk struck off Piers' head himself, saying: 'None
shall ever charge me falsely with theft.'
Fulk is in fact a far more interesting character than Robin Hood, with a personal
link to King John. He was a childhood friend of John's, but their relationship was
a stormy one. One day, whilst playing chess, John broke the chessboard over
Fulk's head.
In retaliation, Fulk kicked John in the stomach, and when John went crying to his
father, it was John who was beaten for complaining. On the death of his father in
1197, Fulk took over his ancestral holding at Whittington; but when John came to
power, he gave the honour to Fulk's old enemy, Morys fitzRoger. Fulk reacted by
murdering Morys and fleeing into outlawry, where he levied war against John and
his agents for 3 years.
Pardoned in November 1203, he recovered Whittington and remained in the
king's peace until joining the baronial rebellion in support of Magna Carta in 1215.
He was not reconciled to the king until 1217, and died c.1256-7.
The Romance of Robin

Around these bare facts a wonderfully fanciful romance has been woven in an
Anglo-French chronicle which dates to the 13th century. The same is true of
another historical outlaw, Eustace the Monk, who seized control of the island of
Sark in 1205 and terrorised the Channel with piracy until killed at Sandwich in
1217.

'In the reign of Henry II, the outlaw was a villain.'

Both of these interweave magical incidents and anecdotes reminiscent of the tales
of Hereward the Wake; but they also contain stories which can be directly
compared to some of the tales of Robin Hood. Eustace, like Robin, disguises
himself as a potter in order to confound his enemies: Fulk disguises himself as a
charcoal-burner. Fulk robs the king's merchants, at the king's expense, and forces
them to dine with him.
Eustace pulls exactly the same trick as Robin when he asks those he waylays how
much they are carrying, and lets them off if they tell the truth; and like Robin with
the Sheriff of Nottingham, Fulk lures the king into the forest, where he kidnaps
him, invites him to dinner and eventually lets him go. These parallels are not mere
coincidences, they are exact analogies, and they share much of the same
mythological basis as the earlier tales of Hereward the Wake (who himself uses
disguises and trickery). If our dating of Robin Hood is correct, then the tales are
contemporaneous, and what we can see here is the development of a popular
mythology which eulogises those men who stood out against the excesses of
John's rule.
In the reign of Henry II, the outlaw was a villain. Warin de Wolcote was a parasite
on society, and Henry did everyone a favour when he marched into Sherwood
Forest, dragged him to Northampton and stuck his head on the city gates. By the
time of John, all this has changed.
Now the likes of Fulk fitzWarin (no relation), Eustace the Monk and Robin Hood
are the gadflies of authority, who turn injustice on its head. They may not rob the
rich to feed the poor, but they do beat the strong to help the weak. This explains
the enduring popularity of the Robin Hood legends; they are the little man's way
of striking back.
Vocabulary Notes:
arbitrary will hotr/re unilateral, voin arbitrar
a charcoal burner - crbunar
cunning viclean, iret
ecclesiastical courts tribunal bisericesc

to levy a percepe impozite

means - mijloace
merciless nemilos, crud
outlaw proscris, n afara legii
to seek redress and justice - a cuta alinare i dreptate
potter - olar
waste land pmnt necultivat
Task 1:
Name 4 most important facts about Robin Hood.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Task 2:
Is Robin Hood a historical figure or just a legend? Give arguments. Sustain your
answer using citations from the text.

B. Grammar Review: QUESTIONS

There is a range of issues to take account in the use of questions in English: these
include word order, word choice and intonation.
CLOSED AND OPEN QUESTIONS
FORM:
Questions are either closed or open. . closed questions start with a form of main
verb be, an auxiliary verb be, do, have or a modal auxiliary verb (e.g. can, may, will):
Is your brother staying in Iasi?
Will you be away for long?
Open questions start with a question word (e.g. what, where, when, etc)
What time is he arriving this evening?

Task 1: Look at the following table and form open and closed questions
about yourself?
Forms of YES/NO and OPEN questions
A yes/no question= a question that may be answered by yes or no.
A: Does he live in Iai?
B: Yes, he does OR No, he doesnt.
An open question = a question that asks for information by using a question word.
A: Where does he live?
B: In Iai.
Question word order = question word+auxiliary verb+subject+main verb
question

auxiliary verb

subject

main verb

rest of sentence

(a)
(b)Where
(c)
(d)Where
(e)
(f) Where

Does
does
Do
do
Did
did

she
she
they
they
he
he

live
live?
live
live?
live
live?

there?

(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)

Is
is
Have
have
Can
can
Will
will

he
he
they
they
Mary
Mary
he
he

living
living?
lived
lived?
live
live?
be living
be
living?

there?

(o) Who
(p) Who

lives
come?

there?

can

(q)
(r) Where
(s)
(t) Where

Are
Are
Was
was

word

there?
there?

they
they?
John
John?

there?
there?
there?

there?
there?

If the verb is in the

simple present, use
does (withhe, she, it) or
do (with I, you, we, they)
in the question. If the
verb is simple past, use
did.
If the verb has an
auxiliary (a helping
verb),
the
same
auxiliary is used in the
question. There is no
change in the form of
the main verb. If the
verb has more than
one auxiliary, only the
first auxiliary preceds
the subject, as in (m)
and (n).
If the question word is
the subject, usual
question word order is
not used. The verb is
in the same form in a
question and it is in a
statement.
Statement: Ann came.
Question: Who came?
Main verb be in a
simple present (am, is,
are) and simple past
(was, were) precedes the
subject. It has the same
position as an auxiliary
verb.

USE:
We use yes/no (closed) questions when we want a simple yes/no answer:
Does your uncle still live in France?
Yes, he does./No, not any more.
We use open questions when we want to find out more information:
Why did he live in France then?
He couldnt live here any longer.
Task 2: For each of the following, first make a yes/no question. Then make
an open question using where.
1. She stays there.
2. She is staying there.
3. She will stay there.
4. She is going to stay there.
5. They stayed there.
6. They will be staying there.
7. They should stay there.
8. He has stayed there.
9. He has been staying there.
10. John is there.
11. John will be there.
12. John has been there.
13. Judy will have been there.
14. Ann and Tom were married there.
15. This package should have been taken there.
Task 3: Make appropriate questions for the following answers.
1. My friend. The letter is from my friend.
2. Maria. Maria wrote that letter.
3. My mothers. That is my mothers coat.
4. In August. Alice and John are going to get married in August.
5. Gray. Her eyes are gray.

10

6. Herb tea. Id like some herb tea.

7. Coffee. I usually drink coffee with my breakfast.
8. By taxi. I got to the airport by taxi.
9. For three days. Shes been sick for three days.
10. This one. You should buy this camera, not that one.

C. Vocabulary: CRIME AND THE LAW

Task 1: Underline the most suitable word or phrase.
a. Sally didnt realise that she had broken/countered/denied the law.
b. The police have banned/cancelled/refused parking in this street.
c. I must remember to get a/an agreement/licence/permission for my television.
d. The president admitted that there had been a breakdown of law and
crime//government/order.
e. Jims parents wouldnt agree//allow/lethim go to the demonstartion.
f. Jake

was

arrested

because

he

had

entered

the

country

falsely/illegally/wrongly.
g. Talking to other students is against the law/orders/rules of the examination.
h. The two men were arrested before they could commit/make/perform any
more crimes.
i.

I hjad to take the company to court/justice/law to get the money they owed
me.

j.

Smoking is compulsory/prohibited/refused near the petrol tanks.

Task 2: Match word in the box woth a suitable description (a-l).

Blackmailer, forger, hooligan, murderer, shoplifter, vandal, burglar, hijacker,
kidnapper, pickpocket, smuggler, witness
a. This person takes control of a plane or boat by force.
hijacker
b. This person sees what happens during a crime or accident

c. This person brings goods into the country illegally.

11


d. This person might steal food from a supermarket.

e. This person kills someone on purpose.

f. This person takes people and demanda money for their return.

g. This person makes illegal copies of paintings, documents, etc.

h. This person damages other peoples property.

i.

This person might steal your wallet in a crowd.

j.

This person steals from houses.

k. This person gets money from others by threatening to tell secrets.

l.

This person causes trouble at football matches.

D. Exam Focus
Task 1: Translate into Romanian:
The Robin Hood legends form part of a corpus of outlaw stories which date from
around the reign of King John. Two other key outlaws, Fulk fitzWarin and
Eustace the Monk, were historical figures whose lives can be clearly identified at
this time, but Robin Hood himself is much more problematical.
What is striking about these stories is that they reveal that, in an age when the
Rule of Law was respected as the foundation of good government, those who put
themselves outside the law had become popular heroes. This is in complete
contrast to public perceptions of the outlaw at the beginning of King Henry II's

12

reign, and shows that the existing order had come to be regarded as tyrannical.
Tyranny was the abuse of law.
If the existing order was founded on the arbitrary will of evil men who could twist
the law to their own ends, then it was the role of the outlaw to seek redress and
justice by other means. In a violent age, these means were invariably violent.
Robin Hood and his contemporaries were cunning, merciless and often brutal.
Task 2: Form questions to which these sentences could be answers. The
information which is required is shown by the words in italics.
1. Ive forgotten Amelias address.
2. Were going to the south of France next month.
3. Their house was struck by lightning again last night.
4. Its about 300 kilometres from Iasi to Buzau.
5. The thing that John wants most is a quiet house in the country.
6. Jim has to take vitamin tablets twice a day to build up his strengths.

13

Unit 2
A. Topic: BLACK DEATH - POLITICAL AND SOCIAL
CHANGES
KEY WORDS:

Black death

Clergyman

Lollards

Lordship

Yeoman

Gentry

Peasantry

The Peasants Revolt

Benenden Mill: Country house of upwardly mobile yeomen

The Black Death had a devastating impact on local communities, and the class of
survivors created a country of higher wages and peasants with a determined sense
of their own worth.
Social change
Life in Britain in the fourteenth century was 'nasty, brutish and short', and it had
been that way for the peasantry since long before the Black Death. Britain in the
14

early fourteenth century was horrendously overpopulated. This was very good for
the land-owning classes, since it meant that they had a vast reserve of inexpensive
manpower upon which they could draw. In fact, there was such a surplus on
manpower, that most landlords found it convenient to relax the old feudal labour
dues owed to them on the grounds that men could always be found to perform
them.
'Life in Britain in the Fourteenth Century was 'nasty, brutish and short.''
This changed after 1348.
We can see in the example of Farnham the immediate consequence of the plague:
a slash in the cost of livestock and inflation in the cost of labour. This pattern was
repeated up and down the country. The immediate reaction of the elite was to
legislate against this. The Ordinance of Labourers was published on 18th June
1349, limiting the freedom of peasants to move around in search of the most
lucrative work. This was promulgated through Parliament as the Statute of
Labourers in 1351:
It was lately ordained by our lord king, with the assent of the prelates, nobles and
others of his council against the malice of employees, who were idle and were not
willing to take employment after the pestilence unless for outrageous wages, that
such employees, both men and women, should be obliged to take employment for
the salary and wages accustomed to be paid in the place where they were working
in the 20th year of the king's reign 1346, or five or six years earlier; and that if the
same employees refused to accept employment in such a manner they should be
punished by imprisonment, as is more clearly contained in the said ordinance.
Age of the yeomen?

Yeomen

15

It failed. Skilled manpower was so short that no landlord could afford to ignore
the strictures of the market. In Farnham, a carpenter who had been paid 3d. in
1346 was being paid 5d. by 1367, his mate had shot up from 1d. to 4d., and
most other workmen had added at least a penny to their wages.
'The yeomen and the gentry were the movers and shakers of their locality.'
With the de facto freedom to move around and sell their labour, and the
horrendously deflated prices of goods and land, those with the enterprise to do so
were able to lift themselves out of the bonds of villeinage and make something of
themselves. It is at this point that we see the emergence of the yeoman farmer: a
peasant smallholder with up to 100 acres of land.
These yeoman farmers were always a tiny minority. They were outnumbered
hugely both by the gentry classes above them, and by the general peasantry below.
Yet the weakening of lordship and the cheapness of land had provided conditions
which the 'yeomen' and gentry were best positioned to exploit. They were the
movers and shakers of their locality, enclosing land for sheep, establishing
weaving mills and spending their new-found wealth on architectural memorials,
both for this life and the next.
Questioning the elites?

A peasant house after the Black Death.

In 1371, an academic Oxford cleric called John Wycliffe was promoted into the
government service of King Edward III. Desperate for cash to pursue the neverending war with France, Edward's chief advisor, John of Gaunt, hoped to use

16

Wycliffe's radical preaching as a means of coercing the clergy into paying higher
taxes to the state.
Wycliffe was a reformist clergyman who had evolved a theory that the bible was
the only truly religious authority, rejecting the teachings of the Pope and the
Catholic Church. He believed that it was impossible to know whose souls would
ultimately be saved, and that it was entirely possible for those of the clergy and the
Pope not to be among them. His teachings were vilified by the Church, and he
was tried for heresy in 1377. However, John of Gaunt literally stood by him in
court, causing the trial to break up in confusion.
'Thanks to the new social freedoms released by the Black Death, the
Commoners had become more confident in demanding their rights.'
Yet Wycliffe's teachings had struck a dangerous chord amongst the population.
During the chaotic end to the trial of 1377, the London congregation had rioted
(in defence of their bishop against Gaunt). Thanks to the new social freedoms
released by the Black Death, the Commoners had become more confident in
demanding their rights.
The followers of Wycliffe's ideas, known as Lollards, were vociferous in support
of such demands. Among these was an itinerant preacher called John Ball, whose
sermons to the men of Kent verged on the revolutionary socialist:
Yeomen Revolt
Such words struck a deep chord among the men of Kent; more so than in other
places like Durham, where feudal lordship still held strong sway. This was because
the Kentish peasantry had been able to improve their lot considerably in the wake
of the Black Death. Fired up by John Ball's strong words, and outraged by the
demands of the new boy-king Richard II's government for a poll tax of 1 shilling
from every man in the land. Kent rose up under the leadership of Wat Tyler and
marched on London in 1381.
This was the outcome of simmering resentments and the surprising social shifts,
in part caused in part by the Black Death. The Peasants Revolt is the only truly
popular uprising in English medieval history. For, even the most fundamental
17

attempts at social change, like the rebellion of Simon de Montfort in 1265, had
previously been initiated and led by the English barony. The Peasants' Revolt was
the first ever mass uprising of the common man in England. However, it was not
led by the peasantry either. The Peasants' Revolt was, in fact, a revolt of the
yeoman gentry. If their interests had not been threatened, it would never have
occurred.
'The Peasants' Revolt was in fact a revolt of the yeoman gentry.'
Of the three named ringleaders, Wat Tyler, John Ball and Jack Straw, little to
nothing is known. It is more than likely that 'Jack Straw' was a nickname for Wat
Tyler himself. Rebels and outlaws often took on such sobriquets in the wake of
the popularisation of the Robin Hood legend. It is significant that this
popularisation occurs at precisely this time, the first literary reference to Robin
Hood actually occurs in Piers Plowman. Wat Tyler was probably a yeoman
craftsman, as his name implies. John Ball, on the other hand, was probably the
most lowly of the ringleaders; but as an itinerant heretic preacher, he can hardly
be classed as a typical peasant.
Taxation without Power
Taxation was levied through Parliament. As the cost of wars increased during the
Middle Ages, the king increasingly needed to draw the money to fight them from
the general population, and Parliament was the mechanism through which this
was done. In principle, the King agreed to hear the Commons' grievances in
return for which they ratified his request for money. By 1376, serious cracks were
showing in this system. Parliament was being used by the king and the richer
landed gentry as a means of keeping the common people under control.
In 1334, it had slashed the property qualifications exempting the poorer gentry
(and yeomen) from taxation; and after the Black Death, it had enforced
reactionary labour laws designed to keep the cost of lordship down. Measures
such as these alienated poor gentleman, yeoman and peasant alike: those whose
livelihoods relied on hiring out their labour and who had no margins with which
to reduce the increased tax burden.

18

'Parliament was being used by the king and the richer landed gentry as a means
of keeping the common people under control.'
By 1376, the Commons had had enough. In the famous 'Good Parliament' of that
year, they elected Sir Peter de la Mere as the first ever Speaker of the House of
Commons, and through him presented their grievances to the Lords. They
refused to ratify any further taxation until the king's Inner Council was replaced
and their economic grievances were heard. John of Gaunt had no choice but to
give in.
Yet, for the lesser gentry in the Commons, this was not the victory that it seemed.
In the very next year, John of Gaunt used the last Parliament of Edward III's
reign to institute the most regressive tax ever witnessed in later medieval England.
In response to a threatened French/Spanish armada menacing the realm,
Parliament levied a one-off poll tax of 4 pence on every adult over the age of 14.
This was followed up in 1379 by another poll tax, and then in 1380, a third poll
tax was levied which sparked the Peasants' Revolt.
In fact, the third poll tax, despite being one shilling on every adult over the age of
15, was actually less burdensome than the 1377 tax, because of the way in which it
was levied. Instead of extracting a shilling from every man in the land, the total
assessment was calculated in every village by multiplying the number of eligible
persons by 12d. and apportioning that total to individuals based on their ability to
pay. The calculation was made by a group of commissioners appointed from
among the county gentry and court officials; but it was precisely for this reason
that it aroused such anger amongst those who instigated the revolt.
King and Government:

The new king: Richard II, Westminster Abbey.

19

The yeomen and lesser gentry, who formed the local village lites, found
themselves both excluded from the administrative process which they saw to be
their right, and hit with a graduated tax bill based on their relative wealth
compared with the general peasantry; and their resentment boiled into open
revolt. They were joined by a peasantry made militant by the collapse of villeinage
and the rousing rhetoric of Lollard preachers such as John Ball.
Yet the Peasants' Revolt failed. In the end, it was just a brief conflagration which
threw stark light on the shifting social attitudes of the general population in the
years following the Black Death. These changes had been occurring throughout
the fourteenth century: Ambion was not the first medieval village to be deserted,
nor was it the last, and like many others its abandonment had begun long before
the Black Death, due to high rents, enclosure, lack of work and bad land.
'The Black Death was never a cause, it was always a catalyst.'
The Black Death was never a cause, it was always a catalyst. All the things we have
been talking about - labour problems, architectural change, the rise of the gentry
and the growth of the English language - all had been developing throughout the
century. What the Black Death did was throw them together into an unstable
brew to which the king and his wars added the last spark of resentment.

Ironically, it was precisely the traditional lordship against

which they had rebelled that ended the Peasants' Revolt.
Wat Tyler was murdered whilst speaking to the young
king at Blackheath, and his rag-tag army dispersed on that
young king's promise to address their grievances. The
ultimate result of the Peasants' Revolt was to elevate the
personal importance of kingship to new heights, raising
huge expectations which the new king, Richard II, was
temperamentally incapable of fulfilling.

20

Vernacular Literature
In 1362, Parliament passed a statute decreeing that all pleas should hereafter be
heard in English. This was undoubtedly an attempt to maintain some semblance
of order in a system which had been severely dislocated by the death of so many
of its educated clerks. From this time on, English replaced French as the official
language of the country and many works were translated from Latin and French
into the vernacular. At the same time, two great poets were writing in the
vernacular: Geoffrey Chaucer and William Langland.
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales were written during the 1380s. William Langland, a
priest from London, produced the first version of his great, alliterative poem The
Vision of Piers Plowman, at the same time as the English declaration of Parliament in
1362.
Task 1:
How could you define the term yeoman?
Mention three most important names associated with the Peasants revolt?
What do you know about Wat Tyler?
Explain the term poll tax?
Vocabulary notes:
assent consimmnt
due tax
Enclose a nchide, a mprejmui
idle fr rost, van, deert
gentry mica aristocraie
horrendously ngrozitor
livestock vite
lordship calitatea de Lord, puterea sau domniile lordului feudal
lucrative avantajos, prfitabil
plea pretext, pledoarie
realm trm, domeniu
riot revolt

21

semblance nfiare, aspect

sobriquets porecl
spark scnteie
uprising rscoal
villeinage iobgie

B. Grammar Review: TAG QUESTIONS

FORM:
Tag questions are the short questions which we often attach to the end of a
sentence. we form tag questions with do/does/did (in the simple tenses), or the
auxiliary verb. There are three main types of sentence + tag question:
type
mixed

sentence

tag Affirmative+negative tag

questions

tag question

You already know dont you?

Negative + affirmative tag

Harriet,
She hasnt had the has she?
baby yet,

uniform tag Affirmative + affirmative tag

He

arrived

questions

night then,

last did he?

Most modal verbs, like auxiliary verbs, are repeated in the tag question:
Tax returns can be submitted on-line now, cant they?
Parents shouldnt expect their children to agree with their opinions, should they?
There are a number of exceptions and variations in the form of the verb in tag
questions:
tag questions after

example

I am

Im still part of the team, arent I?

need

He doesnt need to repeat the year, does

(negative)

he?

may/might

It may/might be fine tomorrow, mightnt

it?

ought to

We really ought to leave now, oughtnt

we?//shouldnt we?

Lets

Lets try that new restaurant, shall we?

22

Task 1: Add tag questions.

a. They want to come, dont they?
b. Elizabeth is a dentist, ..?
c. They wont be there, ..?
d. Youll be there, ..?
e. There arent any problems, ..?
f. George is a student, ..?
g. Hes learnt a lot in the last couple of years, ..?
Task 2: Complete each question with an appropriate question tag.
1. Youll be able to watch the children for half an hour while I visit John,
..?
2. I hope you are not doing anything tonight. Ive just booked tickets for the
circus. Oh, there were tickets left, ..? I thought it would have sold
out.
3. The Consul had been quite cooperative up to this point, ..?
4. we neednt register before the first talk, ..?
5. how can you think of marrying her? Youve hardly

known her,

..?
6. It seems to me, Minister, that the government has broken all its pre-election
promises regarding the Health Service, ..?
7. Mrs Allison did say that we could take dictionaries into the exam with us,
..?

C. Vocabulary: CRIME AND THE LAW II

Task 1: Complete each sentence (a-j) with a suitable ending (1-10). Use
each ending once.
a. I decided to buy a burglar alarm after someone broke .
b. When

Alan

was

stopped

outside

the

supermarket

he

ended

.
c. As it was Sheilas first offence she was let .
d. After climbing over the prison wall, Peter managed to get
.

23

e. The old couple who live opposite were taken .

f. At the end of the trial Hilary was found .
g. My neighbours admitted denting my car but got away .
h. The bank at the end of the street was held .
i.

Nobody saw jack cheating and he got away with .

j.

The hijackers took fifteen people .

1. in by a salesman who cheated them out of their money.

2. away by stealinga car parked nearby.
3. up at the police station, charged with shoplifting.
4. it, although everyone suspected what had happened.
5. into my house and stole my stereo.
6. off with only a warning.
7. with paying only $100 damages.
8. hostage and demanded $1, 000, 000 from the authorities.
9. guilty and sentenced to six months in prison.
10. up by two masked men last week.
Task 2: Complete each sentence with a word from the box. Use each
word once only.
Accused, evidence, guilty, lawyer, statement, charged, fine, jury, sentence,
suspect
a. The customs officers arrested bob and charged him with smuggling.
b. The police spent all morning searching thr house for .
c. Jean left her car in a no-parking area and had to pay a/an .
d. Unfortunantely at the end of the trial my brother was found
e. The trial took a long time as the couldnt reach a verdict.
f. George won his case because he had a very good defence .
g. The police visited Dawn and asked her to make a/an .
h. Because of his past criminal record, brian was the main .
i.

Puline decided to sue the police because she had been wrongly
.

j.

The murderer of the children received a life .

24

D. Exam Focus
Task 1: Complete the following with the correct question tags:
1. Hes got a very good job, __________?
2. Well, youd better tell me about it, __________?
3. I couldnt borrow your dictionary, __________?
4. I am right, __________?
5. That wasnt a very diplomatic thing to say, __________?
6. Youll be home early tonight, __________?
7. Everyones gone home now, __________?
8. No one really likes him, __________?
9. Youd like to see it, __________?
Task 2: Mr. Hardwick, a driving inspector, is giving a driving lesson to
seventeen-year-old Gary. Complete the following dialogue with the correct
question tags. The first one has been done for you.
Instructor: Now, you remember what you learned last lesson, (1) dont you?
Gary: Yes, of course. Start the engine, into first gear, and were off. That was all
right, (2) ____________________ ?
Instructor: Not really. You didnt indicate.
(3) ____________________ ?
Gary: Oh, sorry, I forgot. Still, it doesnt really matter,
(4) ____________________ ?
Instructor: Thats where you are wrong, Gary. Im afraid it does matter.
Gary: well, I cant be expected to remember everything,
(5) ____________________ ? Its only my third lesson, after all.
Instructor: Ok, Gary. Anyway, watch your speed. Youre going too fast.
Gary: But Im only doing thirty-fivr m. p. h. !
Instructor: I know, but this is a built up area, (6) ____________________ ? And
theres a thirty m. p. h. speed limit.
Gary: But look at everyone else. Theyre all going faster than thirty m. p. h. , (7)
____________________ ?

25

Instructor: That doesnt make any difference. You havent passed your test yet, (8)
____________________ ? Now, turn right at the next corner and Gary, be
careful!
Gary: Oh! I shouldnt have done that,
(9) ____________________ ?
Instructor: No, you certainly shouldnt have! You just werent concentrating, (10)
____________________ ? Now, for goodness sake, pay attention!
Gary: You dont really like teaching me to drive,
(11) ____________________ , Mr Hardwick?
Instructor: Its not a question of lik,ing or disliking, Gary. Its my job. But if you
want to pass the test, youll just have to learn to concentrate, (12)
____________________ ? Now, lets try again.

26

Unit 3
A. Topic: ELIZABETH I
Elizabeth I is considered one of the country's most successful and popular
monarchs. Clever, enigmatic and flirtatious, she rewrote the rules of being Queen.

But what was Elizabeth really like?

And was her success down to her own skill and judgement - or an
intuitive grasp of public relations?

A different kind of Queen

The reign of Elizabeth I is often thought of as a Golden Age. It was a time of
extravagance and luxury in which a flourishing popular culture was expressed
through writers such as Shakespeare, and explorers like Drake and Raleigh sought
to expand England's territory overseas. This sense of well-being was embodied by
Queen Elizabeth who liked to wear sumptuous costumes and jewellery, and be
entertained in style at her court. But life in Tudor England did not always reflect
such splendour. The sixteenth century was also a time when the poor became
poorer, books and opinions were censored, and plots to overthrow the Queen
were rife. Elizabeth's ministers had to employ spies and even use torture to gain
information about threats to her life.
In 1558 the Protestant preacher John Knox wrote, 'It is more than a monster in
nature that a woman should reign and bear empire over man.' So was he right?
Were women fit to rule the country? The people had lived through the unpopular

27

reign of Mary I, known as 'Bloody Mary' for her merciless persecution of

Protestants. Lady Jane Grey was Queen for only a matter of days before being
toppled and eventually executed. And Mary Queen of Scots made a series of illjudged decisions which led her to the executioner's block in 1587.
'Elizabeth could be as ruthless and calculating as any King before her.'
Elizabeth was a different kind of Queen: quick-witted, clever and able to use
feminine wiles to get her own way. Elizabeth could be as ruthless and calculating
as any king before her but at the same time she was vain, sentimental and easily
swayed by flattery. She liked to surround herself with attractive people and her
portraits were carefully vetted to make sure that no physical flaws were ever
revealed.
She relied upon the ministers close to her but would infuriate them with her
indecision - 'It maketh me weary of life,' remarked one. Faced with a dilemma for example whether or not to sign the execution warrant of Mary Queen of Scots
- Elizabeth would busy herself with other matters for months on end. Only when
the patience of her ministers was running short would she be forced to make up
her mind. She had a formidable intellect, and her sharp tongue would quickly
settle any argument - in her favour.
Early years
So what influences had shaped the young Elizabeth? Her mother was the ill-fated
Anne Boleyn who had caught the eye of Henry VIII at court. He was soon
bewitched by her, arranging to divorce Catherine of Aragon and quickly making
Anne his second wife. But her fate was sealed when she failed to provide Henry
with what he desperately wanted - a son. Everyone, from court astrologers to
Henry himself, was convinced Anne would give birth to a boy. It was a girl,
Elizabeth. Henry, beside himself with disappointment, did not attend the
christening. When Elizabeth was just two years old her mother was beheaded at
the Tower of London.
'Henry, beside himself with disappointment, did not attend the christening.'

28

Elizabeth was brought up in the care of governesses and tutors at Hatfield House
and spent her days studying Greek and Latin with the Cambridge scholar, Roger
Ascham. In later years Katherine Parr, Henry's sixth wife, took a keen interest in
the young Elizabeth and made sure that she was educated to the highest
standards. Elizabeth was taught the art of public speaking, unheard of for women
at the time. But the ability to address a large number of people, from ministers in
Parliament to troops on the battlefield, stood Elizabeth in good stead for the
future. She learnt how to turn the tide of opinion in her favour, and this became
one of her most effective weapons.
Elizabeth is crowned

The main part of Hatfield House, built after the reign of Elizabeth I

On 17 November 1558 it is said that Princess Elizabeth was sitting under an oak
tree at Hatfield House when a horseman appeared with the news that would
change her life forever. Elizabeth, aged twenty-five, was now Queen of England.
Mary I had died unpopular with her people and tormented by her own inability to
produce an heir. The country now looked to the young Queen for salvation. A
new era was dawning, the age of Elizabeth I.
The celebrations for the Coronation, two months later, were spectacular. As
Elizabeth walked along the carpet laid out for her journey to Westminster Abbey,
the crowds rushed forward to cut out pieces as souvenirs. Elizabeth made sure
that everyone - down to the lowliest beggar - played a part, pausing to listen to
congratulations from ordinary people on the street. She knew that, in political
terms, she needed their support but she also felt a deep sense of responsibility for
their welfare. For their part, the people were thrilled with their new Queen.
Elizabeth was an instant hit.
'The country now looked to the young Queen for salvation.'

29

As soon as her Council had been appointed, Elizabeth made religion her priority.
She recognised how important it was to establish a clear religious framework and
between 1559 and 1563 introduced the acts which made up the Church
Settlement. This returned England to the Protestant faith stating that public
worship, religious books such as the Bible and prayers were to be conducted in
English rather than Latin. The new Book of Common Prayer was introduced,
adapted from earlier Books used under the Protestant Edward VI.
But Elizabeth was careful not to erase all traces of Catholic worship and retained,
for example, the traditions of candlesticks, crucifixes and clerical robes. By
pursuing a policy of moderation she was attempting to maintain the status quo
and, although Puritans were particularly upset by the continuance of some
Catholic traditions, an uneasy compromise was reached and maintained
throughout her reign.
The question of marriage
The welfare of her people was of paramount importance to Elizabeth and she
once remarked, 'I am already bound unto a husband which is the Kingdom of
England.' But her reluctance to marry was to become one of her biggest
headaches and would cause her ministers, particularly the anxious Lord Burghley,
sleepless nights. Marriage was a political necessity and a way of forming a useful
alliance with a European power. Children would secure the line of succession.
This was Elizabeth's duty and she should get on with it.
Her ministers knew and Elizabeth certainly knew. But there was no
announcement, no wedding bells. The years passed until in 1566 Parliament
refused to grant Elizabeth any further funds until the matter was settled. This was
a big mistake. No one told the Queen what to do and, using the skills of rhetoric
she had been taught, Elizabeth addressed members of Parliament. The welfare of
the country was her priority, not marriage. She would marry when it was
convenient and would thank Parliament to keep out of what was a personal
matter. This was clever talk from the Queen. She knew the political implications
of remaining unmarried but effectively banned further discussion.
'But her reluctance to marry was to become one of her biggest headaches.'

30

That is not to say that Elizabeth didn't enjoy the company of men. On the
contrary she thrived on the adoration of her ministers and knew that flirtation was
often the easiest way to get things done. In the political arena she encouraged the
attentions of Henry, Duke of Anjou, and later his brother Francis, Duke of
Alenon, which could form a useful alliance with France against Spain. But
neither proposal led to marriage. As the political landscape in Europe changed,
the Queen knew that she would need room to manoeuvre. More than that,
Elizabeth simply did not wish to be married. 'If I followed the inclination of my
nature, it is this,' she said, 'beggar woman and single, far rather than queen and
married.'
Elizabeth's favourite

Kenilworth Castle

Despite all these tactics Elizabeth was capable of falling in love, and the one who
came closest to winning her heart was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. They had
known each other for years, and he was one of the first to be appointed to her
Council. But their intimacy alarmed the other ministers. Leicester was an
unknown quantity. He had the ear of the Queen and might poison her mind
against them. Their anxiety amused Elizabeth, and this gave her an excuse to exert
her independence every now and then. But just how close was she to Leicester?
The Queen asserted her virginity throughout her life, but was also an attractive
woman who thrived on male attention. Whether or not the relationship was ever
consummated remains open to speculation.
The dashing Earl of Leicester was something of a showman. He wanted to
impress the Queen and, in the summer of 1575, threw a party at Kenilworth
Castle which no one could forget. It took years to prepare for. He altered the
layout of his castle, building luxurious new apartments for the Queen and her
huge entourage. The entertainment lasted several days with fine banquets, jousting
and spectacular firework displays. He had shown the Queen how much he adored
31

her and, just as he had hoped, eclipsed everyone else. It was Leicester's finest
hour.
'The dashing Earl of Leicester was something of a showman. He wanted to
impress the Queen...'
No matter that the entertainment at Kenilworth practically bankrupted him. That
was par for the course. Ministers longed for the glory and prestige a visit from the
Queen would bestow on them, and would decorate new residences in her honour.
Houses were even converted into the shape of an 'E' to flatter her. But years of
work and expense often ended in disappointment when she failed to visit.
Elizabeth was clever to encourage this degree of devotion. She was well aware
that plots were being hatched against her and that she needed the undivided
loyalty of those around her as protection. In 1568 one such problem presented
itself to Elizabeth in the shape of Mary Queen of Scots.
The Scottish Queen
Mary was born at Linlithgow Palace in Scotland in 1542, the daughter of James V
of Scotland and the French Mary of Guise. She became Queen of Scotland aged
only six days following the death of her father, and spent her early childhood with
her mother in Scotland. In 1548 the French King, Henry II, proposed that the
young Mary would be an ideal wife for his son, Francis, the marriage forming a
perfect alliance between the two countries at a time when England was attempting
to exert control over Scotland. Mary went to live at the French court and at the
age of fifteen married Francis, heir to the French throne.
Francis II reigned for only a few months with Mary as his Queen and, when he
died in 1560, Mary was left without a role. She decided to return as Queen to
Scotland, agreeing to recognise the Protestant Church as long as she could
privately worship as a Catholic. The Scots regarded this with some suspicion and
John Knox stirred up anti-Catholic feeling against her. It was not, however, until
she married Lord Darnley in July 1565 that things took a turn for the worse. As
time passed it became clear to Mary that her husband was, in fact, an arrogant

32

bully with a drinking problem. Now pregnant with Darnley's child she turned for
support to her secretary, David Riccio.
'...the Scots had had enough of Mary and, imprisoned at Lochleven Castle, she
was forced to abdicate...'
From this point on, events spiralled out of control. In March 1566 Darnley and
his accomplices burst in on Mary at Holyroodhouse and stabbed Riccio to death.
A year later Darnley himself was murdered, his residence in Edinburgh blown
apart by an explosion. Mary had grown close to the ruthless Earl of Bothwell and
rumour soon spread that Bothwell and Mary had been responsible for the murder,
particularly following their hasty marriage a few weeks later. But by now the Scots
had had enough of Mary and, imprisoned at Lochleven Castle, she was forced to
abdicate the Scottish throne. Her young son was crowned James VI on 29 July
1567.
Mary and Elizabeth
But Mary was not giving up without a fight. Having already shown herself to be a
poor judge of character, Mary now made the huge mistake of misjudging
Elizabeth. If only she could meet her, she thought, Elizabeth would rally to her
cause. Ignoring the pleas of her advisors Mary managed to escape from Lochleven
and, disguised as a man, fled the country. She landed on English soil ready to
meet her fellow Queen.
But Elizabeth had other ideas. Mary was the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder
sister, Margaret, and so had a claim to the English throne. She had married
Darnley whose lineage could be traced back to Henry VII, creating an even
stronger claim. Worse still, Elizabeth had herself been declared illegitimate in a
statute which had never been formally repealed, and knew that many Catholics
considered Mary to be the rightful Queen of England. Her presence in England
could spark a Catholic uprising. Mary was immediately taken to stay at Carlisle
Castle by one of Elizabeth's ministers but as days turned into weeks, she became
suspicious. Eventually, sent to stay in the unwelcoming Tutbury Castle, the truth
dawned on her. She was a prisoner.

33

'Elizabeth remained, however, fascinated by the Scottish Queen.'

Elizabeth, meanwhile, was paralysed by indecision. She did not wish to meet the
woman she considered her rival, but knew that if she released Mary her own life
would be in danger. Elizabeth remained, however, fascinated by the Scottish
Queen. Mary was said to be a great beauty who exerted a strange power over men
and, whenever any minister returned from a visit to the now belligerent Mary, he
was quizzed by the Queen on her looks, her clothes, her attractiveness compared
to herself. Similarly Mary would ask after Elizabeth. But the two Queens never
met.
Plots and conspiracies
As predicted, Mary quickly became the focus of plots to overthrow Elizabeth and
return England to the Catholic faith. In 1569 the Northern Uprising failed when
the Catholic Earls, marching southwards, discovered that Mary had quickly been
moved from Tutbury to Coventry and their plans to rescue her were thwarted.
The Ridolfi Plot of 1571 went further by enlisting Spanish support to depose
Elizabeth and place Mary on the throne. It was clear that, as long as Mary Queen
of Scots was alive, Elizabeth's life would be in danger.
'...as long as Mary Queen of Scots was alive, Elizabeth's life would be in
danger.'
Francis Walsingham, one of Elizabeth's most loyal ministers, was acutely aware of
this. He set out to nail Mary and, in 1586, his moment came. Walsingham's spies
discovered that she was secretly corresponding with a group of Catholic plotters
and, having intercepted her letters, they forged a postscript in her hand asking for
the identities of those involved. The names and details were duly supplied by the
plotters. At last Walsingham had proof of her guilt.
Mary is executed
Mary's trial began on 15 October 1586 at Fotheringhay. But she was not allowed a
lawyer and, attempting to defend herself, was not even permitted to consult her
own papers. Found guilty of treason, Mary was sentenced to death. Problem
solved. But Walsingham had reckoned without the Queen's reluctance to sign the
34

execution warrant. To Elizabeth, Mary was a fellow Queen. To execute any

Queen was a precedent she did not wish to set, for her own sake. She also feared
that Mary's relations in Europe would take revenge on England. As the weeks
passed, Elizabeth procrastinated. For someone who disliked making decisions,
this was torture.
In February 1587 the warrant was finally signed and the execution took place
before the Queen could change her mind. But when Elizabeth heard the bells
pealing to celebrate the death of Mary Queen of Scots, she was horrified. It had all
happened too quickly. The warrant had been taken to Fotheringhay before she
was ready. Elizabeth was inconsolable and locked herself in her room. She wept
for days.
'As the weeks passed, Elizabeth procrastinated.'
As she had feared, Catholic Europe reacted swiftly to the news and the Pope
urged Philip of Spain to invade England. Mary's execution would be one of the
factors contributing to the Spanish Armada the following year. Her death took a
heavy toll on Elizabeth, one observer noting, 'I never knew her fetch a sigh, but
when the Queen of Scots was beheaded.'
Elizabeth's final years
The 1590s proved a difficult decade for Elizabeth. The question of how to govern
Ireland had created terrible problems for the Queen over the years but 1594 saw
the start of the Nine Years War in which hundreds of English troops were killed.
Elizabeth sent out the impetuous Earl of Essex who only managed to create
further difficulties. Her most trusted ministers, including Burghley and
Walsingham, passed away. Leicester, to whom she had remained close, died in
1588 and Elizabeth kept his last letter beside her bed until her own death.
The Queen herself was not as sharp as she once had been. Ministers often dealt
with matters without consulting her, and she became paranoid about the threat of
assassination. But by now Elizabeth was nearly seventy. Her health deteriorated
and, when death came on 24 March 1603, it was: 'mildly like a lamb, easily like a

35

ripe apple from the tree'. The crown passed to the Protestant King James VI of
Scotland who became King James I of England.
'Elizabeth's greatest achievement lay in the relationship she had forged with her
people.'
The mourning which followed her death was unprecedented. However, details of
the legacy she left the country are open to interpretation. Certainly, her reign had
seen England prosper and become a major player in Europe. Protestantism was
now firmly established as the country's religion. The people had enjoyed stable
government, and Poor Laws had created a new framework of support for the
needy. But problems remained. There was widespread corruption amongst
ministers involving the abuse of monopolies and tax evasion. Local government
was inefficient. Elizabeth had often shied away from making difficult decisions
and this had sown the seeds for future conflict, particularly in Ireland.
Task 1:
Why the reign of Elizabeth I is often thought of as a Golden Age?
Give examples from the text.
Find adjectives in the text which describe Queen Elizabeths character?
Who was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester?
What do you know about Mary of Scotland?
Vocabulary notes:
to be toppled a fi rsturnat de la putere/ ndeprtat
ill- judged decision decizie proast
quick-witted ager la minte
feminine wile trucuri feminine
easily swayed by flattery uor dobort de linguiri
vetted a cenzurat
physical Flaw defect fizic
ill-fatted ntr-o stare proast
treason trdare
to reckon a evalua, a preui, a aprecia
procrastinted czut pe gnduri

36

to mourn a jeli, a purta doliu

B. Grammar Review: MODALS

The modal auxiliaries in English are can, could, had better, may, might, ought (to), shall,

should, will, would.

Modal auxiliaries generally express speakers attitudes. For example, modals can express that a
speaker feels something is necessary, advisable, permissible, possible, or probable; and in addition,
they can convey the strength of these attitudes.
(a) BASIC MODALS

Modals do not take a final s, even when the

can

subject is she, he, or it.

could

Modals are followed immediately by the simple

may

form of the verb.

might

She can do it.

must

The only exception is ought, which is followed

ought to

by an infinitive (to + the simple form of a verb)

shall

He ought to go to the meeting.

should
will
would
(b) PHRASAL MODALS
Be able to
Be going to
Be supposed to
Have to
Have got to
Used to

MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS

Auxiliary

Uses

Present/Future

Past

may

1. polite request (only

May I borrow your

with I or we)

book?

2. formal permission

You may leave the

He may have been

room.

at the library.

3. less than 50 %

- Wheres John?

He might have been

certainty

He may be at the

at the library.

library.
might

1. less than 50 %

Wheres John?

He might have been

certainty

He might be at the

at the library.

37

library.

Might I borrow your

2. polite request (rare)

book?
should

I should study tonight.

1. advisability

should

have

studied last night, but

I didnt.
2. 90 % certainty

She should do well on

She

(expectation)

the test.

done well on the test.

(future

only,

should

have

not

present)
ought to

1. advisability

ought to study

tonight.
2. 90% certainty

She ought to do well

She ought to have

(expectation)

on the test.

done well on the test.

(future

only,

not

present)
had better

1.

advisability

with

threat of bad result

You had better be on

(past

time, or we will leave

uncommon)

form

without you.
Be supposed to

Class is supposed to

1. expectation

begin at two oclock.

2.

Class was supposed

unfulfilled

to begin at two oclock,

expectation

but it didnt begin until

three.
must

I must go to class today.

1. strong necessity

(I had to go to class
today.)

2. prohibition

You must not open

(negative)

the door.

3. 95% certainty

Mary isnt in class. She

Mary

must be sick.

been sick yesterday.

must

have

(present only)
have to

have got to
Will

I have to go to class

I had to go to class

today.

yesterday.

2. lack of necessity

I dont have to go to

I didnt have to go to

(negative)

class today.

class yesterday.

1. necessity

I have got to go to

(I had to go to class

class today.

yesterday.)

1. necessity

He will be here at six

1. 100% certainty

oclock.

38

2. willingness

- The phones ringing.

Ill get it.

Will you please pass the

3. polite request

salt?
be going to

1. 100% certainty
(prediction)
2.

definite

plan

(intention)
I was going to call

3. unfulfilled intention

you, but I didnt have

time.
can

1.ability/possibility

I can run fast.

2. informal permission

You can use my car

tomorrow.

3.

could

informal

polite

Can I borrow your

request

book?

4. impossibility

That cant be true!

That

cant

(negative only)

been true!

1. past ability

could

have

run

fast

when I was a child.

2. polite request

Could you help me?

3. suggestion

- I need help.

You

(affirmative only)

You could talk to

talked

your teacher.

teacher.

- Wheres John?

He could have been

He could be at the

at the office.

4.

less

than

50%

certainty

could

have

to

your

office.
5. impossibility

That couldnt be true!

(negative only)
Be able to

That couldnt have

been true!

1. ability

I am able to help

I was able to help

you.

him.

I will be able to help

you.
would

Would you please pass

1. polite request

the salt?
2. preference

I would rather go to

I would rather have

the park than stay

gone to the park.

home.
3. repeated action in the

When

past

student, I would go

39

wa

to that pub every

Saturday.
4. polite for want

I would like an apple,

(with like)

please.
I would have liked a

5. unfulfilled wish

chocolate, but there was

none in the house.
used to

1. repeated action in the

I used to visit my

past

friends every other week.

2. past situation that no

I used to live in

longer exists

France. Now I live in

Italy.

shall

1. polite question to

Shall

make a suggestion

window?

2. future with I or

I will arrive at nine.

open

the

we as subject

Task 1: Which completion do you think the speaker would probably say?
Choose the best one.
1. Is John a good student?
He _____. I dont know hil well, but I heard he was offered a scholarship for
next year.
a. must be
b. could be
c. is

2. Do you know where Eva is?

She _____ at Barbaras house. She said something about wanting to visit after
work today, but Im really not sure.
a. must be
b. could be
c. is
3. I stayed up all night finishing this report for the boss.
You _____ really tired.
I do.

40

a. must feel
b. might feel
c. feel
4. Do you think the grocery store is still open?
It _____. I cant ever remember what their hours are.
a. must be
b. could be
c. is
5. Its supposed to rain tomorrow.
I know, but the forecast wrong. Weather forecasts are far from 100 percent
accurate.
a. must be
b. could be
c. is
6. I heard that Jane has received a scholarship and will be able to attend the
university in the fall.
Wonderful! Thats good news. She _____ very happy to have the matter
finally settled.
a. must be
b. might go
c. goes

7. Which bus should I take to get to the main post office?

Bus number 39. It _____ right to the post office.
a. must go
b. could go
c. goes
8. Is that Adams brother standing with him in the cafeteria line?
It _____, I suppose. He does look a little like Adam.
a. must be
b. might be sleeping
c. might have been sleeping

41

Task 2: Discuss the differences in meaning, if any, in each group of

sentences.
1. a. May I use your phone?
b. Could I use your phone?
c. Can I use your phone?
2. a. You should take an English course.
b. you ought to take an English course.
c. Youre supposed an English course.
d. You must take an English course.
3. a. You should see a doctor about that cut on your arm.
b. You had better see a doctor that cut on your arm.
c. You have to see a doctor about that cut on your arm.
4. a. You must not use that door.
b. You dont have to use that door.
5. a. I will be at your house by six oclock.
b. I should be at your house by six oclock.
6. There is a knock at the door. Who do you suppose it is?
a. It might be Jane.
b. It may be Jane.
c. It could be Jane.
d. It must be Jane.
7. Where is Jack?
a. He might have gone home.
b. He must have gone home.
c. He had to go home.
Task 3: Use a modal or a phrasal modal with each verb in parentheses.
More than one auxiliary may be possible. Use the one that seems most
appropriate to you and explain why you chose that one rather than another.
1. It looks like rain. We (shut) __________ the windows.
2. Ann, (you, hand) __________ me that dish? Thanks.

42

3. spring break starts on the thirteenth. We (go, not) __________ to classes again
until the twenty-second.
4. The baby is only a year old, but she (say, already) __________ a few words.
5. There was a long line in front of the theatre. We (wait) _________ almost an
hour to buy our tickets.
6. A: Id like to go to a warm, sunny place next winter. Any suggestions?
B: You (go) __________ to Hawaii. Or how about Spain?
7. I dont feel like going to the library to study this afternoon. I (go) _________
to the mall than to the library.
8. A: This is Steves laptop, isnt it?
B: it (be, not) __________ his. He doesnt have a laptop, at least not that I
know of. It (belong) __________ to lucy or to Lydia. They sometimes bring their
laptops to class.
9. A: mrs Wilson got a traffic ticket. She didnt stop at a stop sign.
B: thats surprising. Usually shes a very cautious driver and obeys all the traffic
laws. She (see, not) __________ the sign.
10. A: (I, speak) __________ to Peggy?
B: She (come, not) __________ to the phone right now. (I, take)
_____________ message?

C. Vocabulary: TOWNS AND BUILDINGS

Task 1: Underline the most suitable word:
a. As you can see, the garden has two ornamental iron doors/gates and there is
a stone path/pavement leading to the house.
b. This is the front entry/entrance, but there is another door at the edge/side of
the house.
c. All the rooms have covered/fitted carpets.
d. All the cupboards/wardrobes in the kitchen and the bookshelves/library in the
living room are included in the price.
e. There is a beautiful stone chimney/ fireplace in the living room, and there are
sinks/washbasins in all the bedrooms.
f. At the top of the stairs/steps there is a coloured/stained glass window.
g. The bathroom has a shower/washer and a modern mixer pipes/tapes.

43

h. At the top of the house there is a/an attic/cellar and the garden contains a
glasshouse/greenhouse and a garden hut/shed.
i.

There is a wooden Ifence/wall on one side of the garden, and a bush/hedge

on the other.

j.

This is a fine single/detached house in a quiet neighbourhood/suburb.

Task 2: Complete each sentence (a-j) with a suitable ending (1-10) so

that the maning of the word in italics is clear. Use each ending only

once.
a. I would prefer to live in a cottage
b. The

shopping

centre

has

multi-storey

car

park

c. My grandmother bought a bungalow

d. Jenny lives in a small flat
e. This street is only for pedestrians
f. Helen and John live in a square
g. Peter has moved to london suburb
h. This

village

is

surrounded

by

lovely

i.

My house is semi-detached

1. on the third floor of a modern block.

2. and he commutes to work in the centre.
3. with rooms for over 2000 vehicles.
4. but the rent is so high that she cannot afford much furniture.
5. which has a beautiful garden in the middle.
6. in a small village in the country.
7. and the neighbours often bang on the wall.
8. because she had difficulty climbing stairs.
9. with fields, woods, streams and a small lake.
10. and cares and lorries ar not allowed.

44

countryside

D. Exam Focus
Task 1: Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence:
a. Theres someone at the door. It can/must be the postman.
b. Dont worry, you dont have to/mustnt pay now.
c. I think you had better/would better take a pullover with you.
d. Jones could/must be a president if smith has to resign.
e. Sorry, I cant stay any longer. I have to/might go.
f. It was 5 oclock an hour ago. Your watch cantmustnt be right.
g. Its a school rule, all the students have to/must wear a uniform.
h. I suppose that our team must/should win, but Im not sure.
i.

Lets tell Diana. She could/might not know,

j.

In my opinion, the government might/should do something about this.

Task 2:
a. We cant be lost. It isnt allowed/I dont believe it.
b. Jane is bound to be late. She always is/she must be.
c. Late-comers are to report to the main office. Its a good idea/Its the rule.
d. You dont have to stay unless its necessary/if you dont want to.
e. Astronauts must feel afraid sometimes. Theyre supposed to/Its only natural.
f. You cant come in here. It isnt allowed/ I dont believe it.
g. All motorcyclists have to wear crash hamlets. Its a good idea/Its the rule.
h. I ought not to tell Jack. Its not a good idea/Its the rule.
i.

We should be there soon. I expect so/Its absolutely certain.

j.

Youd better leave now. Thats my advice/Thats an order.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Foley, M. Advanced Learners Grammar, Harlow: Longman, 2003
Vince, M. First Certificate in Language Practice. Oxofrd: Macmillan, 2003

45