COOK ISLANDS AND THE BLACKBIRDERS
In all, a total of no fewer than 725 Cook Islanders from the four northern Cook Islands were
permitted to embark on the Peruvian ships willingly, without the ariki and mission teachers
stopping them. Although these recruits were to a greater or lesser degree duped, only seven
were actually kidnapped. Indeed, the people of the northern Cooks, along with their ariki and
teachers, were still completely undiscriminating in their attitude to white foreigners.
The first ship to be fitted out for the Peruvian labour trade was the 151 ton barque Adelante
(Captain August Grassman). The hold of the ship had been divided into three compartments
with iron grating separating them and there were similar gratings over the hatches to prevent
anyone from escaping. In addition, the vessel was armed with two swivel guns mounted by
the after hatch and two more were placed on top of the poop. The crew were also heavily
armed and finally four extra crew members were signed on to guard the hatches day and
night.
The Adelante left Callao on the 15th June 1862 with her first port of call being Hatihea Bay
on Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas. She arrived there on the 10th July, 1862 and remained there
for three days taking on water. Soon after leaving Nuku Hiva, the ship's owner, J. C. Byrne
decided to stop over at the atoll of Tongareva in the northern Cook Group, which lay on their
route in order to investigate the commercial possibilities of their lagoon, known to contain the
beche-de-mer and pearl-shell. Here they met a beachcomber known as Beni who told him that
a ship seen by them the previous day was the French Protectorate schooner Latouche-Treville,
and that she had just recruited 130 Tongarevans to plant sugar cane, coffee and taro in Tahiti
on two-year contacts at four dollars a month.
coconuts and when their crop had failed they were reported to be starving. In fact, the
missionary Wyatt Gill had actually been prospecting uninhabited Nassau Island as a possible
new home for them
In addition to this, the
Tongarevans had the
persuasion, or at least the
blessing, of the London
Missionary Society's teaching
on the island, who seized
upon the opportunity of
earning money to emulate the
churches built on Rarotonga,
Manihiki and other islands in
the Cook Group.
Hence it was decided that at
least one of the six teachers
should accompany each batch
of recruits who care for their
spiritual welfare.
The start of the Polynesian
labour trade was, therefore,Envy of churches like this on Manihiki led the Tongarevans
something of an accidentto recruit From F. J. Moss, Through Atolls and Islands ...
resulting from the(London 1889)
unpremeditated decision of
Byrne to call at Tongareva for
a reason unconnected with his
recruiting venture.
As it now transpired, there was no longer any need to engage in a long and expensive voyage
to Melanesia to procure a cargo of truculent savages when gentler Christianized Polynesians
were more readily available. The Adelante returned to Callao on 13th September, 1862, with a
cargo of 253 recruits (83 men, 83 women, 30 boys, 19 girls, 19 male and 19 female infants).
On their arrival at Callao, the recruits were sold at 200 dollars for men, 150 dollars for women
and 100 dollars for boys, care being taken to avoid splitting up the 83 families. Of the new
arrival, 206 were classed as workers and were sold to buyers requiring domestic servants or
agricultural labourers.
Use of the lucrative human cargo awaiting the enterprising entrepreneur on islands so near at
hand quickly spread. The first ship to then arrive at Tongareva was the brig Trujillo who
kidnapped a local chief as interpreter, with his wife and two boys, before joining the
Apurimac and Manuelita Costas off Manihiki, where they hoped to be the first to recruit from
this island. The next visit seemed to have been a little 98 ton schooner called the Genara
which embarked 43 voluntary recruits together with a second teacher.
The Adelante left again for Tongareva on the 10th October, 1862, to pick up the remaining
able-bodied islanders and their families. There were only two more visits recorded by
recruiting ships. The brig Ellen Elizabeth called on the 25th January, 1863, and stayed for ten
days before leaving for the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati), followed later by a barque, probably the
Dolores Carolina: but there was no one left to take.
Where the Peruvian ships anchored: Omoka Village on Tongareva
From F.V. de G. Stevenson, The Cruise of the 'Janet Nicol' ... (London 1915)
Tongareva is the largest atoll in the Cook Group and its characteristic pattern of dispersed
settlement had led to the population living on their coconut land holdings scattered around the
lagoon, rather than in villages as on the smaller atolls. As soon as the islanders were converted
to Christianity, however, four churches were erected at Omoka, Motu Unga, Tautua and Te
Puka and by 1862 nearly everyone was living in one of the four villages which grew up
around these churches.
When Wyatt Gill called at the atoll on the 11th March 1863 in the missionary ship John
Williams, he found 40 inhabitants of Omoka still living in their village by the main entrance
into the lagoon with the sole remaining teacher Ngatikaro. The total number of Tongarevans
transported to Peru was approximately 472 of which 88 remained when Wyatt Gill returned in
March 1863.
RECRUITING IN THE SOUTHERN COOK ISLANDS
After the raids on Easter Island in December 1862, six of the eight vessels set sail for the west
on or before the night of the 26th December, 1862. The six vessels were Rosa y Carmen,
Rosa Patricia, Guillermo, Micaela Miranda, Jose Castro and Cora. Their prearranged
rendezvous was the isolated island of Rapa, the southernmost of the Austral Group with all
the fleet arriving with the exception of the Cora.
The raiders' rendezvous: Ahurei Bay on Rapa, showing the precipitous terrain.
From Peter H. Buck, Vikings of the Sunrise (New York 1938)
When the 88 ton schooner Cora, the smallest vessel employed in the labour trade, arrived a
few days later, a Rapan called Mairoto was told by a Samoan member of her crew that an
Easter Island boy was held as a prisoner on board, and that the Rapans had better take care as
the Captain was out to capture any he could get hold of. Mairoto had received a decoration
when serving with the French army and, while the Captain of the Cora was trying to recruit
the islanders by offering lavish rations of meat, bread, rice, beans, brandy and wine, he called
a meeting of thirteen chiefs presided over by the High Chief Aperahama, at which it was
decided to seize the ship and deliver her to the French authorities in Tahiti, who they felt
would know best what should be done with her.
A party of armed men, with their weapons concealed, boarded the Cora and succeeded in
securing the Captain and capturing the vessel. The schooner was then sailed to Tahiti by three
Europeans engaged by the chiefs - including James Connor, a local beachcomber and
carpenter, helped by Mairoto and seven other Rapans. The arrival of the Cora at Papeete on
the 17th February, 1863, called a sensation among the Tahitians with the ship being eventually
abandoned and sold as unseaworthy on the 5th May, 1863.
To the credit of the Rapans, no one was taken from the island despite the visit of eight ships,
including some of the worse blackbirders in the labour trade; while one of the eight was
actually captured by them - an exploit still celebrated in the songs and dances of Eastern
Polynesia.
The fleet at Ahurei Bay on Rapa was now reduced to four ships by the capture of the Cora
and the decision of the Captain of the Jose Castro to return to Easter Island. The barque Rosa
y Carmen, with the brig Micaela Miranda, proceeded to the northern Cook Islands of
Rakahanga and probably Manihiki. The barque Rosa Patricia with the brig Guillermo
proceeded to Niue calling at Mangaia and Atiu in the southern Cook Group on their way.
At Mangaia, the European missionary normally stationed there, the Reverend Wyatt Gill, was
away and on his return he was very annoyed to find that the Rosa Patricia had endeavoured to
recruit 200 men from the island. No one could be induced to leave the island, however, at a
Atiu the Rosa Patricia succeeded in kidnapping five islanders who came off to the ship, one
of them being the son of a chief.
The following month the Empresa also visited the two islands when returning to Peru from
Manihiki and Rakahanga by the southern route. Calling at Atiu first, the ariki (high chief) and
his wife were invited to dinner, the chief was offered large sums of money to provide some
200 men however he wisely declined and once safely ashore prohibited all contact with the
ship. Only one youth, who swam off despite the tapu, was taken.
At Mangaia, Wyatt Gill was still away and, mistaking
the Empresa for the mission ship, John Williams,
bringing him back, a canoe with Davida, the son and
heir of the principal ariki Numatangani, and seven
others paddled out and made fast.
Five climbed on board, including Davida where they
were given the now standard drink of brandy and opium
mixed by the doctor and all were seized. The remaining
three suspecting foul play made it safely back to shore.
Apart from the eleven men kidnapped at Atiu and
Mangaia by the Rosa Patricia and Empresa on their way
The Ariki Numatangani ofto and from Rapa, the sole recruiting grounds for Peru in
Mangaia, whose son Davidathe scattered Cook Group were the four northern atolls
was captured but survived toof Tongareva, Manihiki, Rakahanga and Pukapuka.
return. From W. Wyatt Gill,
Life in the Southern Isles ...
(London 1876)
BLACKBIRDING IN THE NORTHERN COOK ISLANDS
MANIHIKI
The Trujillo, which had called briefly at Tongareva en route, joined the Apurimac and
Manuelita Costas off Manihiki on the 10th November 1862 but left again the same day to
recruit at the sister island of Rakahanga only twenty miles to the north while the other two
anchored off the reef. Two days later both the Apurimac and Manuelita Costas were driven
ashore in a storm to become total wrecks. By the time the Trujillo returned with a number of
Rakahangans and took off the shipwrecked crews, the Manihiki people had been forbidden to
leave the atoll by the ariki and not one to be induced to go on board this or any of the later
recruiting ships. Consequently, the tally of Manihiki islanders to leave for Peru was therefore
nil and it must be emphasized that there is no doubt on this point.
Recruiter on the Empresa who turned trader: George Ellis on Manihiki.
From F.J. Moss, Through Atolls and Islands ... (London 1889)
RAKAHANGA
When Wyatt Gill reached Rakahanga on the 5th March 1863, his chief informant on the
activities of the Peruvian labour vessels was Tairi, the first mission teacher (or orometua) on
the island. From Tairi, Gill learned that the first labour vessel to visit Rakahanga had been the
Trujillo which had taken 76 recruits (42 men, 20 women and 14 children) with the consent of
the ariki. These have been volunteers who left on the condition that they would be employed
on light work such as gathering cotton or planting sugar cane, and would be returned within a
year. When the Adelante arrived later with her compliments of Tongarevans, accompanied by
the Jorge Zahara, a further party of families numbering thirty left on board the latter vessel
under the same conditions.
Following this visit, the chief and Tairi agreed that no further recruiting should be permitted
since 60 of the 495 inhabitants were on Fanning Island and 106 had gone to Peru. Shortly
afterwards, however, the Rosa y Carmen arrived from Rapa and seven youths ignored the
tapu and rowed off to the barque which then left to Pukapuka. In all a total of 115
Rakahangans eventually left for Peru.
PUKAPUKA
After Captain Davis of the Jorge Zahara had been frustrated by the ariki and teachers on
Manihiki in his endeavours to recruit there, he left for Pukapuka where he was successful in
obtaining 85 islanders (80 men and 5 women) including the Rarotongan mission teacher
Ngatimoari. The large number was due in the main to the efforts of a resident beachcomber,
Paddy Cooney, who acted as recruiter, coupled with generous presents to the ariki, and eight
fathoms of cloth to the relatives and friends of each recruit. Cooney had lived for years on
Pukapuka as well as in Tahiti and Samoa and on Aitutaki and Palmerston Island, and for a
short time on Fanning Island.
Loto village on Pukapuka
From Ernest Beaglehole, Islands of Danger (Wellington 1944)
The Jorge Zahara left Pukapuka on 27th January 1863. The Rosa y Carmen arrived from
Rakahanga in February, 1863 with her cargo of Easter Islanders and Rakahangans. Captain
Marutinai appeared to take the advice of Paddy Cooney who suggested that the Pukapukans
should be engaged ostensibly to make coconut oil on Palmerston Island for a respected Tahiti
merchant. In any event, the offer was a popular one and 50 men and women were added to the
70 already on board. Later ships visiting the island were unsuccessful in recruiting further
people. As late as November 1863, when the trade was at an end, Reverend Gill reported that
the total number taken from Pukapuka was 140 although evidence now suggests that it was
145.
In all, a total of no fewer than 725 Cook Islanders from the four northern atolls were
permitted to embark on the Peruvian ships willingly, without the ariki and mission teachers
stopping them. Although these recruits were to a greater or lesser degree duped, only seven
were actually kidnapped. Indeed, the people of the northern Cooks along with their ariki and
teachers were still completely undiscriminating in their attitude to white foreigners. Naive and
credulous, the teachers were as much deceived by the promises of the recruiters as anyone
else and accepted whatever they were told without question. Also, of course, the few left
behind seemed quite unaware of the true character of the parties who had desolated their
island. This is shown by the fact that Ben Hughes (or Beni), the local beachcomber who had
collaborated throughout with the recruiters continued to live on Tongareva without opposition
from those who remained. It was only after Reverend Gill had fully explained the situation to
the local people that he had to leave for Fakaofo (Tokelau Islands) with his family and
retainers.
