API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

Affected Unit or Equipment

Temp. Range
in F

Affected metallurgy

Prevention

Inspection Methods

GENERAL CORROSION MECHANISMS-MECHANICAL AND METALLURGICAL FAILURE MECHANISMS

Graphitization

Loss in strength, ductility, creep resistance

Spheroidization/
Softening

Loss in strength, creep resistance- large agglomerated arbides in

5-9% Cr

Temper
Embrittlement.

Reduction in toughness- limited P to 25% of max design P for

temps below MPT(350 oF for older steel and 150oF for newer
steels)

Strain Aging

Increase in hardness and strength with a reduction in ductility and

toughness.

885F Embrittlement

Loss in toughness due to a metallurgical change caused by high

temp.

Sigma Phase
Embrittlement

Loss of fracture toughness

Brittle Fracture

Cracks are straight, non-branching with no plastic deformation

Creep & Stress

Rupture

Increase of 25 F or 15% stress can cut the remaining life in half,

Deformation/cracking

Thermal Fatigue

Thermal fatigue is the result of cyclic stresses caused by

variations in temperature. Transgranular cracks filled with oxides.

Short Term
Overheating Stress
Rupture

Permanent deformation occurring at relatively low stress levels as

a result of localized overheating. fish mouth failures.

Primary hot wall piping & Equipment in FCC, Catalytic reformer

and Coker Units
Coarse Pearlitic grades when compare to Bainitc grades
Hot wall piping & Equipment in FCC, Catalytic reformer and Coker
Units
Fired heaters or boilers also may affect
Equipment in Hydro processing units particularly reactors, hot
feed/ effluent exchanger components and hot HP separators
Other units include CRUs, FCC Reactors, Coker and Vis-breaking
units
Welds are more susceptible than the base metal
Any heavy wall thickness equipment manufactured from
susceptible materials and has not been stress relieved.
Fractionator trays & Internals in High temperature vessels in FCC,
Crude, Vacuum and Coker Units
Upset tower trays of materials type 409 & 410 while bending/
welding.
DSS heat exchanger tubes.
SS cyclones, Piping duct work, Valves in High temperature FCC
Regenerator service.
300 Series SS weld overlays, Tube-Tube sheet attachment welds
during PWHT
SS Heater tubes
Equipment manufactured prior to ASME Sec VIII Div.1 Dec 1987
addenda.
Thick wall equipment during start-up, shut down or hydro test/
tightness testing.
Heater tubes in fired heaters, tube supports, hangers, and other
furnace internals.
Piping & Equipment in or near creep range1. Hot-wall catalytic reforming reactors and furnace tubes,
2. Hydrogen reforming furnace tubes,
3. Hot wall FCC reactors,
4. FCC main fractionator,
5. Regenerator internals.
Weld HAZ at nozzles, High stress areas on catalytic reformer
reactors
Welds joining dissimilar metals due to differential thermal
expansion
Mix points of hot and cold streams such as hydrogen mix points in
Hydro processing units, Where condensate comes in contact with
steam systems (Attemporators)
Coke drum shells
Coke drum skirts
In Steam generating equipment- The rigid attachment between
super heaters and re-heaters
Tubes in High temp. SH and RH penetrating through the cooler
water wall tubes
Steam actuated soot blowers
All boiler and fired heater tubes
Furnaces with coking tendencies-Crude, Vacuum, Heavy oil hydro
processing and coker units,

800-1100

CS & .5Mo steel

850-1400

CS, Cr-Mo

650-1100

2.25Cr-1Mo

CS & C-.5 Mo

600-1000

Metallographic test *
Adding Cr +.7
Temperature control

MG, Tensile and

hardness tests.

New -Limit impurities*

Si, Mn, P, Sn, Sb, As)

Charpy Impact

Adding aluminum and PWHT

No*

400SS series, duplex SS,

wrought and cast 300
series SS

Use of low ferrite or non-ferritic

alloys*
Use of PWHT followed by rapid
cooling

Impact or bend test

Hardness *

1000-1750

Duplex, Ferritic &

martensitic, with
Cr> 17%,300 SS wrought
,cast ,weld

use alloys that are resistant to

sigma formations *Desigmatized
by solution annealing@1950/4 hrs

Physical Testing*

--

CS, LAS, 400 SS

Design for low temp operation *

N/A

--

All

Temp. swing of 200F

All

Design & operation to minimize

thermal stress & cycling *

VT,PT,MT *

All

Burner management, Minimize

localized temperature excursions.

VT,IR, Heat indicating

paint

PWHT

UT,RT,ET,VT,WFMT,SW
UT, PT

API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

Affected Unit or Equipment

Steam blanketing

Departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) - near knife edge with

elongation of grains.

DMW Cracking

Occurs on ferrtic side of weld@ high temp. between austenitic and

ferrtic

Thermal Shock

Thermal fatigue cracking, when high and non-uniform thermal

stress develop over a short time due to differential expansion or
contraction. Usually occurs when a colder liquid contacts a
warmer metal surface. Craze cracks

Erosion/Corrosion

Pits, groves, waves, rounded holes and valleys(directional

pattern)

Cavitation

Sharp-edge pitting damage

Mechanical Fatigue

CS, titanium exhibit an endurance limit- 300 ss, 400 ss, aluminum
& non-ferrous alloys, dont exhibit an endurance limit- calm shell
fingerprint with beach marks- cracks initiate

Vibration-Induced
Fatigue

A form of mechanical fatigue

1.

2.

Refractory
Degradation

Damage due to oxidation, sulfidation and other high temp

mechanisms

Temp. Range
in F

Affected metallurgy

--

CS, LAS

>510

Ferrtic & austenitic

FCC, Cokers, Catalytic reforming and high severity hydro

processing units
High temperature equipment and piping in any unit
Materials that have lost ductility, such as Cr-Mo
equipment([Link])
Equipment subjected to accelerated cooling procedures to
minimize shutdown

All equipment and piping exposed to moving fluids and/ or

catalysts.
Piping systems particularly Bends, elbows, tees, reducers,
downstream of letdown valves and block valves, pumps, impellers,
agitators, agitated vessels, heat exchanger tubing, measuring
device orifices, turbine blades, nozzles, ducts and vapor lines,
scrapers, cutters, wear plates, equipment carrying slurries.
HP reactor effluent piping- Due to Ammonium Bisulfide
Crude and vacuum unit piping and vessels-Exposed to naphthenic
acid in some crude oils.
Pump casings
Pump Impellers(Low pressure side)
Piping D/S of orifice or control valves
Can be found in restricted flow passages( Heat-ex, Venturis, Seals
and Impellers)
Thermal cycling:
Equipment cycles in daily operation-Coke drums.
Continuous s/by equipment-Aux. boilers
Quench nozzle connections such as in water washing systems
Mechanical Loading:
Pressure swing absorbers on Hydrogen purification units
Rotating shafts on CF pumps and compressors
Components such as small dia piping
High pressure drop control valves or steam reducing stations can
cause serious vibration problems in connected piping
Socket welds are small bore piping at or near to compressors or
pumps
Small bore by-pass lines and flow loops around rotating and
reciprocating equipment
Small branch connections
FCC reactor regenerator vessels, Piping, Cyclones, Slide valves
and Internals; In fluid cokers; In Cold shell catalytic reforming
reactors
In waste heat boilers and thermal reactors in sulfur plants

Hydro processing reactors

Refractory lined equipment in FCC, Sulfur plant, and other units
that may suffer localized overheating.
All SG equipment-Fired heaters, Waste heat ex. In sulfur plants,
Hydrogen reformers and FCC units.
Can occur in SH, RH during start up when condensate blocks
steam flow.
Welds used to join clad pipe in locations such as transitions in
Hydro processing reactor O/L piping
Hydro processor exchanger I/L and O/L piping
Alloy transitions inside Fired heaters
All areas where the welds are done between Ferritic materials and
Austenitic materials

Prevention

Design

Inspection Methods

VT, IR scans

Use nickel base filler

VT,PT,MT

All

Prevent interruption in flow of high

temp line.
Minimize severe restraint.
Install thermal sleeves
Review hot/cold injection points

PT/MT, difficult to locate

All

More corrosion resistant alloy *

VT,UT,RT

All

Design

VT,UT,RT

All

Design to minimize stress

concentrations *

MT, PT

--

---

All

Design

MT, PT*

--

All Refractories

Design

VT, IR scan

API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

Affected Unit or Equipment

Reheat Cracking

Due to stress relaxation during PWHT @ high temps- heavy wall

sections- intergranular.

Gaseous oxygenEnhanced Ignition

and combustion

Spontaneous ignition or combustion of metallic and non-metallic

components can result in fires and explosions in certain oxygen
enriched gaseous environments if not properly designed, operated
and maintained. This occurs at low pressures.

Boiler fire boxes and stacks which also use refractories are
affected.
In heavy wall vessels in areas of high restraint including nozzle
welds and heavy wall piping
HSLA steels are highly susceptible for cracking.
Areas that uses oxygen or enriched air for combustion or other
process reasons
SRU, FCCU, Gasification and Partial oxidation units (POX).
Oxygen piping systems especially valves, regulators and other
impingement areas are potentially vulnerable.
Nonmetals such as used for seats and seals are easier to ignite
than metals.

Temp. Range
in F

Affected metallurgy

Prevention

Inspection Methods

---

LAS, 300SS, NI-alloys

Design

UT, MT, PT

---

1). CS, LAS-in low pressure

oxygen greater than 15psig.
With precautions these can
be used in High pressure
oxygen.
2). 300SS have more
resistance to low pressure
oxygen and generally
difficult to ignite below 200
psig.
3). Cu-Ni alloys are more
resistant.
4). Alloy 400 Highly
resistant.
5). Al and Ti should not be
used.

1. Proper cleaning of the component

after Maintenance and Inspection
2. Maintain velocity with in
recommended limits( Normally 100ft/s
3. Ensure the suitability of replaced
components
4. Use oxygen compatible lubricants
5. Dont open oxygen systems
unnecessarily as this could introduce
contamination
6. Thorough review of design
7. Minimize sudden changes in the
pressure in the system
8. Dont use plastic pipes in the
oxygen systems.

Backlights can
be used for
check of
hydrocarbon
contamination
VT

GENERAL CORROSION MECHANISMS-UNIFORM OR LOCALIZED LOSS OF THICKNESS

Galvanic Corrosion

1) Electrolyte, 2) anode-cathode, 3) electrical connectiondepends on cathode area- coat cathode rather than anode.

Atmospheric
corrosion

Marine (20 mpy), humid (1-3) mpy, dry(<1 mpy)

CUI
CS:10F to 350F
SS:140F to 400F

Pitting damage, loss in thickness-loose flaky scale- carbuncle type

pitting

Cooling Water
corrosion
Boiler Water
Condensate

Fresh water> 140F, brackish water> 115F, cause scalingtitanium hydrides >180F
Oxygen scavenging (catalyzed sodium sulfite or hydrazine)amine inhibitor for CO2 corrosion

CO2

Corrosion occurs when effluent stream temp drops below dew

points (300F)

Flue-Gas Dew-Point

Sulfuric & forms @ 280F, hydrochloric acid forms @ 130F

Microbiologically
Induced Corrosion

Occurs where water is present, stagnant flow-cup shaped pit

within pits in CS or subsurface pits in SS

Heat ex Normally Tube to Tube sheet different particularly if sea water

cooling is utilized
Buried pipe lines, Electrical Transmission support towers, ship hulls
1. Piping and equipment that operates at temperature sufficiently low
to allow moisture to present.
2. Poor painting or coating condition
3. Equipment that temperature cycled from ambient to higher or vice
versa
4. Equipment idled/ Shutdown for longer periods unless properly
mothballed.
5. Tanks and Piping. Pipe that rests on supports entraps water
6. Piers and docks
7. Bimetallic connections
1. Damaged Insulation, Vapor barriers, Weather proofing or mastic or
protrusions through the insulations or at insulation termination such
as flanges
2. Ping and equipment with damaged / leaking steam tracing etc.
3. Vibration piping systems, damaged paint locations, Pipe hangers
and supports, Valves and fittings, Bolted on pipe shoes,
4. First few feet of a horizontal pipe run adjacent to the bottom of a
vertical run.
1. Water cooled heat exchangers and cooling towers in all applications
across all industries.
1. External treatment system, De-aerating equipment, Feed water
lines, Pumps, stage heaters and economizers as well as the
Steam generation system on both water and fire sides and the
condensate return system.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.

Boiler feed water and condensate systems in all units

Effluent gas streams of the shift converters in H2 Plant
Overhead systems of regenerators in CO2 removal Plants
All fired process heaters and boliers that burns fuels containing
sulfur
HRSGs that have SS300 series feedwater heaters
Heat Ex., Bottom water of Storage tanks, Piping with stagnant or
low flow conditions, Piping in contact with some soils.

--

All

VT & UT*
Design*

CS, LAS, Copper alloyed

Aluminum

Design

CS, LAS, 300 SS, 400 SS,

DUPLEX SS

Appropriate paint coatings,

Maintain insulation barriers *

--

All

Design

---

CS, LAS, 300 SS, Copper

based alloys

<250

More severe 212250,>250 for marine env.

<300F

CS, LAS

--

CS, LAS, 300 ss

--

All

Fe3O4 (magnetite)

300ss, 400ss, >12%Cr

Design
Biocides, Tank internal-coating ,
U/G-CP

VT, UT

VT, UT, X-Ray profile,

neutron backscatter.

Lab samples, velocity, Ufactor

Water analysis *

VT, UT, RT
VT, UT, PT, (300 SS to
locate SCC)
Stream analysis

API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

Affected Unit or Equipment

Equipment with Hydro test water has not been removed

Product storage tank and water cooled heat exchangers
Fire water systems
1. Underground piping and equipment as well buried tank and bottom
of storage tanks
2. Ground supported metal structures
1. Steam generating equipments and boilers including Heat
exchangers
2. Crude unit
3. Pre-heat exchangers, furnace tubes and transfer lines Units that
add caustic to remove sulfur from compounds
1. Underground Cast piping when exposed to certain soils
2. Heat exch. Tubing-Brass, Al. Brass
3. Boiler feed water piping system and after boiler components
including bronze pumps, monel strainers and brass pressure gage
fittings.
1. Under ground piping and boiler feed water equipment
2. Fire water systems are particularly vulnerable.

Temp. Range
in F

Affected metallurgy

Prevention

Inspection Methods

2.
3.
4.

Soil

Soil resistivity is used to determine corrosivety

-external thinning with localized pitting

Caustic

Localized grooves

De-alloying

Brass become reddish when dealloyed, while cast iron becomes

charcoal gray

Graphitic

Graphite is cathodic-damage occurs in the presence of moisture

or aqueous phase

Oxidation

General thinning with an oxide layer covering the surface

1. Fired heaters and boilers

Sulfidation

Hydrogen accelerates corrosion- Uniform thinning ( localized

sometimes)

1.

---

>175F, >200F (very

high)

CS, cast iron, ductile iron

CP, Coating

Measuring Potential *

Design*

UT, RT

CP, coating

Acoustic techniques,
Ultrasonic
attenuation,MG, UT is
N/A

Coating

Acoustic techniques, MG,

UT is N/A

Upgrading more resistant alloy*

UT

Add Cr

UT

Lower temp, higher O2&S partial

pressure

MG, hardness testing

Add Cr, Mo

FMR, MG, hardness test

All

No metal is immune-H2S forms

protective sulfide layer

VT* ,Heater tubesCompression wave UT*

All

Injecting special additives

VT

30-80% Ni

Mg, hardness test, VT,

magnetism (300SS)

Use low chloride water

PT, Phase analysis EC

techniques *

CS, LAS, 300 SS

<200F

Copper alloys, Cast

iron,Alloy400

<200F

Cast iron

HIGH TEMPERATURE CORROSION [400 F]

2.
Carburization

Requires high carbon-activity gas, low oxygen potential

1.
2.

Decarburization

Requires low carbon-activity gas, CS will be pure iron.

1.

Metal Dusting

Preceded by carburization-pits filled with crumbly residue of

oxides and carbides in LAS
Deep round pits in SS

1.

Fuel Ash

Contaminants are S, Na,K,V- Molten dissolves oxide layer & 50

Cr-50 Ni more resistant

1.
2.

Nitriding

Its rare- Nitrogen diffuses into surface forming needle-like

particles of Fe3N and Fe4N hard brittle surface layer dull gray
dry.

1.
2.
3.

Chloride SSC,

Surface initiated cracks under the combined action of tensile stress,

temperature and an aqueous chloride environment.

3.

2.

Crude, FCC, Coker, Vacuum, Visbreaker and hydro processing

units
Boilers and fired heaters exposed to sulfur containing gases Oil
fired heaters where oil containing species of sulfur
Fired heater tubes
Heater tubes in Catalytic reformers and coker units or other
heaters where steam or air decoking is performed
Ethylene pyrolysis and steam reformer furnaces
Hydro processing units, Catalytic reforming units, Fired heater
tubes and pressure vessel components that are hot formed during
fabrication.
Fired heater tubes, thermo wells and furnace components
operating in carburizing environments
CRU heater tubes, Coker heaters, Gas turbines, Methanol
reforming unit outlet piping and thermal hydro de-alkylation
furnaces and reactors.
Any fired heater or gas turbine utilizing fuels
Fired heaters burning vanadium, and sodium contaminated fuel
oils or residue.
Steam-methane reformers
Steam gas cracking(Olefin plants)
Ammonia synthesis plants

>1000F - CS
>1500 - 300SS
>500, <500 for copper
alloys

>1100F

---

900-1500

Starts>600, severe >900

Iron-based alloys
Iron, nickel and copper
based alloys
Iron-based alloys

CS, LAS

CS, LAS, 300SS, 400SS

ENVIRONMENT- ASSISTED CRACKING

1.
2.
3.

4.
Corrosion Fatigue

Initiate @ pits, notches, surface defect. brittle fracture

,Transgranular, ,not branched.

1.
2.
3.

Caustic SCC
(Embrittlement)

Surface cracks adjacent to non-PWHT- weldsIntegranular spider web and filled w/oxides-

1.

Water cooled condensers

Process side of crude tower overhead condensers
Drains in hydro processing units
Bellows and Instrument tubing, Hydrogen recycle streams
containing Cl-,Boiler drain lines, Insulated 300 series SS lines
Rotating Equipment- Galvanic couples between the impeller
and the pump shaft or any pitting due to any corrosion
mechanisms will act as stress raiser.
Deaerators- Residual fabrication or welding stresses, stress
raisers.
Cycling boilers: Due to several cold starts, because of
differential expansion will lead to crack the magnetite layer will
lead to corrosion.
Piping and equipment that handles caustic, including H2S and
mercaptanremoval units

>140 F

SS300

----

All

-----

CS, LAS,300 SS

Design

PWHT, Ni alloys are resistant

UT, MTWFMT

WFMT,EC,RT /ACFM,*
PT Not Good

API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

Affected Unit or Equipment

Transgranular in 300ss-50 to 100 ppm is sufficient for cracking

2.

Sulfuric acid and HF alkylation units, improperly heat traced

piping/ equipment, BFW lines, Heat exchanger tubes, Boiler
tubes etc

Copper alloys: aqueous, 8.5 pH, O2, zinc>15%, bluish corrosion

product, trans/intergranular cracksCS- anhydrous ammonium,
<.2% water, Air/O2, non PWHT weld or HAZ
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) is a form of cracking those results
when certain molten metals come in contact with specific alloys.
Cracking can be very sudden and brittle in nature.
Intergranular cracking

1.
2.

Cu-Zn alloy tubes in Heat exchangers.

Piping and equipment in ammonia refrigeration units, lube oil
refining processes, Ammonia storage tanks.
Location where LME couples are found(SS piping/ vessel in
contact with Galv. Steel)
LME of Al. Can be found in LNG facilities and Cryogenic gas
plants due to condensation of liquid mercury.

Hydrogen
Embrittlement

Loss in ductility-thick walls are more vulnerable as it takes hydrogen

more time to diffuse out- cracks are subsurface or surface initiatingintergranular, brittle cracking.

1.

Ethanol Stress
corrosion cracking

1) Surface Initiated cracks, Under the combined action of tensile

stress and a fuel grade ethanol (FGE) or gasoline blend
environment
2) Dissolved oxygen and presence of variable stresses increase the
propensity of cracking.
3) Stresses applied/ residual, Water content 0.1 to 4.5 % vol.,
Galvanic coupling of new to corroded steel, Cl- content increase the
susceptibility,

Sulfate stress
corrosion cracking

Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of Cu

alloys in sulfate solutions.

Ammonia SCC
Liquid Metal
Embrittlement (LME)

1.
2.

CS piping and Vessels in H2S services in FCC, Hydro

processing, Amine, Sour water and HF Alkylation units.
2. Storage spheres made of HSS
3. Bolts and springs made of HSS
4. Cr-Mo reactors, Drums and exchanger shells on Hydro
processing units and CRU if Weld HAZ hardness exceeds 235
BHN.
1. CS-Storage tanks, Rack piping, and associated equipment.
2. Pipeline used to transport FGE to and from a terminal
3. Equipment handling FGE after blended with gasoline at end use
conc. in unleaded gasoline (10%).

1.
2.
3.

Commonly found in Heat exchanger tubes primarily in

cooling water services
Heat exchanger tube bundles in Overhead distillation
systems where sulfate can form at low conc.
Crude tower overhead exchangers are best example.

Temp. Range
in F

Affected metallurgy

Prevention

Inspection Methods

Copper alloys CS

PWHT CS-300SS, Ni alloys, 9010/70-30 CuNi are immune-process

control
Prevented by protecting metal
substrates from coming into contact
with the low melting
metal.

EC- Copper Alloys,

CS-WFMT,SWUT & AET

Use lower strength alloys, PWHT

PT, MT,WFMT,
RT- Not Good

Any range
300 SS Zn, Cu Alloys
Mercury, Alloy 400
Mercury, Al. Alloys
Mercury, HSS-Cd,
Lead.
Ambient to 300F; not
likely above 160-180F

All

CS. LAS, 400SS, PH SS,

HS Ni alloys

--------

All grades of CS

--------

Some Cu alloys especially

Admiralty brass-Highly
susceptible
70/30, 90/10 Cu alloys are
more resistant

1.
2.

Applying PWHT
Apply Proper Coating

Periodic cleaning once in every 5

years
Use 90/10 or 70/30
Non Cu based alloys are highly
immune.

MT,PT

VT- Not effective since

crack is typically tight
and filled with
corrosion products
WFMT-Most effective
Shear wave UT-If WFMT
not feasible
ACFM can be used with
less surface preparation
than WFMT in areas
such as HAZs.
EC-Unproven method.
VT, EC on Heat exch.
Tubes
Physical bending of
tubes to detect shallow
cracks in beginning
stages.

GENERAL UNIFORM OR LOCALIZED LOSS IN THICKNESS PHENOMENA

Amine corrosion

Amine itself is not corrosive, contaminates are (CO2, H2S,

degradation products, HSAS)-CS is suitable for most units- MED,
DGA, ADIP, DEA, MDEA-3 TO 6 FPS (rich amine)20 FPS (lean
amine)- general thinning (low velocity), localized (high)

1.

Ammonium Bisulfide
( Alkaline Sour Water)

2% corrosive, 8% highly corrosive- low velocities cause under

deposit corrosion,NH4HS salts formed .

1.
2.
3.

Ammonium Chloride

Occurs in absence of free water @ temps above Jew pintLocalized pitting-salt have whitish, greenish, brownish appearance

1.

2.
3.

2.
Hydrochloric Acid
(HCL)
High Temp H2/H2S

Associated with dew point corrosion- PH<4.5- oxygen increase

corrosion
Hydrogen increase corrosion rate compared to high temp
Sulfidation-uniform corrosion

Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid

LAS, 300,400ss arent suitable-CS forms protective fluoride scalewater concentration >3% is corrosive- In CS limit RE=%Cu+%Ni+

1.
1.
2.
1.
2.

Amine units, Crude, Coker, FCC, Hydrogen reforming, Hydro

processing and tail gas units.
Regenerator re-boiler and regenerator
Rich amine side of Lean/Rich amine exchangers, hot lean amine
piping, Hot rich amine piping, amine solution pumps and
reclaimers
Hydro processing units(NH4HS Salts)
Air cooler header boxes( Fouling/ Velocity accelerated corrosion)
FCC, Sour water stripper, Amine units, delayed coker, (Conc. of
NH4HS)
Crude tower overheads-Tower top, top trays, overhead piping,
exchangers.
Hydro processing units, Catalytic reforming, FCCU and coker
fractionator overheads and top pump arounds.
Crude unit, Hydro processing units, CRU

>220F

---

All

Hydro processing units-De-sulfurizers, hydrotreaters and hydro

cracking units
D/S of hydrogen injection points
Piping and equipment in HF alkylation units
HF acid rerun or regenerator tower, Flange faces, dead legs

>500F

All

>150F

CS, Cu & Ni alloys

120-150

>300

CS

Proper Ops, 300ss, avoid O2

leakage, Avoid HSAS.

VT&UT- Internal
Profile RT- External

CS, Cu alloys brasses

Velocity 10-20fps, resistant

alloys(duplex , 825) @ higher
velocities

UT, RT

All

Ni alloy, Titanium alloys, water wash

UT,RT ,Corrosion Probes
Proper Ops, Ni alloy, Titanium alloy
Add Cr
Proper Ops, design, alloy C-276

UT,RT, Monitoring Ph
,Corrosion probes
VT,UT ,RT
UT ,RT

API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

%Cr=.2 max- Uniform loss for alloy 400 and cracking for nonstress relieved alloy 400

Affected Unit or Equipment

3.
4.

Naphthenic Acid
Corrosion

TAN as low as 0.1 could cause problems- corrosion is severe in

mixed flow stream- Localized, pitting

Phenol (Carbolic Acid)

Its solvent to remove aromatics from lube oil -5 to 15%

phenol(dilute) is very corrosive- general or localized corrosion.
Best prevented through proper material selection & control of
ph solvent chemistry.
Catalyst in polymerization units- solid phosphoric acid is not
corrosive- may penetrate 0.25 steel in 8 hrs- general or localized

Phosphoric Acid

Crude and Vacuum heater tubes, Crude and Vacuum transfer lines,
Vacuum bottom piping, HVGO and LVGO circuits, HCGO and
LCGO circuits.
3. Crude and Vacuum tower internals.
4. D/S of crude and vacuum units and U/S of hydrogen mix points.
Phenol extraction facilities in lube plant

2.

Sour Water (Acidic)

Sulfuric Acid

H2S decreases pH to 4.5- general, localized pitting-SCC may

occur in 300SS.
Affect CS-HAZ- Severe corrosion in CS@>3FPS and/or >65%
concentration, General corrosion

1.
1.
2.

Affected metallurgy

Prevention

Inspection Methods

including inlets to relief valves,

Condensing overhead vapors in Piping and exchangers on top off
isostripper, de-propanizer and HF stripper/ propane stripper.
Heat exchanger bundles that heat acid containing streams.

1.
2.

1.

Temp. Range
in F

Piping and equipment in Polymerization unit where water mixes

with catalyst
Low velocity areas where there is little or no circulation such as
piping manifolds, bottom of kettle type re-boilers, Partial
penetration welds,
Exchangers where there is sufficient residence time to permit the
settling of acid droplets.
Overhead systems of FCC and coker gas fractionation plants with
High H2S levels and low NH3 levels.
Sulfuric acid alkylation units including reactor effluent lines, reboilers, deisobutanizer overhead systems and the caustic treating
section
Bottom of fractionation towers and re-boilers.

>425, severe >750

CS, LAS, 300SS, 400SS,Ni

alloy

<250F minimal, >450 CS

& 304SS

CS, 304ss

<120F (300ss@100%),
<225F (316ss, alloy
20@85%)

CS,304SS,316SS, Alloy 20

Add Mo

UT,RT, Hydrogen probes

316SS, C-276 (High velocities)- Ovhe

temp >30F above dew point

UT,RT ,ER Probes

Upgrade metallurgy

UT,RT,ER Probes

------

CS

SS,Cu alloys, Ni alloys

UT,RT ,Corrosion Probes

---------

All

Ni alloys

RT,UT, ER probes

Use chemically stable steel (321ss,

347, alloy 825 and alloy625)

PT

PWHT, Resistant alloys

ACFM/WFMT, PT(not
good)*

Process (pH, H2S below 50, wash

water, ammonia &cyanides
concentrations- PWHT

Focus on weld seam and

nozzles-VT, WFMT, EC,
RT/ACFM*
SWUT- Volumetric
inspection & crack
sizing *

---

PWHT, Resistant alloys

WFMT, Hardness testing

>200F

PWHT, Resistant alloy

WFMT, SWUT

GENERAL- ENVIRONMENT-ASSISTED CRACKING

Polythionic acid
Stress CC (PASCC)

Occurs during shutdowns, startups, when exposed to air&

moisture-HAZ L grade SS is less susceptible to sensitizationIntergranular cracks.

Amine Stress CC

Occurs in lean amines- MEA, DEA mainly- concentration is not a

factor- initiate ID on welds ( transverse or longitudinal) or adjacent
to HAZ- Intergranular and filled with oxides
Caused by atomic hydrogen. H2 is formed due to corrosion.

Wet H2S Damage

(Blistering/HIC/SOHIC
/SSC)

Hydrogen Stress
Cracking- HF
Carbonate Stress
Corrosion Cracking

Results by exposure to aqueous HF acid environment- HAZInterganular- use CS with Carbon equivalent (CE) <0.43
Susceptibility increases with pH and carbonate concentrationPropagate parallel to welds, weld deposits, HAZ- Intergranular
and filled with oxides

1.
2.

Heat exchanger tubes, furnace tubes and piping

FCC units, Hydro processing units, Crude and coker units, Boilers
and high temperature equipment exposed to sulfur containing
combustion products

750F-1500F for
sensitization

1. All Non-PWHT piping and equipments in lean amine service including

contactors, absorbers, strippers, regenerators, and heat exchangers as well

as equipment subject to amine carry over.
1.
In hydro processing units- Increasing conc. of above 2% of
[Link] increase potential of Blistering, HIC and SOHIC
2.
Presence of CNVapor recovery section of FCC and Delayed coking units,
Fractionator OH drum, Fractionation towers, Compressor
Interstage separators, KO drums
HExs, Condensers and Coolers.
Sour water stripper and amine regenerator OH systems
3.
SSC is mostly found in hard weld and HAZs in high strength
components including bolts, RV springs, 400 series SS valve trim,
Compressor shafts, sleeves and springs.

1.
2.
3.

FCC Unit-Main fractionator OH condensing and reflux system, D/S

wet gas compression system, Sour water emanating [Link]
piping and equipment
Sour water stripping units of side pump around type in the
pumparound return line to the SWS tower; on the OD process side
of highly cold worked SA-179 Condenser tube U-bends.
Piping and equipment in KCO3 in catacarb and CO2 removal
facilities of Hydrogen manufacturing units.

Sensitize austenitic steels

>ambient

<180F

CS, LAS

API 571 Reference Card

Corrosion
Mechanism

Description

Affected Unit or Equipment

Temp. Range
in F

Affected metallurgy

Prevention

Inspection Methods

GENERAL- OTHER MECHANISMS

HTHA

Titanium hydriding

Exposure to hydrogen at elevated temperatures and pressures- H

reacts with carbides to form methane-300ss and >5Cr are not
susceptible to HTHA- may cause decarburization- Intergranular
with blistering sometimes.
Hydrogen diffuses into titanium to form hydride (brittle)- PH<3,
PH>8

1.
2.
1.

2.

3.

Hydro processing units such as hydro treaters(De-sulfirizers) and

hydro crackers, Catalytic reformers, Hydrogen producing units and
hydrogen cleanup units such as pressure swing absorption units
Boiler tubes in very high pressure steam service
Primarily in SWS(Sour water strippers and amine units in OH
Condensers, Heat exch. Tubes, Piping and other titanium
equipment operating above 165F
Hydrogen atmospheres at about greater than 350F especially in
the absence of moisture or O2.
Cathodically protected equipment with protection potentials < -0.9v
SCE

---

>165F,
> 350F in hydrogen
atmosphere.

CS, C-Mo, Cr-Mo

Titanium alloys

Add Cr&Mo

UT techniques

Avoid titanium alloys in hydriding

services

EC Techniques