Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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Dynamics Rigid Body Dynamics
Introduction
A rigid body is a many-particle system in which the distance between
particles is fixed. The location of all particles is described by 6
coordinates 3 spatial and 3 angular.
The velocity is determined by v, the velocity of the CoM and w , the
angular velocity.
The basic two equations of angular motion are
= F
MR
0
The centre of mass moves as if it were a single particle under the
action of a force F0.
J = G0
The rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the total applied
couple.
Other basic equations:
o The velocity v of a particle at a distance r from an axis around
which a rotation at speed w is happening is
v = w r
o For similar reasons:
dJ
= w J
dt
o Angular speeds are additive. To if frame 1 is rotating with
w1 wrt 2 with respect to frame 2, which is rotating with w2 wrt 3
with respect o frame 3, then
w1 wrt 3 = w1 wrt 2 + w2 wrt 3
Relating J and w
If the body is rotating at w , the total angular momentum is given by
Daniel Guetta, 2008
Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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J = r p
= r m(w r )
= m r 2w - (w r )r
= m r 2w - (wx x + wyy + wz z )r
In detail
m(y 2 + z 2 )
- mxy
- mxz
2
2
J = - mxy
m(x + z ) - myz w
- mxz
m(x 2 + y 2 )
- myz
J = Iw
[The non-diagonal elements are fairly easy to derive. The diagonal ones
should actually have x2 + y2 + z2, because one of the terms is always
In other words, J is
knocked out by the second term in the sum].
proportional to w , but not necessarily parallel to it.
The off-axes elements are rather hard to understand they correspond
to the fact that looking at a particle at a given instant, its impossible
to tell exactly around which axis its moving.
Also, we can find the kinetic energy
T = 12 m [(w r ) (w r )]
= 12 m [w r (w r )]
T = 21 w J
The couple is then given by
G = J = w J
Note that I must be specified with its origin and with its set of axes.
Properties of I
I is a symmetric tensor. It therefore has three real eigenvalues and
three perpendicular eigenvectors.
With respect to the eigenvector basis:
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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I = I 2
I
3
J a = I a wa
[No sum]
T = 12 I a wa2
[Sum]
The eigenvector axes are called the principal axes, and the Is are called
the principal moments of inertia.
An alternative way to think of this is that the principal axes are ones
around which objects are happy to rotate without any torque being
applied.
In w -space, surfaces of constant T form an ellipsoid, with axes of
length I a-1/ 2 . Also, in w -space:
grad T = I a wa = J
So J is perpendicular to surfaces of constant T at w .
We can classify the principal axes as follows:
o Spherical tops all the I are equal, and J = I w , with I scalar.
The body is isotropic with the same I about any axis (eg: sphere,
cube).
o Symmetrical tops I 1 = I 2 I 3 . e3 axis is unique, but e1 and e2
are any two mutually perpendicular vectors perpendicular to e3
(eg: lens, cigar).
o Asymmetrical tops all Is different, and axes are unique.
Consider any two Is:
I 1 + I 2 = m(y 2 + z 2 + x 2 + z 2 ) = I 3 + 2 mz 2 I 3
So no I can be larger than the sum of the other two. Furthermore, if
z = 0 for every particle (ie: if we have a lamina), then
I 3 = I1 + I 2
Consider an axis at a distance a away from a principal axis and parallel
to it, and let r be the distance of each particle from the principal axis.
Then:
I = m(r + a ) (r + a ) = I 0 + Ma 2 + 2
mr )
(
a = I 0 + Ma 2
= 0 when r measured
relative to C of M
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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This is the Parallel Axis Theorem, where each vector is considered to
be a projection in a plane perpendicular to the axes.
Two Basic Problems
You whack it what happens? Steps for solution:
o Define principal axes with a sensible origin.
o Calculate an expression for J in terms of the impulse:
J =
t dt = r
F dt = rB F dt = rB P
Where B is the point at which the whack occurred, and rB can
be taken out of the integral because the whack is assumed to be
instantaneous.
o Work out an expression for J in terms of w , using the moments
of inertia.
o Equate the two expressions for J.
o Work out the motion of the CM using standard linear mechanics.
o NOTE: The obvious origin to use is the CM, but other origins
can be used subject to the provisos above for using t = J . So a
pivot, for example, is fine to use.
You apply a torque whats the frequency of rotation?
o Define principal axes with a sensible origin (eg: the CM see
above).
o Find an expression for w in these axes (with unknown
magnitude), and find a corresponding expression for J, using the
principal moments of inertia.
o Find dL / dt = w L .
o Calculate the torque (= r F ) and equate it with dL / dt .
Free Motion Eulers Equation
Free precession is a situation in which F = 0 and G = 0. In such a
case, J is constant. w is constant if J is along one of the principal axes,
but otherwise, it will change direction, and perhaps even magnitude.
We use the Euler Equations to analyse this problem.
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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The rate of change of angular momentum vector in the principal-axes
frame (which is rotating around with the body) and the lab frame are
related by
dJ
dJ
=
+ w J
dt lab dt PA
Now, lets assume that a couple G is being applied in the lab frame.
We know that
dJ
G=
dt lab
Therefore, using the equations above:
dJ
G=
+ w J
dt PA
Finally, we note that in the principal axes frame, J = (I 1w1, I 2w2, I 3w3 ) .
Therefore, casting both sides of this equation into the principal axes
frame only
t1 = I 1w 1 + (I 3 - I 2 )w3w2
And similarly with any cyclic permutation of indices.
A few notes:
o All the quantities in this equation are measured with respect to
the body frame (which is moving). This is the advantage of
these equations all we have to consider is the forces that the
body feels.
o The two terms of the RHS refer to two types of ways J can
change because it can change in the body frame and also
because the body frame is itself rotating.
Free Motion Examples
FREE SYMMETRIC TOP
o For a symmetrical top (I1 = I2 = I) which is free in space (ie: no
torque) the Euler Equations become
I w 1 + (I 3 - I )w3w2 = 0
I w 2 + (I - I 3 )w1w3 = 0
I 3w 3 = 0
o The last equation implies w3 is constant. Lets define
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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I3 - I
w3
I
Then the general solution of the first two equations becomes:
W=
cos[Wt + f ]
w1
= A
cos[Wt + f ]
w2
o Interpretation from the body frame
In the body frame, w1 and w2 seem to form a circle in
the xy plane, with frequency W . How high that circle is
depends on w3 .
L could be above w (if I3 > I an oblate top) or below
w (if I3 < I a prolate top).
o Interpretation from the fixed lab frame
In that case, the Euler Equations are useless, because
they deal with the body frame, so we express things from
scratch, but in terms of the body frames:
w = (w1x1 + w2x2 ) + w3x3
L = I (w1x1 + w2x2 ) + I 3w3x3
w=
L
- Wx3
I
With W defined as above.
This linear relationship between w , L and x3 implies
that they are in the same plane.
Furthermore, the rate of change of x3 is w x3 , because
it only changes as a result of the rotation. So
L
dx3 L
= - Wx3 x3 = x3
I
I
dt
This is equivalent to x3 rotating at a frequency L / I .
It turns out that we can interpret w as follows
L
I
Motion of body about
its own axis
Motion of body around L
w=
Wx3
HEAVY SYMMETRIC TOP
o Here, we must define the Euler angles as follows
Daniel Guetta, 2008
Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
f
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x3
x2
o The total angular velocity is then given by
y x3
Rotation of top
w=
+ qx1 + fz
Motion of top itself
Which can be expressed in terms of the body-frames only:
w = y x3 + qx1 + f (x3 cos q + x2 sin q )
w = (y + f cos q ) x3 + (f sin q ) x2 + qx1
o
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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Dynamics Normal Modes
Introduction
A normal mode of a system is an oscillation that has a single frequency.
All the more general oscillations of the system can be expressed as
superpositions of these normal modes.
General approach
Consider a system defined by generalised coordinates qi and acted on
by forces Fi, moving in a potential well U(x), and moving elastically.
The kinetic energy, T, is then given by
T =
Where
x (q )
j
1
2
2
x j (qi )
is the Cartesian coordinate of the jth part of the
system, taken about an equilibrium, where all the x j are 0. Expanding
about that equilibrium:
x (q ) = x (q
j
i ,eq
)+
x j
q i
x j
x (q ) q
j
eq
qi
qi +
i eq
And so:
T =
1
2
M q q
ij i j
= 21 qT Mq
Where
M ij = m
r
qi
eq
r
q j
eq
Consider the potential energy, about a point of equilibrium (ie: a
minimum in U) at which all the qi are chosen to be 0.
U
1 d2U
U (x ) = U 0 +
qi +
qi Eq
2 dx j dx i
qiq j +
x0
0 since at a minimum
1
Kijqiq j +
2
1
U (x ) = U 0 + qT Kq
2
U (x ) = U 0 +
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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The total energy is then
1
1
M ijqiq j + K ijqiq j
2
2
dE
1
= 2qi (M ijqj + K ijq j ) = 0
dt
2
dE
= qi (M ijqj + K ijq j ) = 0
dt
[Non rigorous argument] the equations of motion are then:
E =U0 +
M q + K q
ij j
ij j
=0
Mq + Kq = 0
If we seek normal modes of the form q (t ) = Qe i wt , we get:
(K - w 2M )Q = 0
Non-trivial solutions only exist if
det (K - w 2M ) = 0
This defines the w 2 normal mode frequencies.
In practice, the steps are:
o Find the K and M matrices by writing them out in terms of the
variables of the system, and comparing with
1
T = 12 qT Mq
U = U 0 + qT Kq
2
Both matrices must be symmetric.
o Use the determinant method above.
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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Dynamics Elasticity
Introduction
Hookes Law states that
Strain
F
Dl
=E
A
l
Stress
Where
o F is the force applied to a block of material over an area A.
o
Dl is the extension of the block in the direction of F.
o l is the original, relaxed length of the block in that direction.
o E is the Youngs Modulus of the material.
Furthermore, it states that
Dw
Dl
= -s
w
l
Where Dw is the length of the block in any direction perpendicular to
that of l.
For an isotropic material, E and s are all we need to define the elastic
properties of the material.
Since these equations are all linear, the principle of superposition
applies. If we have several forces, the displacements will be the sum of
the displacements with the forces acting individually.
Uniform Strain the Bulk Modulus
Consider a rectangular block in a pressure tank, say, with identical
stress p on every face.
Consider one direction the change in length Dl in that direction is
given by
Due to pressure
in that direction
Due to pressure in
other directions
p
p
p
+ s +s
E
E
E
Dl
1 - 2s
=p
l
E
The problem is symmetrical, so the value will be the same for all
Dl
=
l
directions.
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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Now, consider the change in volume
DV
Dx Dy Dz
=
+
+
V
x
y
z
We therefore have
DV
1 - 2s
p
= -3
V
E
We can then define the bulk modulus
K =
E
3(1 - 2s)
Such that the change of volume as a result of the stress p is
p = -K
DV
V
Shear Strain the Shear Modulus
Consider a cube with face area A and with shear forces acting on it
F
A
F
F
d
B
F
If cut the cube along the diagonals A and B, we find that
o There is a stretch normal to A, of magnitude F 2 .
o There is a compression normal to B, of magnitude F 2 .
And each of these diagonal faces has area A 2 .
The lengthening of the diagonal d will therefore be equal to the
lengthening of d in the following case:
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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F 2
F 2
F 2
F 2
From above, this is given by:
Dd
1F 2
1F 2
=
+s
d
E A 2
E A 2
Dd
1+s F
=
d
E A
By symmetry, the other diagonal is shortened by the same amount.
It is often useful to have this as a function of the twist angle:
Dd
F
d
d
q
From this diagram, it is (reasonably) clear that
d = Dd 2
d= 2
Therefore
d
Dd 2
Dd
2(1 + s) F
=
=2
=
l
l
d
E
A
We therefore define the shear modulus as
q
m=
E
2(1 + s)
Such that
g = mq
Where g is the shear stress = F/A.
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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Formal Definitions
Stress
o Defined in terms of force/unit area transmitted across planes
in the medium.
o Requires a tensor. We define
t ij
Force in the i
On a plane perpendicular
direction
to the j axis
o We can then show that the force on any arbitrary area element
is
F = t dS
o The tensor must be symmetric consider a small cube side dx.
Because the cube must be in equilibrium, the forces on it are as
follows:
Sxy
Syx
Syx
Sxy
The net couple on the cube is
(Sxy - Syx ) dx
But there must be no torque on the cube, or itd spin! So
S xy = Syx
o The stress tensor is diagonal for suitable choices of axes.
o The stress in a solid material is therefore described by a tensor
field.
Strain
o When a material is put under strain, a point (x , y, z ) in it is
moved to a point (x + X , y + Y , z + Z ) .
o The derivatives of these X, Y and Z contain information about
the strain.
o As we saw before, its worth considering two kinds of strain
For the normal strains, we define:
Daniel Guetta, 2008
Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
exx =
X
x
Page 14 of 20
eyy =
Y
y
ezz =
Z
z
For example, if we consider stress perpendicular to the x
direction in a cube initially of side Dx , itll increase by
exx Dx :
exx Dx
Dx
Now, for the shear stresses, consider
X
Dy
X
y
Y
x
Dx
[The expression for the angles are tricky to see but
consider that X is the change in x] We then simply
define
Y X
exy = eyx = 12
+
x
y
This ensures that if the block simply rotates (ie:
Y / y = X / x ), these strains are 0.
o So in general, we define
eij =
1
2
(X j / x i + Xi / x j )
The ith coordinate of a
point in the material
will have changed by eijD, assuming that
the jth coordinate of that point from the
origin is D.
So, for example
X = exx x + exyy + exz z
o The tensor is also symmetric, due to the exy = eyx condition.
o If the strains are non-homogenous, we sit down and cry.
The relation between them
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o Each component of e is related to each component of t this
gives, overall, a fourth-rank tensor of elasticity relating the two:
tij = C ijklekl
(Using the summation convention).
o It looks like there are 92 = 81 coefficients in C, and that 81
numbers are therefore required to define the elastic properties of
a material! However, we note that since S and e are symmetry,
we must be able to swap ij and kl in C without changing a thing,
so there can be at most 36 different coefficients.
o If the material is isotropic, though, C must be completely frameindependent. As such, we must be able to express it in terms of
the tensor dij . There are only two ways of doing this that are
also invariant under i j and l k , and so
C ijkl = l (dij dkl ) + m (dik djl + dil djk )
So an isotropic material only requires two constants (E and s ,
for example). And we have
Sij = lekk dij + 2meij
Examples Statics
Thin tube in torsion
o Consider a thin tube being twisted an angle f
Dr
L
o We first note that
rf
l
o Next, consider a small square (dotted above) and its deformation
q=
as a result of the twist:
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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From the previous result:
F
= mq
Dr
rf
Dr
F =m
L
o This force contributes a torque Dt to the rod
r 2f
Dr
L
o Considering these bits around the whole rod, so that 2pr ,
Dt = rF = m
we get
t = 2pm
r 3Dr
f
L
Wire in torsion
For a wire, we simply integrate the above from r = 0 to the total
radius, giving
pr 4
t=m
f
2L
Can under pressure
o Consider a can of thickness t with closed ends with an internal
pressure p.
o Let the tangential stress in the walls be tq , and consider half
the can
tq
tq
t
The forces (= stress area) must balance, so
t q 2t = p 2r
pr
tq =
t
o Let the axial stress in the walls be sz , and consider one of the
ends. By the same logic as above
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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tz 2prt = p pr 2
pr
2t
tz =
Bent beam
o Consider a beam of length L, held in a bent position.
o We only consider longitudinal strains (valid for small deflections
and thin beams).
o Clearly, the bits at the top of the beam will be stretched, while
those at the bottom will be compressed. Somewhere in between,
therell be a neutral surface neither stretched nor compressed.
o Consider a small segment length of the bent beam:
q
+ D
y
Neutral surface
o The amount of stretching and compression at any point is
proportional to the distance from the neutral surface, y. The
constant of proportionality is /R . As such
D
y
= Strain =
R
o Clearly, therell be forces to the left above the neutral surface,
and vice versa. We therefore have
DF
D
=E
DA
E
DF = y DA
R
o The total torque produced about the neutral line is given by
t =
=
Cross
section
y dF
E
2
Cross y dA
R section
B=
EI
R
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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o Now, consider a beam loaded with weights given by W(x),
where W is the force per unit length. Consider the statics of a
small segment of the beam:
S + dS
dx
S
dF
Notes:
Due to the bending moment, some vertical forces are
produced. Ignoring products of infinitesimal quantities,
we can write, at that point
S dx = d B
EI
= S dx
R
[Effectively, were saying that due to the dS needed to
B=
balance dF, the bending moment must change]
The downwards loading force needs to be balanced by a
difference in the upwards stress
d S = dF = W d x
S =W
o Now, for small deflections
y = 1/ R
o As such, we can conclude
EIy = W (x )
o Boundary conditions for various cases are as follows
At a free end, S and B are clearly 0, and so y = y = 0 .
At a cantilevered end, y and y are given (usually 0).
o Finding y is then simply a question of solving that differential
equation. However, there are a few tricky points
All forces must be considered when writing down W(x),
including reactions at contacts. Most often, W will be a
series of d -functions.
Sign conventions:
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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Downwards W positive.
The resulting y obtained is downwards positive,
because the way the radius of curvature is specified.
However, be very careful sometimes, the
convention appears to be reversed because the bar
curves downwards, and so -1/ R = y .
Dont worry too much about boundary conditions for y
just integrate d -functions from 0 to L (for a free end,
this is fully justified). Remember that therell often be a
d -functions at the very end of the range, which might
help satisfy the boundary conditions.
From then on, boundaries are just provided. Just also
remember to make the y , y and y continuous.
The couple provided by a cantilever can simply be
worked out by evaluating B = EIy at that point.
It is sometimes easier to simply write down y , the
bending moment from physical considerations.
o The Euler Strut is a beam buckled between two walls:
If we take y upwards, then the bending moment on any point is
B = -Fy
F
y
EI
F
y = A sin x
EI
Applying the boundary condition that y = 0 at x = L:
y = -
p 2EI
L2
This is independent of displacement (but only while y = 1/ R
F=
holds).
o The Reciprocity Theorem states that
The deflection at Q due to a load at P is the
same as the deflection at P due to the same
load at Q
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Physics Revision Notes Thermodynamics
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To prove, say PPQ means the deflection at P due to the load at
Q. Consider loading first P and then Q. The energy stored is
P
P
E = F PP + QQ + PPQ
2
The same result must be applied the other way round, so
PPQ = PQP
Dynamics of Rigid Bodies
Consider a small volume V of the material. It will have both external
forces acting on it (eg: gravity) and internal forces (eg: elastic stresses).
Fext + Fint =
rr dV
Every small particle in the volume experiences the external force,
though, so Fext is given by a volume integral.
Fint =
Define this = f
(-fext + rr)dV
Fint =
f dV
On the other hand, only the particles at the edge of the volume
experience the elastic force from surrounding media, and so Fint is given
by an area integral
fint dA =
f dV
We have, however, defined that the force in the x-direction, say, is
dFx = (S xx i + S xy j + S xzk ) dA
And so, taking only the x component of the integral above
(S
A
xx
i + S xy j + S xzk ) dA =
Using the Divergence Theorem on the LHS
S
S xy S
V xxx + y + zxz dV =
fx dV
fx dV
Removing the volume integrals (because this is true for any volume):
fi = Sij / x j
(Using the summation convention).
Now, using tij = lekk dij + 2meij (isotropic material), we obtain
f = (l + m)( u ) + m2u
Where u is the internal displacement in the solid.
Daniel Guetta, 2008
